Phraseologisms are difficult in themselves: apart from them characteristic features, we need to remember about their meaning which, by the way, is not always "derived" from the meanings of component words. It is by the "fusion" of meanings that phraseological units are divided into phraseological adhesions, phraseological unity, phraseological combinations and phraseological expressions.

Phraseological adhesions , or idioms, Are such lexical indivisible phrases, the meaning of which is not determined by the meaning of those included in the bottom individual words. Phraseological adhesions, thus are a shining example maximum "cohesion" of the components of the phraseological unit. We note the following as the most characteristic signs of adhesions: lexical indivisibility, semantic cohesion, one sentence member. In general, phraseological concatenations most clearly demonstrate the concept of "phraseological unit".

Perfectly illustrates the category of phraseological splices phraseological unit "Beat your thumbs up". Beat the thumbs up- means, mess around, spend time idly. This expression is clear to everyone, but its "literal" meaning has little to do with the meaning of "final": bucks called logs, respectively, beat the thumbs - cut the logs, process them in a special way(it was from this wood that spoons were later made). In other words, thrashing was not so easy. As you can see, the meaning of the whole expression is not derived from the meaning of its individual components, hence - voila! - in front of us really phraseological union.

Among other examples of idioms, we note the most significant units for us:

from the bay-flounder, sodom and gomorrah, topsy-turvy, in all honesty, out of hand, to celebrate a coward, young and old, on bare feet, wedin broad daylight, not a bit hesitating, so-so, wherever it went, on my mind, say a joke, wonder and etc.

Phraseological unity- this is lexically indivisible phrases, the general meaning of which is to some extent already motivated by the figurative meaning of the words that make up a given turnover. Distinctive features phraseological units are the ability to "understand" the meaning both literally and figuratively, and the ability to insertbetween the components of phraseological units of other words.

Consider the expression "Pour water into the mill", What means " by their actions, behavior, indirectly help someone". This expression "gets along well" with direct value (i.e. literally pour water into the mill- on water mill, which rotates under the action of the force of water), and with the value portable with which we are already familiar. In addition, this expression is often found with insertions from pronouns and adjectives: pour water on sv oyu mill, pour water on my mill, pour water on his mill, pour water on someone else's mill and under.

Vivid examples of phraseological unity are expressions: throw dust in your eyes, hold a stone in your bosom, go with the flow, go into your shell, suck blood and milk from your finger; first violin, freezing point, inclined plane, center of gravity, specific gravity and etc.

Phraseological combinations- this is stable revolutions, the value of which depends entirely on the value of their constituent components. In other words, such phraseological units retain relative semantic independence , showing its importance in extremely closed circle of words ... As a rule, in such phraseological units we can distinguish permanent member that does not change, this is a kind of basis for expression, and variable member, i.e. able to change, vary. For example, the expression "To ask tearfully" might look like "Cry tearfully" and others. So, “tearfully” is a constant component, and “beg,” “ask,” and other interpretations are variable components. Similarly: burn up can from shame, from shame, from shame, from love, impatience, envy and etc.; take maybe longing, meditation, annoyance, anger, fear, horror, envy, hunting, laughter etc. Despite the variety of variants of the variable component, phraseological combinations require only a certain set of words - rather closed: for example, one cannot say “ takes loneliness" or " takes illness". As a rule, such expressions are "friendly" with their synonyms: touching a sense of honor = touching a feeling of honor.

Phraseological expressions- this is combinations of words that are reproduced as ready-made speech units. The lexical composition and meaning of such phraseological units is constant. The meaning of phraseological expressions depends on the meaning of the words included in them with becoming. Traditionally, phraseological units of this type do not contain words with limited meaning... Also in phraseological expressions no replacement of components possible... Phraseological expressions include proverbs, sayings, quotes, sayings, which acquired the features of generalization, figurative typification, those. turned into metaphors.

These are lexical units known to many: if the enemy does not surrender, he is destroyed; you need to eat in order to live, not live in order to eat; the dog barks - the wind carries; a rolling stone gathers no moss; like a dog in the manger: it does not eat itself and does not give to the cattle; there is no forest behind the trees; that's where the dog is buried; a man in a case; trishkin caftan; wise minnow; and the chest just opened; to be or not to be: that is the question; no matter how you feed the wolf - all the same, the forest looks and etc.

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1.2 Phraseological adhesions.

V.V. Vinogradov considered phraseological units as a phenomenon, primarily semantic, and singled out phraseological concatenations and phraseological unity in the composition of phraseological units. Phraseological adhesions differ from phraseological unities in a greater degree of semantic cohesion, the fusion of their components. The main linguistic factor that determines the degree of semantic cohesion of the components of the meaning of a phraseological unit is the absence or presence of a figurative motivation of their meanings. Yu.P. Solodub gives the following definition: phraseological adhesions are phraseological units, the integral generalized-figurative meaning of which is in no way motivated by the LZ of the components included in their composition [Solodub Yu.P., 1997, p. 114]

For example:

A skeleton in the cupboard - ‘family secret; a nuisance hidden from strangers'; the real McCoy- ‘great thing, something very valuable;

Grin like a Cheshire cat - ‘grin at full mouth’; Peeping Tom - ‘a person with unhealthy curiosity who secretly spies on others’;

In the presence of a figurative motivation of the meaning of a particular phraseological unit, we very clearly perceive its lexical components as separate words, we realize the role of each of them in creating an integral generalized-figurative meaning of the entire phraseological unity.

In the absence of a figurative motivation of the meaning of one or another phraseological unit, its components to a large extent lose their lexical properties, while even the real boundaries that separate them are to some extent erased, they form a kind of single "alloy", which is a plan of expression of the corresponding phraseological fusion [ Solodub YP, 1997, p. 115].

1.3 Phraseological unity.

Along with phraseological adhesions, researchers distinguish phraseological unity. Phraseological unity is a phraseological unit, the integral generalized-figurative meaning of which can be figuratively motivated on the basis of the LZ of the components included in their composition [Solodub YP, 1997, p. 114].

For example:

to pour oil on the flame (s) - ‘add oil to the fire’, to tear one’s hair- ‘tear your hair out, (to live) a cat and dog life-‘ live like a cat with a dog ’.

Their high connotation is due to the phraseological image, or internal form, i.e. a visual representation, that "picture" on the basis of which the integral generalized figurative meaning is comprehended and perceived. Theoretically, the presence of phraseological units identical in their meanings and internal forms can be explained by a certain generality of figurative-conceptual associations that arise in different languages ​​and in different nations as a result of the similarity of their life experiences; an important role in this can be played by cultural realities, to some extent reflecting the common ways of development of these peoples. Illustrative examples the following phraseological units can serve: to carry coals to Newcastle - ‘engage in useless and unnecessary business’ ‘is semantically identical with the phraseological unit in Russian’ ‘go to Tula with your samovar’; when pigs fly never'- semantically identical with the phraseological unit in Russian -``when the crayfish whistles on the mountain (and the fish will sing) ''.

The phraseological units listed above are completely identical in their meanings and stylistic coloring (most often they belong to the colloquial style of the literary language, but they can also be used in common speech). However, they are not identical in phraseological images that motivate their meaning: each has a unique, specifically national character (this means that one of the important components of the structure of their phraseological meaning is ethnocultural) [Solodub Yu.P., 1997: 117].

1.4 Phraseological combinations.

According to the classification of A.V. Kunin, in addition to phraseological unities and adhesions, he also distinguishes phraseological combinations.

Phraseological combinations - turns, in which one of the components has a phraseologically related meaning, manifests itself only in connection with a strictly defined range of concepts and their verbal designations [Kunin 1996, p. 22].

Moreover, for such a limitation, V.V. Vinogradov, as if there are no grounds in the logical or material nature of the designated objects, actions, phenomena themselves. These restrictions are created by the laws of the connection of verbal meanings inherent in a given language. Such combinations are not equivalent to words, since each of their components different meanings.

For example: to keep one’s distance- ‘know your place; stay away, away; keep a respectful distance; to keep one’s ears open- ‘keep your ears open, be on guard, alert’; to keep oneself to oneself- ‘be withdrawn, uncommunicative, prefer loneliness; keep aloof, keep away from people, withdraw into oneself '.

In the above examples, the word to keep cannot be replaced with any other word close in meaning, since this will lead to inconsistency of words and distortion of the meaning of the phraseological unit.

Linguists note that in modern phraseology there is a tendency to use the term "phraseological unit" in the broadest sense: it covers all the objects of phraseology as a linguistic science - phraseological adhesions, phraseological unity and phraseological combinations. The term "phraseological unit" (phraseological turnover) is usually used only in relation to phraseological adhesions and phraseological units as their peculiar terminological hyperonym. Very often (in the works of foreign linguists) there is another terminological hyperonym - idiom - idioms (this term was used by VV Vinogradov only in relation to phraseological adhesions) [Solodub Yu.P., 1997: 116].

Thus, a phraseological unit in the broadest sense causes certain difficulties in translation.

2. Problems of translation of phraseological units.

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→ Phraseological adhesions, unity, combinations and expressions

Phraseological adhesions, unity, combinations and expressions

Phraseological turns from the point of view of the merger of their constituent parts

Phraseological turns that exist in the Russian literary language are currently an extremely complex and diverse phenomenon. They differ from each other in their origin, stylistic and artistic and expressive qualities and what they represent in terms of structure, lexical and grammatical composition and the fusion of their constituent parts into a single semantic whole.

From the point of view of the merging of the components, the phraseological turns of the parts can be divided into four groups:

The first two groups are semantically indivisible phrases. They are equivalent in terms of their meaning to one word. The third and fourth groups, that is, phraseological combinations and phraseological expressions, are already semantically segmented phrases. Their meaning is equivalent to the semantics of their constituent components.

Phraseological adhesions

Phraseological adhesions are such semantically indivisible phraseological turns, in which the integral meaning is completely inconsistent with the individual meanings of the words that make them up. The meaning of this kind of phraseological phrases is as unmotivated and completely arbitrary as the semantics of words with a non-derivative stem.

For example, phraseological turns of phrase "" (to be idle) and "headlong" (recklessly) are the same unmotivated and conventional designations of the phenomena of objective reality, which are compound words like "imitate", "peer", "headlong", etc. where the derivation is not felt at all and the meaning of the word is absolutely inconsistent with the meanings of its constituent parts. Indeed, just as the meaning of the word "headlong" is not deduced from the meaning of the parts stride- down (cf .: rapids, impetuous etc.) and chapters(cf .: chief, head and others), and the meaning of the expression "headlong" is not derived from the meaning of the words outlining and head.

Thus, phraseological adhesions are such designations of certain phenomena of reality, which are similar to what we observe in words with a non-derivative basis, in words in which the sign underlying the name is no longer felt. The sign underlying the name, both in non-derivative words and in phraseological adhesions, can only be revealed from a historical point of view.

There are essentially no words with their independent meanings in phraseological splices. The words included in them do not have any separate meanings. The meaning of the whole is not derived here and does not follow from the meaning of its constituent components.

The expression "uneven hour", which is a phraseological union, is equal in meaning "what if" (for example, the hour is uneven he will notice it). According to its semantics, it is completely inconsistent with the meanings that are characteristic of the words "uneven" and "hour".

Such a turnover as "and no nails" is equal in meaning to the words "basta", "enough", "nothing more." Its integral meaning as a phraseological unit is not made up of the meanings of words and no nails and does not follow from those separate meanings that are inherent in these words in their free use.

If the elements that make up the phraseological fusion and have words that sound the same with them, then this ratio is purely homonymous.

So, for example, the combination of the words "wash the bones" on the one hand, can appear before us as a phraseological union, the meaning of which does not follow from the real meanings of the individual words "wash" and "bones" (gossip), and on the other hand, it can be free use of these words in their direct, nominative meaning.

Thus, phraseological adhesions - these are the equivalents of words, subsumed under certain grammatical categories as single, absolutely indecomposable semantic units. As examples you can cite such phraseological adhesions as "get into a mess", "sharpen balusters", "beat thumbs up", where there are outdated, obsolete words: glitch(rope twisting machine), balusters(chiseled railing posts), thumbs up(chocks for making small chips).

Secondly, due to the presence of grammatical archaisms within the phraseological fusion.

As examples, we can point to phraseological adhesions "carelessly", "breakneck", in which the archaic form will be the gerunds "later", "break" (in modern Russian, the gerunds perfect kind are formed, therefore it should have been “down”, “breaking”, and not “later”, “breaking”; the turn "now let go" (cf. letting go), "The water is dark in the clouds" (cf. in the clouds) and etc.

Thirdly, due to the absence of a living syntactic connection between its constituent words, the presence of syntactic disorder and indivisibility within it. Wed, for example, phraseological concatenations "what light", "how to drink to give", "joke to say", was not "," at least where "," on your mind ", in which clear and clear syntactic connections between words, motivated in terms of modern grammar rules, does not exist.

Phraseological unity

The second group of phraseological turns are phraseological unity... They are such phraseological units that, like phraseological adhesions, are semantically indivisible and integral, but in them, unlike phraseological mergers, their integral semantics is already motivated by the individual meanings of the words that make them up. The indecomposable meaning of phraseological unity arises as a result of the merging of the meanings of their individual parts in a single generalized-figurative semantics of the whole.

The semantic indivisibility of this kind of phraseological phrases brings them closer to phraseological adhesions, and their semantic derivation, the conditioning of their meaning by the meaning of individual words, distinguishes them from phraseological mergers.

If we take as examples phraseological unity: "", "pull the strap", "bury the talent in the ground" "seven Fridays a week" shelf ", etc., then their meanings, in contrast to phraseological adhesions, are derivatives, motivated and arising from the semantics of the words that form them. In this respect, they are analogous to words with a derived stem, that is, a stem divisible into morphological parts. However, it should be noted that this motivation, the productivity of the phraseological phrases under consideration is not direct, but mediated. All phraseological units, which are very numerous in the Russian language, are figurative expressions, constituent units, the understanding of which is necessarily associated with the understanding of the inner figurative core on which they are built.

The property of really existing imagery is the main property of phraseological unity. This is what distinguishes them from homonymous free combinations of words.

Such combinations of words as: "soap your head", "take it in your hands", "plug in the belt", "ride on the crows", etc., are equally possible as phraseological unity (then these will be figurative expressions) and as usual free combinations of words (then these words will be used in their direct, nominative, meanings).

Unlike phraseological adhesions, phraseological unity does not represent a completely frozen mass: their constituent parts can be separated from each other by inserts of other words. This property of phraseological unities sharply separates them not only from phraseological mergers, but also from most phraseological combinations and phraseological expressions.

Phraseological adhesions and phraseological unity as equivalents of words are often combined into one group. In such cases, they are usually called idioms or idiomatic expressions... Phraseological adhesions and phraseological unity ("ate the dog"; "all over Ivanovo", "burst into open door"; "Neither to the village, nor to the city"; "Grind into powder"; "Siamese twins", etc.) are opposed by phraseological combinations and phraseological expressions that are not semantically indivisible equivalents of words, but are semantically segmented phrases, the meaning of which fully corresponds to the meaning of the words that form them ("frown"; "sworn enemy"; "Verification of fulfillment"; "struggle for peace", etc.).

Phraseological combinations

Phraseological combinations are stable combinations of words in which there are words with both free use and associated.

Consider the turnover "bosom friend". Before us is a phraseological combination made up of two words. From them, the word "friend" is freely used. It can be combined not only with the word "bosom", but also with a number of other words, very different in their lexical meaning, expressive-stylistic coloring, etc. As for the word "bosom", it is, as it were, attached to the word "Friend" and can be used in speech only with him.

Another example: phraseological combinations "sensitive issue", "delicate position" - combinations of the word "sensitive" with the words "question" and "position".

The word "ticklish" in the appropriate meaning appears only in combination with these two words, that is, it has related use... As for the words "question" and "position". then they are free to use and can be combined with a wide variety of words.

Here are some other examples of phraseological combinations: "bang your nose", "fragile boat", "pitch hell", "pitch darkness", "sudden death", "bare teeth", "bitter frost", "frown", "hang up nose " etc.

Consequently, phraseological combinations are called such stable turns in their composition, which are formed from words with a free and phraseologically related meaning.

Phraseological combinations have almost no free phrases homonymous to them. their feature is that the words included in their composition with phraseologically related meanings can be replaced by synonymous ( sudden death - sudden death, smash your nose - smash your nose etc.). The wider the circle of words with which a member of a phraseological combination that has a non-free meaning can be linked, the closer this phraseological combination is to the category of phraseological expressions.

Phraseological expressions

Phraseological expressions one should name such phraseological phrases that are stable in their composition and use, which are not only semantically segmented, but also consist entirely of words with free meanings (“love of all ages is submissive”, “wholesale and retail”, “seriously and for a long time”, “ to be afraid of wolves - not to go to the forest "," socialist competition "," not all that glitters is gold ", etc.).

They differ from phraseological combinations in that they do not contain a single word with a phraseologically related meaning. Their constituent words cannot have synonymous substitutions, which are possible for words with a non-free meaning in a group of phraseological combinations (For example, open your mouth - open your mouth).

By the nature of the connections of the words that make them up, and overall value they are no different from free phrases.

the main specific feature that delimits them from free combinations of words is that in the process of communication they are not formed by the speaker, like the latter, but are reproduced as ready-made units with a constant composition and meaning.

The use of the phraseological expression "Love of all ages is submissive" differs from the use, for example, the sentence "Poems conquered readers with their sincerity and freshness" in that they are retrieved from memory in their entirety, just like a single word or phraseological turns, equivalent to a word, while the sentence "Poems conquered the reader with their sincerity and freshness" is created by the speaker according to the laws of Russian grammar from individual words in the very process of communication.

Among the phraseological expressions, there are both predicative phrases equal to the sentence, and combinations that are part of the sentence: “but Vaska listens and eats; "Good impulses are destined for us", "man - it sounds proudly"; "Labor success"; "At this stage"; “Catch up and overtake”; “Without difficulty - you can't even get a fish out of the pond”; “Looks into a book, but sees a fig”; "Horseradish radish is not sweeter", etc.

The classification of phraseological units, as a rule, is often limited to considering them only from the point of view of the degree of fusion of their constituent parts. However, phraseological phrases do not represent uniformity in their structure and lexical and grammatical composition.

The study of any language begins with the study of writing, then they learn the pronunciation of sounds and, finally, all this is put into words. And if at first it becomes easy to memorize the rules for the formation of phrases, and, in principle, you can remember a certain pattern with the help of which parts of speech are formed in the language, then they will always remain a stumbling block - phraseological unity, or, more simply, idioms, which you can only learn by long cramming and nothing else.

What are phraseological unity for?

However, it is not for us, Russian-speaking people, to complain about the impossibility of understanding in another language, since the Russian people always have a kind of "catchphrase" that fully describes the current situation.

The Russian language is considered one of the most difficult to study due to the presence of many tenses, conjugations of verbs, ways of forming new parts of speech, but the most damning thing is just the same idioms, the very phraseological concatenations, unity. The Russian language can compete with the wealth of catchphrases only with Chinese.

Idioms are used in speech in order to decorate it, make it more interesting, less often - to give a certain emotional coloring. Even native speakers do not always know where this or that expression came from, but they are always happy to use stable expressions in their speech.

To understand what some expressions mean in any language, you need to get to know more about the mentality of this people, study their habits and habits, the rules of life. And then, perhaps, all this mess of words will become more understandable.

What are phraseological units and idioms?

The most difficult thing is to explain the illogical combination of words to children, because in their concept the world is logical and consistent, which means that phraseological unity is something that falls out of the usual course of events, and an explanation must be found for this.

To begin with, you need to deal with all this confusion: phraseological mergers, phraseological unity and phraseological expressions are all the same or are there differences between them? Yes, in fact, for linguists and philologists, the differences between them are almost colossal, but for ordinary people these are all idioms. But in a nutshell:

• Phraseological fusion is an indivisible combination of words, because if these words are separated, then the general meaning of the whole phrase is lost. In other words, when combined with each other, words form a completely new, figurative meaning.
• Phraseological unity - unlike the first option, in this case the words are still used in their direct meaning, and the phrase, in principle, can be understood even by translating it into another language: the allegorical image is still visible.
• or expressions are characterized by the fact that they have one constant word that can be combined with other variables. Simply put, this is a metaphorical expression of your feelings, which is just the more understandable from all of the above.

Examples of phraseological units

With the selection of idioms, any person does not have any problems. Everyone knows the stable expressions "play the fool", "beat the thumbs up", "out of hand", "off the beaten track", "bend into three deaths", "pour on the first number" and so on. These adhesions are indivisible in themselves, to disconnect these words from each other means to destroy the very canonicity of the statement. Examples of such phrases are found in Everyday life so often that the use of such combinations does not hurt a Russian person's ear at all, but a foreigner will have to explain for a very long time who a fool is and why he should be played around.

Everyone is familiar with the expressions "go with the flow", "gnaw the granite of science", "catch with live bait", "storm in a glass of water", "tirelessly" and so on. This is already a phraseological unity. Examples of such expressions are even more common than idioms. And since they don't hurt the ears of native speakers, sometimes we don't even notice it.

Combinations and unity

Everything is a little more complicated with phraseological combinations, since it really takes imagination in order to understand a person. Russian people, for example, are very fond of "burning" from their feelings, be it shame, resentment or love. Or here's another: well, a foreigner cannot understand where the Russians are still carrying nonsense or nonsense. That is, these expressions contain a constant word, which is used in a figurative meaning, and a second variable word.

As can be seen from the description, phraseological unity and phraseological combinations are sometimes much easier for a foreigner to understand, but with adhesions there is only one way of fighting: to memorize them. And it is advisable not to ask a Russian once again what "mite", "thumbs" or "arshin" is - he himself, frankly speaking, does not know.

Folklore

The view of the world for many generations is formed by passing information from parents to children, and so on for many generations to come. Poems, songs, fairy tales, epics, tongue twisters, proverbs and sayings - all this is oral folk art, and each nation has its own. Studying the culture of ancestors, it is often much easier to understand how people behaved and thought about something at that time, and it is also easier to understand where the wisdom of those times found their place in modern science.

Phraseological unity is nothing more than the same sayings that people used to speak before. V. I. Dal, for example, loved to travel to villages and perpetuate such expressions, write them down and explain. And in part it is his merit that many expressions have survived to this day.

With what

Those that, as a rule, carry in themselves a certain instructive moral, contained in one sentence. That is, a sentence can be paraphrased, replaced or omitted some words, while retaining the meaning - it is not a single whole, unlike sayings, the words in which are unchanged. It was with sayings that they often described situations, expressed emotions, and simply communicated in Russia.

Where do the wings come from

Most of the idioms and stable expressions have been known since the times when Russia was Russia, and Kiev was the mother of Russian cities, but it cannot be denied that strong influence on vocabulary are also provided by classical writers, whose catch phrases are so fond of people.

The most famous Russian work from where a lot of expressions are borrowed - this is "Woe from Wit" by Griboyedov. Everyone is familiar with the phrases: "the tradition is fresh", or the exclamation "Carriage to me, carriage!", Or "I am no longer a rider here." But few people know that all this is taken from the great Russian work. Often the name of the play itself is used as a phraseological unit.

Expressions from the works of Pushkin, Tolstoy, Bulgakov and many other classics have entered speech so tightly that they have already lost their roots. That is why she is a classic because everyone is familiar.

Speaking of catch phrases, it is impossible not to mention Soviet cinema, when many books were also filmed. Suffice it to recall the Golden Calf! “Money in the morning - chairs in the evening,” a Russian person may say and will not even think about how phraseological units of this kind are perceived by foreigners. To some, this may seem impudent, but we will understand the reference to Ostap Bender and even laugh together.

Phraseology in everyday life

Many of us do not even think why we use certain expressions and where the legs of these statements grow. Phraseological unity, examples of which any Russian person will immediately recall, in fact reflect the mentality, customs and thinking of the people.

For example, we can consider the difference between two stable phrases in Russian and in English language: "Do or die!" - say the British. At the same time, a Russian person will say the opposite: “Die, but do”, which means fearlessness before death.

Or another expression: "give the last shirt", which speaks of the habit of sacrificing everything for the welfare of other people.

Russian heart

Noteworthy are the phraseological units in which the heart is affected. “To break the heart”, “from the bottom of my heart / from the bottom of my soul”, “my heart stops”, “my heart bleeds” and so on. The fact is that great attention is paid to inner peace person. It has long been believed that the soul lives in the chest, all the feelings and the most intimate are accumulated in the heart.

Phraseological unity "in all honesty" arose from the custom of putting your hand on your chest when someone speaks sincerely. This gesture says that a person literally opens his heart to another and thus confirms the truth of his words. Remember the custom of swearing an oath on the Bible, when they put a hand on it. But what if the book is not at hand? Put your hand on what is sacred to a person as much as the mentioned book. Therefore, he puts his hand on his heart.

Phraseologisms in English

Not only the Russian language sometimes introduces in a combination of incongruous, - phraseological unity in the English language is also present. Some of them are associated with history, others with the mentality and habits of the British.

The most common English expression, perhaps, sounds like this: "Every cloud has a silver lining". As in the case of Russian, it's not even worth trying to translate it literally. You just have to remember that this expression sounds like encouragement, they say, "everything can't be that bad."

English people love to eat words. They directly say: "To eat one" s words ", which is very similar in meaning to the Russian" take the words back. "Many expressions in English often have analogs in Russian, and vice versa, so understand some phraseological unity in and the English are easy.

Chinese phraseological unity

Only the Chinese language can compete with the Russian language in terms of the number of different expressions. As you know, it contains about a thousand hieroglyphs and many times more words. In one respect, the inhabitants of the Celestial Empire resemble the Russians for sure: to this day, in their native language preserved expressions invented in past centuries by distant ancestors. The Chinese treat the history of their people very carefully, and therefore the allied phraseological unity in the Chinese language, despite the fact that the grammar has changed significantly since then, has survived to this day.

A distinctive feature of capacious expressions in Chinese is that such phrases there, as a rule, consist of two parts: the first - the second part itself - an explanation of what is meant. For example: 守株待兔 - “to wait for the weather by the sea”, “to hope for fate”. It is especially interesting for translators of Chinese to translate this kind of phraseological units, since they were formed even when even the writing was different.

Phraseological turns are the scourge of everyone who learns a foreign language, because, faced with them, a person often cannot understand what in question... Often, in order to understand the meaning of a particular statement, one has to use a dictionary of phraseological combinations, which is not always at hand. However, there is a way out - you can develop the ability to recognize phraseological units, then it will be easier to understand their meaning. True, for this you need to know what types of them are and how they differ. Particular attention in this matter should be paid to phraseological combinations, since they (due to different ways their classifications) create the most problems. So what is it, what are they distinctive features and in which dictionaries can you find clues?

Phraseology and the subject of its study

The science of phraseology, which specializes in the study of a variety of stable combinations, is relatively young. In Russian linguistics, it began to stand out as a separate section only in the 18th century, and even then at the end of this century, thanks to Mikhail Lomonosov.

Its most famous researchers are linguists Viktor Vinogradov and Nikolai Shansky, and in English - A. McKay, W. Weinreich and L.P. Smith. By the way, it is worth noting that English-speaking linguists, unlike Slavic specialists, pay much less attention to phraseological units, and their stock in this language is inferior to Russian, Ukrainian or even Polish.

The main subject on the study of which this discipline focuses its attention is a phraseological unit or phraseological turnover. What is it? This is a combination of several words, which is stable in structure and composition (it is not compiled anew every time, but is used already finished form). For this reason, at parsing a phraseological unit, regardless of its type and the length of its constituent words, always appears as a single member of a sentence.

Each language is a unique thing related to its history and culture. It cannot be fully translated without losing its meaning. Therefore, when translating, phraseological units that are already similar in meaning that exist in another language are most often selected.

For example, the well-known English phraseological combination: "Keep your fingers on the pulse", which literally means "keep your fingers on the pulse", but it makes sense "to be aware of the events." However, since there is no one hundred percent analogue in Russian, it is replaced with a very similar one: "Keep your finger on the pulse."

Sometimes, due to the close location of countries, similar phraseological turns appear in their languages, and then there are no problems with translation. So, the Russian expression "to beat the thumbs up" (to mess around) has its twin brother in the Ukrainian language - "the life of the baidyky."

Often, such expressions come simultaneously in several languages ​​due to some important event, for example, such as Christianization. Despite belonging to different Christian denominations, in the Ukrainian, French, Spanish, German, Slovak, Russian and Polish languages, the phraseological unit "alpha and omega" taken from the Bible and meaning "from beginning to end" (completely, thoroughly) is widespread.

Types of phraseological turns

On the issue of the classification of phraseological units, linguists have not yet come to the same opinion. Some additionally rank among them proverbs ("You can't stay without the sun, you can't live without a sweetheart"), sayings ("God won't give out - the pig won't eat") and language clichés ("warm support", "working environment"). But so far they are in the minority.

On this moment The most popular in East Slavic languages ​​is the classification of the linguist Viktor Vinogradov, who distributed all stable phrases into three key categories:

• Phraseological adhesions.
• Phraseological unity.
• Phraseological combinations.

Many linguists associate adhesion and unity with the term "idiom" (by the way, this word has the same root with the noun "idiot"), which is actually a synonym for the noun "phraseological unit". This is due to the fact that sometimes it is very difficult to draw a line between them. This name is worth remembering, since in English phraseological adhesions, unity, combinations are translated precisely with its help - idioms.

The question of phraseological expressions

Colleague Shansky insisted on the existence of a fourth type - expressions. In fact, he divided Vinogradov's phraseological combinations into two categories: combinations proper and expressions.

Although Shansky's classification leads to confusion in the practical distribution of stable phrases, it allows a deeper examination of this linguistic phenomenon.

What is the difference between phraseological adhesions, phraseological unity, phraseological combinations

First of all, it is worthwhile to understand that these stable units were divided into these types according to the level of lexical independence of their components.

The turns, which are absolutely inseparable, the meaning of which is not connected with the meaning of their components, were called phraseological adhesions. For example: "sharpen the fringes" (conduct a silly conversation), to wear one "s heart on one" s sleeve (to be frank, literally means "to wear a heart on a sleeve"). By the way, figurativeness is characteristic of splices, most often they arise from folk speech, especially outdated expressions or from ancient books.

Are over independent species, in relation to its components. Unlike splices, their semantics are determined by the meaning of their constituents. For this reason, puns are included here. For example: “small but daring” (a person who does something well, despite his not impressive external data) or Ukrainian phraseological unit: “katyuzi on merit” (the guilty person received a punishment corresponding to his own offense). Incidentally, both examples illustrate a unique feature of unity: rhymed accords. Perhaps that is why Viktor Vinogradov included sayings and proverbs among them, although their belonging to phraseological units is still disputed by many linguists.

The third type: free phraseological combinations of words. They are quite noticeably different from the two above. The fact is that the meaning of their components directly affects the meaning of the entire turnover. For example: "unrestrained drunkenness", "raise a question."

Phraseological combinations in Russian (as well as in Ukrainian and English) have a special property: their components can be replaced with synonyms without losing meaning: "hurt honor" - "hurt pride", "crimson ringing" - "melodic ringing". As an example from the language of proud British people, the idiom to show one's teeth can be adapted to any face: to show my (your, his, her, our) teeth.

Phraseological expressions and combinations: distinctive features

The classification of Viktor Vinogradov, in which only one analytical type (phraseological combinations) stood out in composition, was gradually supplemented by Nikolai Shansky. Distinguishing between idioms and combinations was quite simple (due to their difference in structure). But Shansky's new unit - the expression ("to be afraid of wolves - not to go to the forest") was more difficult to distinguish from combinations.

But, if you delve into the question, you can notice a clear difference, which is based on the meaning of phraseological combinations. So, expressions consist of absolutely free words, fully possessing independent semantics ("not all that is gold - that glitters"). However, they differ from ordinary phrases and sentences in that they are stable expressions that are not compiled in a new way, but are used ready-made, as a template: "horseradish radish is not sweeter" (Ukrainian version "horseradish is not malt radish").

Phraseological combinations ("give your head to be cut off" - "give your hand to be cut off") always have several words with unmotivated meaning in their composition, while all the components of expressions are absolutely semantically independent ("Man - it sounds proudly"). By the way, this feature of them makes some linguists doubt the belonging of expressions to phraseological phrases.

What combination of words is not a phraseological phrase

Phraseologisms, with lexical point vision, are a unique phenomenon: on the one hand, they have all the signs of phrases, but at the same time they are closer in their properties to words. Knowing these features, you can easily learn to distinguish stable phraseological combinations, unity, fusion or expression from ordinary phrases.

• Phraseologisms, like phrases, consist of several related lexemes, but most often their meaning is unable to go beyond the sum of the meanings of their components. For example: "lose your head" (stop thinking sensibly) and "lose your wallet". The words that the phraseological unit consists of are most often used in a figurative sense.
• When used orally and written speech the composition of phrases is formed anew each time. But the unity and fusion are constantly reproduced in finished form (which makes them related to speech cliches). Phraseological combination of words and phraseological expression in this matter are sometimes confused. For example: "to hang your head" (to be sad), although it is a phraseological unit, each of its components is able to figure freely in the usual phrases: "hang up the coat" and "lower the head".
• Phraseological turnover (due to the integrity of the meaning of its components) in most cases can be safely replaced with a synonym word, which cannot be done with a phrase. For example: the expression "servant of Melpomene" can be easily changed to the simple word "artist" or "actor".
• Phraseologisms never act as names. For example, the hydronym "Dead Sea" and phraseological combinations "off season" (unpopular season), "lying dead weight" (lying unused weight).

Classification of phraseological units by origin

Considering the question of the origin of phraseological combinations, expressions, unities and adhesions, they can be divided into several groups.

Other classifications: Pyotr Dudik's version

• In addition to Vinogradov and Shansky, other linguists also tried to separate phraseological units, guided by their own principles. So, the linguist Dudik identified not four, but five types of phraseological units:
• Semantically inseparable idioms: "to be on a short leg" (to know someone closely).
• Phraseological unity with a freer semantics of constituent elements: “lather your neck” (punish someone).
• Phraseological expressions, completely consisting of independent words, to the total meaning of which it is impossible to find a synonym. Dudik mainly refers to them sayings and proverbs: "A goose is not a pig's comrade."
• Phraseological combinations - phrases based on the metaphorical meaning: "blue blood", "hawk eye".
• Phraseological phrases. They are characterized by the absence of metaphor and the syntactic unity of the components: "big swag".

Igor Melchuk's classification

Separate from all of the above is the classification of Melchuk's phraseological units. According to her, it stands out significantly more species which are categorized into four categories.

• Degree: full, semi-phraseme, quasi-phraseme.
• The role of pragmatic factors in the formation of phraseological units: semantic and pragmatic.
• Which one refers to: lexeme, phrase, syntactic phraseme.
• The component of a linguistic sign that has undergone phraseologization: the syntactic of the sign, the signifier and the signified.

Boris Larin's classification

This linguist categorized them according to the stages of their evolution, from ordinary phrases to phraseological units:

• Variable word combinations (analogue of phraseological combinations and expressions): "velvet season".
• Those who have partially lost their primary meaning, but were able to acquire metaphor and stereotype: "hold a stone in your bosom."
• Idioms that are completely devoid of the semantic independence of their components, as well as have lost touch with their original lexical meaning and the grammatical role (analogue of phraseological adhesions and unity): "out of hand" (bad).

Common examples of phraseological combinations

Below are a few more fairly well-known stable phrases.

Although the classification of Vinogradov and Shansky is not applied to the language, however, it is possible to pick up stable phrases that can be classified as phraseological combinations.
Examples:

• Bosom friend - bosom buddy
• A Sisyfean labor.
• A pitched battle - a fierce battle

Phraseological dictionaries

Availability a large number classifications is due to the fact that none of them gives a 100% guarantee that there is no error. Therefore, it is still worth knowing in which dictionaries you can find a hint, if you cannot accurately determine the type of phraseological unit. All dictionaries of this type are divided into monolingual and multilingual. Below are translated the most famous books of this kind, in which you can find examples of the set expressions most common in the Russian language.

• Monolingual:"Educational phraseological dictionary" by E. Bystrova; “Burning Verb - Dictionary of Folk Phraseology” by V. Kuzmich; A. Fedoseev's Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language; "Phraseological Dictionary of Russian literary language"I. Fedoseev and" Big explanatory-phraseological dictionary "M. Michelson.
• Multilingual:“The Big English-Russian Phraseological Dictionary” (twenty thousand phraseological turns) by A. Kunin, “The Big Polish-Russian, Russian-Polish Phraseological Dictionary” by Y. Lukshin and the Random House Russian-English Dictionary of Idioms by Sofia Lyubenskaya.

Perhaps, having learned that sometimes it is not easy to immediately distinguish what kind of phraseological unit belongs to, this topic may seem incredibly difficult. However, the devil is not so terrible as he is painted. The main way to develop the ability to correctly find a phraseological combination of words among other phraseological units is to exercise regularly. And in the case of foreign languages- study the history of the emergence of such phrases and memorize them. This will not only help in the future not to get into awkward situations, but also make the speech very beautiful and imaginative.