Examples of fusion and unity of phraseological units. Phraseological combinations: examples

Phraseologism

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Phraseologism (phraseological turnover, phraseme) - stable in composition and structure, lexically indivisible and integral in meaning, a phrase or sentence that performs the function of a separate lexeme (vocabulary unit). Often a phraseological unit remains the property of only one language; the exception is the so-called phraseological tracing papers. Phraseological units are described in special phraseological dictionaries.

Phraseologism is used as a whole that is not subject to further decomposition and usually does not allow the rearrangement of its parts within itself. The semantic fusion of phraseological units can vary within a fairly wide range: from the non-deducibility of the meaning of a phraseological unit from its constituent words in phraseological adhesions ( idioms) to phraseological combinations with a meaning arising from the meanings that make up the combination. The transformation of a phrase into a stable phraseological unit is called lexicalization.

The concept of phraseological units (fr. unité phraséologique) as a stable phrase, the meaning of which cannot be deduced from the meanings of its constituent words, was first formulated by the Swiss linguist Charles Bally in his work Précis de stylistique, where he contrasted them with another type of word combinations - phraseological groups (fr. séries phraséologiques) with a variable combination of components. Later V.V. Vinogradov identified three main types of phraseological units: phraseological adhesions(idioms), phraseological unity and phraseological combinations... N.M.Shansky also distinguishes additional view - phraseological expressions.

Various scientists interpret the concept of a phraseological unit in different ways and its properties, however, the most consistently distinguished by various scientists properties of a phraseological unit are

reproducibility,
stability,
superconditionality (separate formality).
belonging to the nominative inventory of the language.

Phraseological adhesions (idioms)

Phraseological fusion, or idiom (from the Greek. ἴδιος "Own, peculiar") is a semantically indivisible turnover, the meaning of which is absolutely not deducible from the meanings of its constituent components. For example, sodom and gomorrah- "bustle, noise".

Often, the grammatical forms and meanings of idioms are not determined by the norms and realities of the modern language, that is, such adhesions are lexical and grammatical archaisms. For example, the idioms beat thumbs up- "mess around" (in the original meaning - "chop a log into blanks for making household wooden items") and slipshod- "casually" reflect the realities of the past that are absent in the present (in the past they were inherent in metaphor). In splices from small to large, not hesitating archaic grammatical forms have been preserved.

Phraseological unity

Phraseological unity is a stable turnover, each of its words is used in direct and parallel in figurative meanings. The figurative meaning is the content of the phraseological unity. Phraseological unity is a path with a metaphorical meaning For example, “go with the flow”, “throw a fishing rod”, “reel in a fishing rod”, fall for the bait, “fall into the net.” All expressions of all the scriptures of the world belong to phraseological unity. most people perceive the direct meanings of expressions, they do not understand the ideas of the scriptures. For example, “Pigs love to bathe in the mud.” This expression is a statement of an observable sensually perceived fact - the truth of science. However, as in all the scriptures of the world, this expression in its content has not a rational thought, but an irrational idea. A rational thought is based on the perception of feelings, and an irrational idea draws knowledge from the spirit. An irrational idea is a pure idea. It is purified from information of sensory perception. The ideas of phraseological unity are not available to information of sensory perception. the main problem of understanding is hermeneutics.In contrast to idioms, unity is motivated are realities of the modern language and can allow the insertion of other words between their parts in speech: for example, bring (yourself, him, someone) to white heat, pour water into the mill (something or someone) and pour water on (your own, someone else's, etc.) mill... Examples: come to a dead end, be in full swing, to go with the flow, hold a stone in your bosom, lead by the nose.

Phraseological combinations

A phraseological combination (collocation) is a stable turnover, which includes words both with a free meaning and phraseologically connected, not free (used only in this combination). Phraseological combinations are stable turnovers, but their integral meaning follows from the values of their constituent individual words.

Unlike phraseological adhesions and unities, combinations are semantically divisible - their composition allows for limited synonymous substitution or replacement of individual words, while one of the members of the phraseological combination turns out to be constant, while the others are variable: for example, in phrases burn with love, hate, shame, impatience word burn up is a permanent member with a phraseological related meaning.

As the variable members of the combination, a limited range of words can be used, determined by semantic relations within language system: so, phraseological combination burn with passion is a hyperonym for combinations like burn from ..., at the same time, due to varying the variable part, the formation of synonymous series is possible burn with shame, shame, shame, burn out with jealousy, thirst for revenge.

Phraseological expressions

Phraseological expressions are phraseological expressions that are stable in their composition and use, which are not only semantically segmented, but also consist entirely of words with a free nominative meaning. Their only feature is reproducibility: they are used as ready-made speech units with a constant lexical composition and specific semantics.

Often a phraseological expression is a complete sentence with a statement, edification or conclusion. Examples of such phraseological expressions are proverbs and aphorisms. If there is no edification in the phraseological expression or there are elements of understatement, then this is a saying or a catch phrase. Another source of phraseological expressions is professional speech. The category of phraseological expressions also includes speech stamps - stable formulas like good luck, see you soon etc.

Many linguists do not attribute phraseological expressions to phraseological units, since they are devoid of the main features of phraseological units. no suggestions for example

Melchuk's classification

The linguistic unit that is affected by the phraseologization:
- lexeme ( shepherd with suffix - tukh),
- phrase ( inflated authority, eng. red herring),
- syntactic phraseme (sentences differing by prosody: You you will read this book at my place and You are in my house read this book).
The participation of pragmatic factors in the phraseologization process:
- pragmatemes related to the extra-linguistic situation ( shelf life, eng. best before),
- semantic phrasemes ( discard hooves).
Component of a linguistic sign subject to phraseologization:
- signified ( beat thumbs up),
- denoting (supplementary units in morphology: person people),
- syntactics of the sign itself (eng. He sort of laughed).
The degree of phraseologization:
- full phrasemes (= idioms) (eng. kick the bucket),
- semi-phrasemes (= collocations) (eng. land a job),
- quasi-phrasemes (rus. ham and eggs).

In general, as a result of such a calculation, Melchuk distinguishes 3 × 2 × 3 × 3 = 54 types of phrasemes.

Notes (edit)

Literature

Amosova N.N. Fundamentals of English phraseology. - L., 1963
Arsentieva EF Phraseology and phraseography in a comparative aspect (based on the Russian and English languages). - Kazan, 2006
Valgina N.S., Rosenthal D.E., Fomina M.I. 6th ed. - M .: "Logos", 2002
Kunin A.V. Course of phraseology of modern English. - 2nd ed., Rev. - M., 1996
Mokienko V.M. Slavic phraseology. 2nd ed., Isp. and add. - M., 1989
Telia V. N. Russian phraseology: Semantic, pragmatic and linguocultural aspects. - M., 1996
Baranov A.N., Dobrovolsky D.O. Aspects of the theory of phraseology / A.N. Baranov, D.O. Dobrovolsky. - M .: Znak, 2008 .-- 656 p.
Vereshchagin E.M., Kostomarov V.G. Language and culture. Three linguistic and cultural concepts: lexical background, speech-behavioral tactics and sapientems / E.M. Vereshchagin, V.G. Kostomarov; under. ed. Yu.S. Stepanov. - M .: Indrik, 2005 .-- 1040 p.
Vinogradov V.V. Phraseology. Semasiology // Lexicology and Lexicography. Selected Works. - Moscow: Nauka, 1977.– 118-161 p.
Shansky N.M. Phraseology of the modern Russian language / N.M. Shansky. - 3rd ed., Rev. and add. - M., 1985 .-- 160 p.

Phraseological combination of words

Phraseology(column phrasis- expression + logos- teaching) - the science of complex linguistic units that are stable in nature: upside down, get trapped, the cat cried, slipshod... Phraseology is also called the whole set of these complex stable combinations - phraseological units.

Phraseologisms, in contrast to lexical units, have a number of characteristic features.

1. Phraseologisms always complex in composition, they are formed by combining several components, which, as a rule, have a separate stress, but do not preserve the meaning of independent words: puzzle, blood and milk, ate the dog.(Do not belong to phraseological units of prepositional-case combinations such as off the hook, under the arm.)

2. Phraseologisms semantically indivisible, they usually have an undifferentiated meaning, which can be expressed in one word: spread the mind- "think", fifth wheel in a cart- "extra", upside down- "supine", the cat cried- "little", etc. True, this feature is not characteristic of all phraseological units. There are some that equate to a whole descriptive expression. run aground- "get into an extremely difficult situation", press all pedals- "make every effort to achieve or accomplish something." Such phraseological units arise as a result of a figurative rethinking of free phrases.

3. Phraseologisms, in contrast to free phrases, characterize consistency of composition... One or another component of a phraseological unit cannot be replaced by a word that is close in meaning, while free phrases can easily allow such a replacement. For example, instead of the cat cried can't say "the cat cried", "the kitten cried", "the puppy cried", instead of spread the mind- "to scatter with the mind", "to spread the head"; (cf. free phrases reading a book, looking through a book, studying a book, reading a novel, reading a novel, reading a script).

However, some phraseological units have options: from the bottom of my heart - from the bottom of my heart, to cast a shadow on the fence - to cast a shadow on a clear day. Nevertheless, the existence of options does not mean that in these phraseological units one can arbitrarily update the composition: one cannot say "from the whole spirit", "from the whole consciousness", and " to cast a shadow over the fence "(on a clear morning).

4. Phraseological units are distinguished reproducibility... Unlike free phrases, which we build directly in speech, phraseological units are used in finished form, such as they were fixed in the language, as they are kept by our memory. So saying bosom, we will definitely say friend(not: friend, acquaintance, young man, comrade),sworn maybe only enemy(not enemy, pest). This indicates predictability components of phraseological units.

5. Most phraseological units are characterized by impermeability of the structure: they cannot include any elements arbitrarily. So, knowing the phraseological unit look down we have no right to say "to lower the gaze low", "to lower the gaze even lower", "to lower the sad gaze" and so on. The exception is phraseological units that allow the insertion of some clarifying words kindle passions - kindle fatal passions.

The structural feature of individual phraseological units is the presence of truncated forms along with complete:go through fire and water (... and copper pipes); drink a cup - drink a bitter cup (to the bottom), measure seven times (... cut once)... The reduction in the composition of phraseological units in such cases is explained by the desire to save speech means.

6. Phraseologisms are inherent grammatical stability their components: each member of the phraseological combination is reproduced in a certain grammatical form, which cannot be arbitrarily changed. So, you can't say "to beat the thumbs up", "to grind out the lace" by replacing the forms plural thumbs up, fritters singular, do not use full adjective instead of short in phraseological units on bare feet etc. Only in special cases are variations of grammatical forms possible in the composition of individual phraseological units: warm up hand- warm hands; heard does it matter - heard does it matter.

7. For most phraseological units strictly fixed word order... For example, you cannot rearrange components in phraseological units everything flows, everything changes, not the dawn; blood with milk and others. At the same time, phraseological units of the verb type, that is, consisting of a verb and words depending on it, allow a permutation of components: dial into the mouth of water - into the mouth of water dial; not leave stone upon stone - not stone upon stone leave.

The heterogeneity of the structure of a number of phraseological units is explained by the fact that phraseology combines rather variegated linguistic material, and the boundaries of some phraseological units are not clearly outlined.

Phraseologism- this is a stable combination of words characteristic only of a given language, the meaning of which is not determined by the meaning of the words included in it, taken separately. Due to the fact that phraseological units cannot be translated literally (meaning is lost), difficulties in translation and understanding often arise. On the other hand, such phraseological units give the language a bright emotional coloring. Often the grammatical meaning of idioms does not correspond to the norms of the modern language, but are grammatical archaisms. An example of such expressions in Russian: "stay with your nose", "beat your thumbs", "give back", "play the fool", "point of view", etc.

The main features of phraseological units... In order to separate the phraseological unit from other linguistic units, in particular from the word and free phrase, it is necessary to determine characteristics phraseological units.

1. Reproducibility of phraseological units in speech as finished units. Stable combinations exist in a language as a set of ready-made, previously created linguistic formations that need to be memorized in the same way as we memorize words.

2. The integrity of the meaning of phraseological units lies in the fact that they, despite the dismemberment of the structure, have a generalized holistic meaning, which, as a rule, is a rethinking of a phrase, which is based on a specific semantic content. Vivid examples of the fact that the meaning of a phraseological unit does not consist of the meanings of its components are stable combinations, one of the members of which is outdated and has no use in modern language outside the given expression. However, the speaker does not have the feeling that this word is unfamiliar to him, since he knows the general, integral meaning of the entire phraseological unit. Generally speaking, such expressions have a holistic meaning in which it is possible to trace the connection between the general meaning of a stable combination and the values of its constituent components.

3. Persistence component composition , stability distinguishes phraseological units from free phrases. A feature of stable combinations is that they, as a rule, are constant in composition and structure, i.e. they include certain words, arranged in the prescribed order. The interchangeability of the components of a phraseological unit is possible only in general language phraseological variants, i.e. in stable combinations that have the same meaning, the same figurative structure, but differ in their lexical and grammatical composition.

4. Equivalence of phraseological unit and a single word means that a stable combination has a lot to do with the word. Like a word, it is a unit of language, is reproduced in finished form, and is not created every time anew, has an independent meaning and grammatical relativity, which consists in the fact that phraseological units, like a word, refer to a certain part of speech. It is possible to single out nominal phraseological phrases (a shot sparrow is an experienced person), adjectives (there are not enough stars from the sky - about an ordinary, unremarkable person) verb (to be at a standstill - to be in a difficult situation); adverbial (tirelessly - diligently, tirelessly), interjection (know ours! - about praising yourself). Many phraseological units correspond by meaning to one word (put on both shoulder blades - win). Stable phrases are close to words in terms of syntactic function, since they perform the role of a separate member of a sentence. For example: She turned her head not only to Adam's grandson (M. Lermontov);

5. Separate formulation of phraseological units consists in the fact that it includes at least two verbal components, each of which is grammatically designed as an independent unit, i.e. has its own stress and its ending. This is the main difference between a phraseological unit and a word.

6. The figurativeness of the phraseological unit consists in the fact that many stable phrases not only name phenomena, signs, objects, actions, but also contain a certain image. This applies primarily to those phraseological units, the meanings of which were formed on the basis of a linguistic metaphor, as a result of the similarity and comparison of two phenomena, of which one becomes the basis for comparison, and the other is compared with it. For example, the phraseological unit grated kalach, denoting an experienced person who has seen a lot in life, correlates with grated kalach (the name of one of the varieties of kalach), which, before baking, is rubbed and crumpled for a long time. This creates the figurativeness of the phraseological unit. Some phraseological units of the Russian language are devoid of imagery. These include various kinds of semantically indivisible combinations, which are compound names and terms (such as coal, agenda, safety pin, eyeball), as well as phraseological units such as have meaning, win.

7. Emotionally expressive coloring phraseological units is manifested in the fact that most of the phraseological units of the Russian language, in addition to the nominative function, also perform a characterological function: they not only name some objects, phenomena, actions that exist in objective reality, but at the same time evaluate the named objects, phenomena, actions. Emotionally expressive the significance of the phraseological units of the Russian language is different. Some of them have minimal expression (expressiveness), for example: standing in the ears - “constantly being heard”. Others have a pronounced expression and serve as a means of emphasizing the assessment of what is being said. Such are, for example: to be in full swing - "to flow violently, to manifest itself." The presence of an emotional-expressive coloring in phraseological units can be traced on synonymous phraseological units, which, with a common meaning, can differ in their color. For example, a jack of all trades (positive assessment), out of boredom for a jack of all trades (jokingly ironic assessment), and a Swiss man, and a reaper, and a joker (jokingly ironic assessment) talk about a man who knows how to do everything.

8. Phraseology, the lack of freedom of the meaning of one of the components is a characteristic feature of most stable combinations. In some phraseological units, it manifests itself in the fact that its component has a phraseologically related meaning in the language, the main features of which are the lack of semantic independence and dependence in the choice of the lexical environment. For example, the phraseological meaning of the word "sworn" is manifested in the fact that it has its meaning only in a certain lexical environment, in combination with the word "enemy": sworn enemy - "irreconcilable enemy" - and outside of this stable combination in the Russian language is not used. The phraseological nature of the meaning of one of the components of a stable combination of another type is manifested in the fact that this component acquires a special phraseological related meaning, only within the framework of this phraseological unit, and outside it can have an independent meaning and be used in many free combinations. For example, the word "white" is used in the language with its own meaning in free combinations (white paper, white snow), but only within the framework of a stable combination does the white crow acquire its special, phraseologically related meaning - "unlike others, standing out by something ".

9. Idiomatic phraseology manifests itself in the fact that its semantically indivisible meaning is not derived from the values of its constituent components, taken separately, and does not coincide with them. Hence the impossibility of accurate translation of phraseological units into other languages; this can be explained by the presence of specific laws inherent in this particular language. If free phrases are built mainly according to the general laws of linguistic reflection of extra-linguistic reality, then the use of words as part of a phraseological unit is determined by the specific laws of the system of a given language.

* Questions of semantics of phraseological units in recent times attract more and more attention of researchers of phraseology, who, noting the specifics of their semantics, use a variety of names: generalizing metaphorical meaning (S.A. Abakumov), semantic monolithicity (P.P. Kalinin), single integral meaning (V.V. Vinogradov ), semantic idiomaticity (A.I.Smirnitsky), etc. Such an abundance of names to denote the semantic specificity of phraseological units reflects the undoubted complexity of this phenomenon, associated with insufficient knowledge of the issue itself.

The main feature of phraseological units is their fully or partially rethought meaning. Only a part of phraseological units is identified by separate lexemes, while most of them can be determined only with the help of a phrase or a detailed description. The semantic originality of a phraseological unit lies in the specificity of the combination of components, thus, they act not only as parts of the main semantic components of a phraseological unit, but also as connecting links between them. These components are the minimum units of the semantics of phraseological units and perform meaning-determining or meaning-forming functions.

* The classification of phraseological units is based on the sign of semantic fusion of components, less or more motivation of the meaning of phraseological units. Following Academician V.V. Vinogradov, it is customary to distinguish three main types: phraseological adhesions, phraseological unity and phraseological combinations.

Phraseological adhesions- these are phraseological units that are indecomposable in meaning, their holistic meaning is absolutely not motivated by the meanings of the component words, for example: to beat the thumbs up, get into a mess, sharpen the fringes, turuses on wheels, headlong, etc. independently in modern Russian are not used.

Phraseological unity Are such phraseological units, the integral meaning of which is motivated by the meanings of their components. Examples of unity: pull the strap, swim shallow, bury the talent in the ground, suck it out of the finger, lead by the nose, etc. One of characteristic features phraseological unity - their imagery. The presence of imagery distinguishes phraseological unity from free combinations of fame homonymous to them. Thus, in the sentence the Boy lathered his head with toilet soap, the combination lathered his head is free, it has a direct meaning and is devoid of any imagery; in the sentence I'm afraid that the boss would lather his head for being late, the combination lathered his head is used figuratively and is a phraseological unity.

Phraseological combinations Are such phraseological units, the integral meaning of which is made up of the meaning of the components, and at the same time one of the components has the so-called related use... To understand what the associated use is, consider the turns: fear takes, envy takes, anger takes. The verb take, used in these phrases, is not combined with any name for feelings, but only with some, for example: you cannot say “joy takes”, “pleasure takes”. This use of the verb is called linked (or phraseologically linked). Related is the use of the word ticklish in turnover ticklish question, ticklish business; with other nouns, even those close in meaning to the words question and business, the adjective delicate is not combined.

As in phraseological adhesions, many words that make up phraseological combinations do not have free meanings at all and exist in the language only as part of phraseological units. For example, the words to turn down, total in modern Russian, function only as part of phraseological combinations: lower your gaze, lower your eyes, pitch hell, pitch darkness.

Turns of this kind, in which the word is used in a non-free, phraseologically related meaning, are called phraseological combinations.

The semantics of a phraseological unit largely depends on its structural organization. Some phraseological units are formed according to the phraseological scheme: to rack their brains, while others - according to the sentence scheme: hands itch (who?), The sky seemed like a sheepskin (to whom?). Phraseologisms of the first group have the greatest functional and semantic affinity with the word.

Phraseologisms formed according to the model of a non-predicative word combination can be unambiguous and ambiguous, capable of entering into synonymous and antonymic relations, uniting in thematic series based on semantic community, etc.

The overwhelming majority of phraseological units are unambiguous. The development of polysemy is hampered by the fact that phraseological units are often formed as a result of metaphorical rethinking of free phrases of the same composition. As a result of repeated metaphorization of the same free phrase, such polysemantic phraseological units appear that have only metaphorical meanings. For example, a phraseological unit wagging its tail means:

"To be cunning, to dissemble"; “You, brother, I'm sorry, I'm a taiga man, straightforward, cunning, I don't know how to wag my tail” (YM Shestakov);
“To hesitate in choosing a solution, to evade a direct answer”: “Speak! Don't wag your tail ... a saddle bag ”(ME Sltykov-Shchedrin);
(to whom?) "by flattery, servility to seek someone's favor." “Because of my personal, one might say, family calculations, wag my tail in front of the plant owner ...” (DN Mamin-Sibiryak).

Polysemy is most typical for verbal and adverbial phrases as the most common, to a lesser extent for nominal (adjective, etc.).

Separate phraseological units are able to combine opposite meanings. For example, a verbal turnover in the head can mean:

"Is constantly in consciousness, worries the mind." “A chaotic dream was spinning in my head, which was interrupted by awakenings several times at night” (MA Bulgakov);
“I don’t remember in any way”: “It seems that it is so easy to remember, and it turns in my head, it turns painfully close, but I don’t know what exactly. Can't grab it ”(V. Garm).

Antonymic relations in phraseology are less developed than synonymous ones. Only phraseological units enter into antonymic relations, which are correlative according to some attribute - qualitative, quantitative, temporal, spatial and belonging to the same category of objective reality as mutually exclusive concepts.

The antonymy of phraseological units is often supported by the antonymic connections of their lexical synonyms: seven spans in the forehead (smart) - will not invent gunpowder (stupid); blood with milk (ruddy) - no blood on the face (pale).

A special group includes antonymic phraseological units that partially coincide in composition, but have components opposed in meaning: with a heavy heart - with a light heart. The components that give such phraseological units the opposite meaning are often lexical antonyms, but they can receive the opposite meaning only as part of phraseological units (face - back).

The most striking semantic feature of phraseological units is their ability to enter into synonymous connections and relationships with each other: to lead by the nose, to fool around - to act dishonestly, to deceive someone.

Phraseological synonymy is rich and varied. There are about 800 synonyms in the Russian language. By phraseological synonyms, we agreed to understand phraseological units with an extremely close meaning, correlating, as a rule, with one part of speech, having similar or identical compatibility.

Phraseological synonyms can be single-structured, multi-structured and similar-structured. One-structure synonyms are formed according to the same model: Kolomenskaya verst and fire tower - according to the “noun. in them. p. + adj. ". Different structural synonyms are based on different models: headlong, off the beaten path, with closed eyes... In similar structural synonyms, the grammatically dominant component of phraseological units is expressed by one part of speech, and all the rest are multiform: hang your head, lose heart - become despondent, despair. "

Phraseologisms included in the synonymous series can differ in shades of meaning, stylistic coloring, and sometimes all of these features at the same time.

Due to polysemy, phraseological units can have synonymous connections in each meaning. In the Russian language, there are extensive synonymous series with common meanings: "to make a reprimand in harsh expressions": to give a heat, set a steam, remove shavings, soap your head, give a light.

Many synonymous series are semantically similar. So, phraseological synonyms do not take an extra step, do not hit a finger on a finger (do not slightest effort) intersect with two other synonymous rows: to beat the thumbs up, play the fool, spit at the ceiling (indulge in idleness, laziness) and cut the pavement, polish the boulevards, elephants to loiter (walk, wander around).

Phraseological synonymy not only approaches the lexical one, but also differs from it. Phraseologisms are much poorer than words in lexical and grammatical terms. So, among phraseological units there is no proper pronominal category; in rare cases, phraseological units are correlated with full forms of adjectives. At the same time, phraseological synonyms often convey aspects of reality that cannot be expressed by lexical synonymy. For example, phraseological units of the synonymous series, the wind whistles in their pockets (who?), An empty pocket (who?), Not a penny (who?) - or signs of prosperity. "

Phraseological synonyms differ from lexical ones in stylistic terms: phraseological units are distinguished by greater stylistic homogeneity than words of free use. This is due to the fact that phraseological units are mainly characterized by emotional and expressive coloring.

* The main property of a phraseological unit (PU) as a component of a language system is, first of all, the property of compatibility with other units.

Phraseological units can have a single, narrow or wide combination, depending on the semantics of the characterized verb. Phraseologism in all eyes (in both, in both eyes) is combined with verbs visual perception semantic category of action, which indicates its narrow lexical and semantic compatibility: Various monovalent, divalent, trivalent, etc. Phraseological units are characterized only in relation to the number of joining verbs, i.e. only the quantitative aspect of valence is taken into account. The qualitative side of valence, determined by the nature of the semantic relationships between the combined units, is not disclosed with this approach, which necessitates further searches in the field of "power" capabilities of phraseological units. In addition, in some cases in scientific linguistic text it is possible to use only one of the two terms, which indicates the distinction between their use and functions: valence capabilities / combinability, ability to combine, verbal valence (but not compatibility). The use of the term "valency" is recommended in order to avoid ambiguity and ambiguity: compatibility, as we found out, is divided into several types according to different criteria. "Valence" more successfully meets the requirements for terms, and helps to avoid ambiguity and achieve the accuracy of the name - in the context of our work - "verbal valence of a phraseological unit."

* The main part of the phraseological resources of the Russian language consists of phraseological units of primordial Russian origin. Among the phraseological units of a colloquial nature, there are a significant number of those whose source is professional speech, for example: sharpening fritters, without a hitch and without a hitch (from professional speech joiners), leave the stage, play the first violin (from the speech of actors, musicians).

Single phraseological units fell into literary language from jargon, for example, rubbing glasses in is a cheating expression.

In the sphere of everyday and colloquial speech, revolutions constantly arose and arise, in which various historical events and customs of the Russian people find a social assessment. For example, the phraseological unit put (or put aside) on the back burner is associated with the name of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (17th century), on whose orders a petition box was installed in front of the palace in Kolomenskoye, but such an innovation did not eliminate the red tape, and the people accordingly reflected this fact: to put on the back burner means to delay the consideration of the issue for an indefinite period.

In addition to phraseological units, the origin of which is associated with colloquial speech, there is a significant number of phraseological units of book origin, both Russian and borrowed. Among them there are very old ones, borrowed from liturgical books, for example: seek and find, the holy of holies, the fiend of hell, in the image and likeness, etc.

The phraseology of the Russian language is actively replenished with winged expressions of literary origin. For example, the sword of Damocles, the Gordian knot, the Procrustean bed are from ancient mythology; an expression from a beautiful distance belongs to N. V. Gogol; affairs of bygone days.

In addition to the primordially Russian phraseological units, there are phraseological units foreign language origin... These are usually tracing papers from foreign language phraseological units, for example: keep silent (from the Latin language).

* The pictorial and expressive possibilities of Russian phraseology can hardly be overestimated. Linguists have written and are writing a lot about the stylistic possibilities of phraseological units. But the language material so attractive to any writer or publicist is not so easy to make to serve effectively and with dignity. The stylistic functioning of idiomatic expressions has one extremely important feature, which the outstanding linguist, Professor B.L. Larin, wrote about in his time. "As the light of the morning is reflected in a drop of dew", so, according to the scientist, phraseological units reflect not only the historically formed views of the people, but also the social system, the ideology of the era that brings them to life.

In 1955, the collection "Winged Words" by N. S. Ashukin and M.G. Ashukina (3rd ed. M., 1966). The book contains a large number of literary quotes and figurative expressions, arranged in alphabetical order. The presence of an alphabetical index at the end of the book allows you to use it as a reference.

Russian phraseology is presented with great completeness in the published in 1967 under the editorship of A.I. Molotkov's "Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language", containing over 4,000 entries (3rd ed. 1978; 4th ed. 1986). Phraseologisms are given with possible options components, an interpretation of the meaning is given and the forms of use in speech are indicated. Each of the meanings is illustrated by quotations from fiction... In some cases, etymological information is given.

In 1975, a dictionary-reference book "Stable verb-nominal phrases of the Russian language" by V.M. Deribas. This manual contains over 5000 stable phrases, arranged according to their two components (verb - noun). In 1980, School phrasebook Russian language "V.P. Zhukov, containing about 2000 of the most common phraseological units found in the literature and oral speech... In 1997, the "Dictionary of Russian language periphrases (based on newspaper journalism)" (AB Novikov) was published, in which the turns of the type in an adam suit (naked), blue helmets (UN armed forces), black gold (oil) were given and etc.

Phraseology in the broad sense of the term also includes proverbs and sayings. The most complete collection of Russian proverbs is the collection "Proverbs of the Russian people" by V.I. Dahl, published in 1861-1862. (reprinted in 1957). In 1966, the "Dictionary of Russian Proverbs and Sayings" by V.P. Zhukov (3rd ed. M., 1967), containing about 1000 proverbs and sayings, arranged alphabetically by the first word. In 1981, the "Dictionary-reference book on Russian phraseology" by R.I. Yarantsev (2nd ed. M., 1985), which included about 800 phraseological units.

Types of phraseological units

The study of the entire set of phraseological units of the Russian language involves their classification according to the most diverse criteria. V.V. Vinogradov, proposed one of the most famous and widespread classifications in linguistics, based on varying degrees of idiomaticity (non-motivation) of the components in the phraseological unit.

There are three types of phraseological units.

1. Phraseological adhesions- stable combinations, the generalized integral meaning of which is not derived from the meaning of their constituent components, that is, it is not motivated by them from the point of view of state of the art vocabulary: get into a mess, beat the thumbs, don't hesitate, eat the dog, out of hand, out of hand, how to drink, was not, wherever it went and under. We do not know what a "glitch" is (as in the old days they called a machine for weaving networks), we do not understand the word thumbs up(wooden blanks for spoons, the manufacture of which did not require skilled labor), we do not think about the meaning of outdated grammatical forms nothing (not at all), hesitating (doubting)... However, the integral meaning of these phraseological units is clear to every Russian person. Thus, etymological analysis helps to clarify the motivation of the semantics of modern phraseological fusion. However, the roots of phraseological units sometimes go back to such distant times that linguists do not come to an unambiguous conclusion about their origin1.

Phraseological splices can include obsolete words and grammatical forms: joke to say (not a joke!), boron cheese flared up (not raw!), which also contributes to the semantic indecomposability of phrases.

2. Phraseological unity - stable combinations, the generalized holistic meaning of which is partly related to the semantics of their constituent components used in a figurative meaning go to a dead end, be in full swing, go with the flow, hold a stone in your bosom, take it in your hands, bite your tongue. Such phraseological units can have "external homonyms", that is, phrases that coincide with them in composition, used in a direct (non-metaphorical) meaning: We had to to go with the flow rivers for five days. I got so thrown on a bump that I bit my tongue and suffered from pain.

1 See, for example, the differences in the interpretation of phraseological units for a coward to celebrate in B. A Larin and N. A. Meshchersky in the book: Mokienko V. M. Slavic phraseology. M., 1989.S. 18-19.

Unlike phraseological adhesions that have lost their figurative meaning in the language, phraseological unity is always perceived as metaphors or other tropes. So, among them, one can distinguish stable comparisons (like a bath leaf, like on pins and needles, like a cow licking a saddle with her tongue, like a cow's saddle), metaphorical epithets (tinned throat, iron grip), hyperbole (mountains of gold, a sea of pleasure, as far as the eye can see), litoty (like a poppy seed, grab onto straw)... There are also phraseological unities, which are paraphrases, that is, descriptive figurative expressions that replace one word: distant lands- "far", there are not enough stars from the sky- "narrow-minded", oblique fathom in the shoulders- "mighty, strong".

Some phraseological unity owes its expressiveness to a pun, a joke, which is their basis: a hole from a donut, from a vest of a sleeve, not himself, without a year a week, stabbed without a knife... The expressiveness of others is based on the play of antonyms: neither alive nor dead, neither give nor take, nor a candle to God, not a damn poker, more or less; on the collision of synonyms: from the fire to the fire, the mind went beyond the mind, pouring from empty to empty, around and around. Phraseological unity gives speech a special expressiveness and folk coloration.

3. Phraseological combinations - stable turns, the meaning of which is motivated by the semantics of their constituent components, one of which has a phraseologically related meaning: to lower the gaze (head) (in the language there are no stable phrases “to lower the hand”, “lower the leg”). The verb to lower in the meaning "to lower" has a phraseologically related meaning and is not combined with other words. Another example: a sensitive question (situation, position, circumstance). Adjective ticklish means "requiring great discretion, tact", but the possibilities of its compatibility are limited: one cannot say " delicate proposal "," delicate decision" etc.

The phraseologically related meaning of the components of such phraseological units is realized only in a strictly defined lexical environment. We are speaking the Velvet season but we won't say " velvet month ", -" velvet autumn "; a general epidemic, but not "widespread morbidity", "common rhinitis"; head-on arrests, but not "universal rehabilitation", "universal conviction" etc.

Phraseological combinations often vary frown brows - frown brows; touch on a sense of pride - to hurt a sense of pride; gain victory- to gain top, be patient crash- be patient fiasco (defeat); fear takes - anger (envy) takes, burn from impatience- burn out out of shame etc.

In speech, there are cases of contamination of the components of phraseological combinations: "plays a role" - "plays a role"(instead of matters - plays a role), "take action" - "take steps"(instead of take action - take steps), "give value"(from pay attention - give importance), "make a difference"(from pay attention - give importance). Such errors are associative in nature and are perceived as a sharp violation of the norm.

This classification of phraseological units is often supplemented, highlighting, after N.M.Shansky, the so-called phraseological expressions, which are also stable, but consist of words with free meanings, that is, they differ in semantic articulation: Happy hours are not observed; To be or not to be; Fresh giving, but hard to believe. This group of phraseological units includes winged expressions, proverbs, sayings. In addition, many phraseological expressions have a fundamentally important syntactic feature: they are not phrases, but whole sentences.

The desire to separate phraseological expressions from phraseological units proper prompts linguists to look for a more accurate name for them: sometimes they are called phraseological combinations, phraseological expressions... Clarifying the concept, sometimes not all proverbs and sayings are proposed to be attributed to combinations of this type, but only those that have acquired a generalized metaphorical meaning and are perceived as units close to the phraseological units themselves: man in a case, from the ship to the ball, after the rain on Thursday, the finest hour etc.

Thus, in the selection of the fourth, the last of the considered, groups of phraseological units, scientists did not achieve unity and certainty. The discrepancies are explained by the diversity and heterogeneity of the linguistic units themselves, which are traditionally included in phraseology.

A different classification of phraseological units is based on their general grammatical features... At the same time, the following typologies of phraseological units of the Russian language are proposed.

1. Typology based on grammatical similarity of component composition phraseological units. The following types are distinguished:

1) a combination of an adjective with a noun: cornerstone, vicious circle, swan song;
2) a combination of a noun in the nominative case with a noun in the genitive case: point of view, stumbling block, reins of government, bone of contention;
3) a combination of a noun in the nominative case with nouns in indirect cases with a preposition: blood and milk, soul to soul, it's in the bag;
4) a combination of the prepositional-case form of a noun with an adjective: on a living thread, according to old memory, on a short leg;
5) a combination of a verb with a noun (with and without a preposition): look around, sow doubts, pick up, take up the mind, lead by the nose;
6) a combination of a verb with an adverb: get into a mess, walk barefoot, see through;
7) a combination of an adverb with a noun: reluctantly, reluctantly, headlong.

2. A typology based on conformity syntactic functions phraseological units and parts of speech with which they can be replaced. The following types of phraseological units are distinguished:

1) nominal phraseological units: cornerstone, swan song. In a sentence, they perform the functions of a subject, predicate, object; by the nature of relations with other words in combination, they can manage any member and be controlled;
2) verb phraseological units: lead by the nose, take a look... In a sentence, they play the role of a predicate; in combination with other words can be agreed, managed and controlled;
3) adjective phraseological units: oblique fathom in the shoulders, on your mind, blood and milk, on fish fur. They matter qualitative characteristics and, like adjectives, act in a sentence in the function of the definition or nominal part of the predicate;
4) adverbial, or adverbial, phraseological units: on a living thread, slipshod, reluctantly, eye to eye... They, like adverbs, characterize the quality of the action and play the role of circumstances in the sentence;
5) interjection phraseological units: break a leg!; hell no!; neither a bottom nor a tire !; good hour! Like interjections, such phraseological units express will, feelings, acting as separate undivided sentences.

You can systematize phraseological units according to other criteria. For example, from the point of view sound organization all phraseological units are divided into ordered according to their phonics and neutral. The former combine phraseological units with a pronounced rhythmic organization: neither a stake nor a yard, quieter than water below the grass, nor a crowing; with rhyming elements: Fedot is not the same, as naked as a falcon; with sound repeats(assonances and alliterations): little scherch, keep your mouth shut, and this and that, here and there.

An interesting classification of phraseological units according to their origin... In this case, it is necessary to highlight the primordial Russian phraseology, which will include common Slavic phraseological units (as naked as a falcon, neither fish nor meat, take for a living), East Slavic (neither stake nor yard, under King Peas, put a pig), Russians proper ( with a gulkin's nose, with the whole world, put it on the back burner, all over Ivanovo, reel in fishing rods, pull the gimp). The first have correspondences in other Slavic languages, the second - only in Ukrainian and Belarusian, and the third are characteristic only for the Russian language.

A special group includes phraseological units borrowed from the Old Church Slavonic language: forbidden fruit, the promised land, the fiend of hell, manna from heaven, a parable in the town, daily bread, in the sweat of the brow, bone by bone, a voice crying in the wilderness, Babylonian pandemonium. Their source was Christian books (Bible, Gospel) translated into Old Slavonic.

A significant part is made up of phraseological units that came to the Russian language from ancient mythology: Achilles' heel, Gordian knot, Procrustean bed, sword of Damocles, Augean stables, dragon laws, tantalum flour, between Scylla and Charybdis, wheel of fortune, gardens of Semiramis. Most of these phraseological units are known in other languages, so the international character of winged combinations, rooted in antiquity, should be emphasized.

Many phraseological units were borrowed from European languages at a later time. These are mostly winged quotes from world famous works of art: To be or not to be(W. Shakespeare); Give up hope everyone who enters here(A. Dante); storm in a teacup(C. Montesquieu), Princess on the Pea(G. X. Andersen). Some winged words are attributed to great scientists, thinkers: And yet she turns(G. Galilei); All I know is that I know nothing(Socrates); I think means I exist(R. Descartes).

Some phraseological units are tracing copies - a literal translation from the source language: blue stocking, time is money, killing time (French tuer le temps), honeymoon (French la lune de miel), breaking on the head (German aufs Haupt schlagen ), that's where the dog is buried (German: Da ist der Hund begraben).

A phraseological combination (collocation) is a stable turnover, which includes words both with a free meaning and phraseologically connected, not free (used only in this combination). Phraseological combinations are stable turns, but their integral meaning follows from the meanings of the individual words that make them up.

Unlike phraseological mergers and unities, combinations are semantically divisible - their composition allows for limited synonymous substitution or replacement of individual words, while one of the members of the phraseological combination turns out to be constant, while the others are variable: for example, in phrases burn with love, hate, shame, impatience word burn up is a permanent member with a phraseological related meaning.

As the variable members of the combination, a limited range of words can be used, determined by semantic relations within the language system: for example, a phraseological combination burn with passion is a hyperonym in relation to combinations of the type burn from ..., at the same time, due to varying the variable part, the formation of synonymous series is possible burn with shame, shame, shame, burn out with jealousy, thirst for revenge.

Another example: English. to show one's teeth"snap back" (literally - "show your teeth"). Semantic independence in this combination is manifested by the word one’s"someone's". It can be replaced with words my, your, his etc.

Phraseological expressions

Often a phraseological expression is a complete sentence with a statement, edification or conclusion. Examples of such phraseological expressions are proverbs and aphorisms. If there is no edification in the phraseological expression or there are elements of understatement, then this is a saying or a winged phrase. Another source of phraseological expressions is professional speech. The category of phraseological expressions also includes speech stamps - stable formulas like good luck, see you soon etc.

Many linguists do not attribute phraseological expressions to phraseological units, since they are devoid of the main features of phraseological units.

Pleonasm

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Pleonasm(from ancient Greek πλεονασμός - excessive, excess) - a turn of speech, in which there is a duplication of some element of meaning; the presence of several linguistic forms expressing the same meaning, within a complete segment of speech or text; as well as the linguistic expression itself, in which there is such duplication.

The term "pleonasm" comes from ancient style and grammar. Ancient authors give different assessments of pleonasm. Quintilian, Donatus, Diomedes define pleonasm as an overload of speech with unnecessary words, therefore, as a stylistic defect. On the contrary, Dionysius of Halicarnassus defines this figure as the enrichment of speech with words, at first glance superfluous, but in reality giving it clarity, strength, rhythm, persuasiveness, pathos, impracticable in speech.

Stylistic figures close to pleonasm are tautologies and, in part, paraphrases. Relationship of terms pleonasm and tautology is understood in different ways by linguists. Pleonasm is a linguistic term, tautology is both linguistic and logical (although in logic this word is used in a completely different sense).

Examples of fusion and unity of phraseological units. Phraseological combinations: examples

Phraseological adhesions (idioms)

Phraseological unity

Phraseological combinations

Phraseological expressions

Melchuk's classification

see also

Notes (edit)

Literature

Links

Phraseological combination of words

Types of phraseological units

Phraseological expressions

Pleonasm