LECTURE 2. LANGUAGE NORM AND ITS FEATURES. OPTIONS, TYPES OF NORMS

Plan:

The concept of a language norm

Norm options.

Norm types.

4. Orthoepy as a science

5. Accent options

1. The Russian language unites the nation and at the same time is an integral and important part of our national culture, reflecting the history of the people and their spiritual quest. Modern Russianists, and in particular, experts in the culture of speech, rightly say that the Russian language, reflecting our national virtues, no less clearly shows all our troubles. The problem of the correctness of Russian speech, compliance with norms literary language are widely discussed in newspapers and magazines, in radio programs. Deviations from the norms in the public speech of politicians, radio and television announcers, a decrease in the general level of literacy of the population, and especially young people, are condemned. At the same time, there is not a single area of ​​human knowledge, human activity, for which a bad, confusing, illiterate professional or everyday speech of a performer would be a boon. A graduate of any university - technical or humanitarian, must be literate, have a culture of speech.

The most important quality of speech culture is its correctness, in other words, its compliance with language norms.

What is invested in this concept? Let's offer a definition.

The norm of the language (literary norm) is the rules for the use of language means, the uniform, exemplary, generally recognized use of the elements of the literary language in a certain period of its development.

The linguistic norm is a complex and rather contradictory phenomenon: it dialectically combines a number of opposite features. We list the most important of them and give the necessary commentary.

1. Relative sustainability and stability language norms are necessary conditions for ensuring the balance of the language system for a long time. At the same time, the norm is a historical phenomenon, which is explained by the social nature of the language, which is constantly developing along with the creator and native speaker - society itself.

The historical nature of the norm is due to its dynamism, change. What was the norm in the last century and even 10-15 years ago, today may become a deviation from it. If we turn to dictionaries and literary sources of 100 years ago, we can see how the norms of stress, pronunciation, grammatical forms of words, their (words) meaning and use have changed. For example, in the 19th century they said: cabinet(instead of closet), zhyra(instead of heat), strict(instead of strict), quiet(instead of quiet), Alexandrinsky theater (instead of Alexandrinsky), returnedhis(instead of returning); at the ball, weather, trains, this beautiful paleto(t) (coat); certainly(instead of necessarily), need to(instead of necessary) etc.

2. On the one hand, the norm is characterized prevalence and obligatory nature compliance with certain rules, without which it would be impossible to "manage" the elements of speech. On the other hand, one can also talk about "linguistic pluralism" the simultaneous existence of several options (doublets) that are recognized as normative. This is a consequence of the interaction of traditions and innovations, stability and variability, subjective (the author of the speech) and objective (language).

3. Basic sources of language norms- these are, first of all, works of classical literature, exemplary speech of highly educated native speakers, generally accepted, widespread modern usage, as well as scientific research. However, recognizing the importance literary tradition and source authority, should also be kept in mind author's individuality able to violate the norms, which, of course, is justified in certain situations of communication.

In conclusion, we emphasize that the literary norm is objective: it is not invented by scientists, but reflects the regular processes and phenomena occurring in the language. The norms of the language are obligatory for both oral and writing. It must be understood that the norm does not divide linguistic means into “good” and “bad”. It indicates the appropriateness of their use in a particular communicative situation.

In general, the literary norm enshrined all the best that was created in speech behavior representatives of this society. It is necessary because it helps to preserve the integrity and intelligibility of the literary language, protects it from vernacular, dialectisms, and jargon.

The modern literary language, not without the influence of the media, noticeably changes its status: the norm becomes less rigid, variance is allowed; it focuses not on inviolability and universality, but rather on communicative expediency. Therefore, the norm today is often not so much a ban on something as a choice.

The concept of a norm does not exist without its violation. But the specificity of the cultural and speech norm is that it does not provide for any sanctions as opposed to, say, legal norms or norms of social behavior. Meanwhile, only the actual knowledge of cultural and speech norms, their approval and dissemination in society contributes to the adequate development of the language.

2. The change in language norms is preceded by the appearance of their variants (doublets), which actually already exist in speech and are used by native speakers. Variants of the norms are reflected in special dictionaries, such as the Orthoepic Dictionary, the Dictionary of the Difficulties of the Russian Language, the Dictionary of Word Combination, etc.

Exist 3 degrees of normativity:

– norm of the 1st degree- strict, rigid, not allowing options (for example, put, but not lie down; t, call but not calls; socks, but not sock);

– norm of the 2nd degree- less strict, allowing equal options, combined in a dictionary entry by the union "and" (for example, right and ,  right blinds(cf. and pl.), immoral and immoral);

– norm of the 3rd degree- the most mobile, where one option is the main (preferred), and the second, although acceptable, is less desirable. In such cases, the second option is preceded by a note "additional"(permissible), sometimes in combination with stylistic marks or only a stylistic mark: "colloquial"(colloquial), "poetic."(poetic), "prof."(professional) etc. For example: bank sprat(additional sprats),cup tea(additional expansion tea), compass(prof. compass).

The norm of the 1st degree is called imperative norm, norms of the 2nd and 3rd degree - dispositive rules.

At present, the process of changing language norms has become especially active and noticeable against the backdrop of events of historical and political significance, economic reforms, changes in the social sphere, science, and technology. It should be remembered that the language norm is not a dogma: depending on the conditions, goals and objectives of communication, on the characteristics of a particular style, a deviation from the norm is possible. However, these deviations should reflect the variants of the norms that exist in the literary language.

3. In accordance with the main levels of the language and the areas of use of language tools, the following are distinguished types of norms.

1. Orthoepic norms(gr. correct speech) - the norms of stress and pronunciation. Spelling errors interfere with the perception of the speaker's speech. The social role of correct pronunciation is very great, since knowledge orthoepic norms greatly facilitates the communication process.

In order not to make mistakes in speech, you need to use special dictionaries, such as the Russian Dictionary of Stress, Orthoepic Dictionary, Dictionary of Difficulties oral speech" and etc.

Options that are outside the literary norm are accompanied by prohibitive marks: “ no rivers."(Not recommended), "not right."(not right), "rude."(rough), "bran."(swear words), etc.

2. lexical rules, or norms of word usage are: a) the use of the word in the meanings that it has in the modern language; b) knowledge of its lexical and grammatical compatibility; c) the correct choice of a word from a synonymic series; d) the appropriateness of its use in a particular speech situation.

3. Morphological norms regulate the formation and use of grammatical forms of the word. Note that morphological norms primarily include: norms for determining the grammatical gender of some nouns, norms for the formation plural nouns, norms of formation and use of case forms of nouns, adjectives, numerals and pronouns; norms for the formation of comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives and adverbs; norms for the formation and use of verb forms, etc.

4. Syntactic norms associated with the rules for the construction and use of phrases and various sentence models. When building a phrase, it is necessary first of all to remember about management; when building a sentence, one should take into account the role of word order, follow the rules for using adverbial phrases, the laws of constructing a complex sentence, etc.

Morphological and syntactic norms are often combined under the general name - grammar rules.

5. Spelling norms (spelling norms) and punctuation norms do not allow distortion of the visual image of a word, sentence or text. To write correctly, you need to know the generally accepted rules of spelling (writing a word or its grammatical form) and punctuation (punctuation marks).

4 . Each literary language exists in two forms - oral and written - and is characterized by the presence of mandatory norms - lexical, grammatical and stylistic. At the same time, the written form of the language is also subject to spelling and punctuation norms (i.e., spelling rules), and the oral form is subject to pronunciation, or orthoepic, norms.

Word orthoepy- Greek origin: orthos - correct, epos - speech. It denotes both the set of pronunciation rules and the science that studies these rules. Orthoepy is the doctrine of the norms of oral speech: the rules for the pronunciation of individual sounds and their combinations, the patterns of stress.

Good literary pronunciation is one of the important indicators of the general cultural level of a modern person. "The correct pronunciation of a word is no less important than the correct spelling. It is known that incorrect pronunciation distracts the listener's attention from the content of the statement, thereby making it difficult to exchange information ... The role of correct pronunciation has especially increased in our time, when oral public speech at meetings and conferences , on radio and television has become a means of communication between thousands and millions of people".

It is especially important to spread the correct Russian literary pronunciation, since the Russian language is not only the language of the Russian people, but also a means of interethnic communication of all peoples, Russia and one of the international languages ​​of our time.

This is facilitated by special reference and teaching aids, scientific and popular science publications, regular radio and television programs.

5. Accentological variants within the literary norm - an inevitable consequence of the evolution of the language. Usually, they do not differ in either semantic or grammatical meaning. For example: m s shlenie - thinking e, b a rust - barge a, born - born, flooded - flooded, true - true, to the hut - to the hut, to the bridge - to the bridge, etc. There are a lot of such equivalent (in meaning, but not in use) accentological doublets in modern Russian - more than 5000 commonly used words." The variability of stress provides a less abrupt and painful transition from the old literary norm to the new one. For example, the accent is graveyard and was generally accepted in the literary language of the 19th century, new version The cemetery began to gradually come into use at the end of the 19th century. old version and is still used in poetry today. In the XVIII - XIX centuries. the current stress was the norm a p. Oscillations (turner and turner) began at the end of the 19th century. and continued until the 1930s. 20th century Now everyone says t about kar, but you can still meet b about ndar and bond a p.

The reasons for the change in emphasis are different. Sometimes with literary rival dialect accent (cf. lit. chum salmon and Far Eastern chum salmon). The stress fluctuates in some little-known, exotic words (pimy - pimy, high boots - high boots).

Variants of stress are common in many loanwords, which associated with the influence of different source languages, and in some cases - and languages ​​​​- "intermediaries . So, in the 30s. the variants revolver and revolver were normative (later - only revolver), since this word was erected to different source languages ​​- French and English. Borrowed in the 18th century. from the German language the word alcohol was pronounced alcohol, but subsequently influenced French alcohol began to be pronounced. Under the influence of the Polish language, which was an intermediary in borrowing, the stress in the words document, pulpit, heretic, climate fluctuated (now only document, heretic, climate).

Some accentological variants originate or persist in a professional environment : agony (for doctors), atom, atomic (for physicists), spark (for drivers), complex numbers (for mathematicians), report (for sailors), chassis (for pilots), mania (for doctors). In the speech of the miners, the obsolete "in the modern literary language, the emphasis is mining, in the speech of the sailors - the compass. Many obsolete stresses are preserved in poetry. From professional speech came to the literary language of the accent wind, text, cutter, boy. The accentological features of borrowed words are often ignored if the borrowing is carried out with the help of an intermediary language. So, through Latin in the XVI-XVIII centuries. such dissimilar names as England, France, Nor-ge were borrowed, which in Russian received the same type of structural and accentological design: England, France, Norway. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. through the French language, many words were borrowed from various Western European languages, which received in Russian the stress on the last syllable, characteristic of the French language, including English Liverpool, Milton; Hamlet, Shakespeare, Newton, etc.

Words borrowed through Turkic media usually have an accent on the last syllable, even if this accent does not correspond to the original one: Mohammed, Akhmet (cf. Arabic Ahmad, Muhammad).

For the Russian language, the stress is most typical on the last two syllables, therefore, most often, the stress of the source language remains unchanged in the words of French, Polish and Turkic languages. Words borrowed from the Germanic, Baltic and Finno-Ugric languages, in which the stress on the first syllable prevails, are perceived as borrowed for a longer time, and in the process of mastering the Russian language, they often experience fluctuations in stress. In some borrowed words, fluctuations in stress last for centuries, as they are supported by vocabulary tradition and poetic speech.

In the XX century. the number of stress fluctuations in borrowed words compared to the 19th century. decreased, which indicates the development of their Russian language.

At present, new fluctuations arise in previously borrowed words, due to the desire to bring the stress of a foreign word closer to the stress in the source language (cf.: Hamlet -> Hamlet, Los Angeles--Los Angeles, Peru-Peru, Newton-Newton, Bacon-Bacon, etc.).

"Newly borrowed words, as a rule, follow the stress of the source language, because in most cases the time for oscillations to occur in them has not yet come. This must be preceded by a certain period during which the words must "take root" in the language, become known to most speakers language and "find" an analogy among the words included in the vocabulary system.

The influence of territorial and social dialects, interlingual contacts, etc., are extralinguistic factors of change and fluctuations in stress. However, intralinguistic reasons turn out to be more important: the influence of analogy, the tendency to dissimilarize grammatical forms and increase the distinctive role of word stress.

Under the influence of analogy, the stress in short forms of passive participles is leveled out: feminine forms are increasingly pronounced with emphasis on the basis, like all other forms, and not on the ending, as they were pronounced before: sold, taken, inclined (instead of the only permissible previously sold, taken , inclined).

The stress in derivative stems is increasingly moving away from the stress in generating ones: whirlwind - swirl (in dictionaries it is also indicated to swirl), luxury - luxurious, tiger - tiger, brake - brake (old stresses are luxurious, tiger, brake), think - thinker, save - deliverer, comfort - comforter (in the XVIII - early XIX c.: thinker, deliverer, comforter). The emphasis was shifted to the suffix -enie in the words calculation, straightening, purpose, melting (in the dictionaries of the 18th century: calculation, straightening, purpose, melting). The original stress of the word intention, provision, concentration is retained, although violations of the literary norm are common: provision, concentration, intention. The stress in the words thinking, discovery, vulgarization, simplification (a linguistic term) and simplification fluctuates within the limits of the literary norm.

A very important pattern of stress change has been established: Russian stress in polysyllabic words tends to the center of the word, and the most common words do not have more than three unstressed syllables in a row.

Obsolete accentological options are fixed in stable phrases, in phraseological units: run your hand over the forehead (what is on the forehead, what is on the forehead), hang it on the wall (climb the wall), the lip is not a fool (but the lower lip), the onset of morning (from morning to morning), twelve languages ​​(twelve languages), about versts (two versts), concerned about the fate of his sons (what fates!), cooks porridge (cooks his head), to horses (team: on horses!), bought a goose (like water off a goose), did not know the need (there is no need) .

At the same time, the consolidation of accentological variants for different values polysemantic words are often unstable. Increasingly, the distinction between options such as rolls a barrel and rolls on a bicycle, knocks down and brings down snow, broke through the door and struck the hour, etc. is lost, expanding the scope of use of a more productive option (rolls, knocks, struck).

Pronunciation of combinations -CHN- and -SHN-

The combination ch, as a rule, is pronounced in accordance with the spelling, i.e. [ch]: precise, durable. However, in some words, ch is pronounced as [shn]: of course - horse [shn] o, boring - boring [shn] o. In some cases, pronunciation options are acceptable: bulo[sh]aya - bulo[ch]and I. In new words ch pronounced like [ ch]: filming[ch]oh, then[ch]th etc. In some words, the pronunciation [ sh] is deprecated: creamy - plum[sh]th, brown - measles[sh]left(*):

Combinations with unpronounceable consonants.

With the confluence of several consonants between vowels in some combinations, one of the consonants is not pronounced. Such cases are accompanied in the dictionary by the corresponding notes.

1. In combinations stn, zdn and stl consonants are not pronounced [ t] and [ d]: charming - lovely [sn] th, reed - tro [sn] ik, private trader - cha [sn] ik, ladder - l [sn] nitsa, regional - cloud [sn] oh, sixteen - six [sn] eleven, peer - sver [sn] ik, starry - stellar [know] th, late - after [know] o, idle - right [know] th, happy - happy[sl]ivey, envious - envy[sl]willow, compassionate - sting[sl]willow, conscientious - owl[sl]willow. In a number of words belonging to the book style, in combinations stn, zdn and stl consonants [ t] and [ d] are not completely lost: acet ma, glist ny, compost ny, hollyt ny, withoutd on, free of charged ny, braidt left, post lat.

2. Combinations stsk, ntsk and ndsk pronounced with the consonant [ c with] in place of combinations ts and ds: tourist - turi[c with ]cue, racist - race[c with ]cue, amateurish - amateurish[c with ]cue, Irish - Irish[c with ]cue, Icelandic – islan[c with ]cue, scottish - scottish[c with ]cue.

3. In combinations stk, zdk and ntc consonant pronunciation [ t] is saved: jesst cuet ka, weightt ka, hangt ka, trip - poe[witht to]a, bulky - thunderous[witht to]uh, graduate studentt ka, laboratoryt ka, waitert ka, studentt ka. Consonant [ t] is not pronounced in a borrowed word that has long been mastered in colloquial speech dutch (oven) - golla[nk]a.

4. In combinations RDC and rdch consonant [ d] is not pronounced: heart is[rc]e, core - se[rc]evina, heart - behold[RF]ishko.

5. In combinations vstv and lvl first sound [ in] is not pronounced in words feeling hello and keep silent and also in their derivatives: feeling - chu[st]in, feel - chu[st]wow, sensitive - chu[st]poignant, sensual[st]venous; hello - hello[st]wow hello hello[st]howl; be silent - be silent[st]in-vat.

In other cases, in place of the first in in combination vstv pronounced [ f]: obvious - me[f]stvenny.

6. Combined lnts not pronounced consonant [ l]: sun - with[nc]e.

4. AT words of foreign origin, which are not widely used, there are specific features of pronunciation. for example, in words from different areas science, technology, politics, culture, as well as proper names, there may be a lack of qualitative reduction of unstressed vowels.

1. In the first and second pre-stressed syllables, at the absolute beginning of a word, as well as in stressed syllables at the absolute end of a word after consonants or vowels in place of a letter about pronounced vowel [ about] without the reduction characteristic of Russian words: b[about]a, b[about]rdo, with[about]no, G[about]gene, B[about]dler, b[about]lero, r[about]to[about]ko, M[about]nparnas, M[about]passan,[about]burrow,[about]tello,[about]ttava, t[about]rnad[about], vét[about], credit[about], Karuz[about], Castres[about], Mexico[about], adazi[about], trú[about], how[about], for[about], Toki[about], Fideli[about].

2. In some little-used proper names in pre-stressed syllables, combinations of letters oh, oh, oh, oh and wow are pronounced as they are written, i.e. without reduction: the island of Aogasuma[about]gasuma, city of Oaxaca -[oa]haka, island of Moorea - M[oo]rea, Lourival - L[OU]rival, luoravetlány - l[wow]ravetlans.

3. In non-Russified borrowed words in place of letters e and I unreduced vowels can be pronounced in all prestressed syllables: legato -[l'e]gato, Vespucci -[w'e]sleep, Nero -[AD]ron, gyar -[g'a]Er, Lyashko -[l'a]school, genocide -[g'e]notsud, Benvenýto –[b'env'e]nuto, lambiosis -[l'a]mbioz, Lyatoshunsky -[l'a]Toshno.

4. After [ well], [sh] and [ c] in some borrowed words, an unstressed letter e can be pronounced without reduction: masterpiece - w[uh]Devre, Chenier - W[uh]no, ginseng - well[uh]Nshén, Gerard - F[uh]rár, time trouble - c[uh]ytnot, centuria - c[uh]ntýria, Ceres – C[uh]rera, mielut - mi[uh]lut, piety - pi[uh]tét, chevrolet - w[uh]role, Sheri-dan - Sh[uh]ridan, Gerardin - F[uh]arden.

5. At the beginning of words of foreign origin, as well as after a vowel in place of a letter uh the sound is pronounced [ uh]: ek-ran -[uh]crane, ether -[uh]fur, eucalyptus -[uh]vkalypt, Evry-duka -[uh]vridka, dielectric - di[uh]lecturer, coefficient -to[uh]Officer, Buenventura - Bu[uh]inventory. The pronunciation in these cases of the sound [ and] is wrong, as it gives speech a reduced stylistic coloring.

6. In most words of foreign origin, consonants before e soften. However, in many non-Russified borrowed words, consonants before e do not soften. The labial consonants [ p, b, c, f, m] and dental consonants [ t, d, s, s, n, r]. A special mark is given next to such words in the dictionary. Recently, there has been a tendency to preserve the hardness of the consonant, if such is the pronunciation in the source language. In the prefix de- there is a tendency to soft pronunciation. Some words allow two consonant pronunciations. However, unambiguous rules for the pronunciation of hard-soft consonants before e it is impossible to cite, each case should be checked in a dictionary and memorized.

Questions for self-control:

1. What is the norm of the language and what are its features?

2. What is the inconsistency of the norm?

LANGUAGE NORM, ITS ROLE IN THE FUNCTIONING OF THE LITERARY LANGUAGE. NORM TYPES.

The concept of "culture of speech"

Our discipline is called "Russian language and culture of speech". We have been speaking Russian since childhood. What is the culture of speech?

The concept of "culture of speech" is capacious and multifaceted. In general terms, it can be defined as the ability to clearly and clearly express one's thoughts, to speak competently, the ability not only to attract attention with one's speech, but also to influence listeners. Possession of a culture of speech is a peculiar characteristic of professional suitability for people involved in the most various types activities: diplomats, lawyers, politicians, school and university teachers, radio and television workers, managers, journalists, etc.

The culture of speech as a special linguistic discipline has its own scientific definition: it is the quality of speech that provides the maximum effective communication subject to linguistic, communicative and ethical norms. As follows from this definition, the culture of speech includes three components: linguistic, communicative and ethical. Let's consider them.

Language component of speech culture

The linguistic component of the culture of speech provides, first of all, its normativity, i.e. observance of the norms of the literary language, which are perceived by its speakers as an "ideal" or a correct sample. The language norm is the central concept of speech culture, and the language component of speech culture is considered the main one. The question of a norm arises when there are two or more contenders for it, for example: a normative kilo é tr or non-normative keel ó meter, normative great danes ó R and non-normative d ó dialect etc.

The concept of a language norm

Language norm are the traditional rules for using speech means, i.e. rules of exemplary and generally recognized pronunciation, use of words, phrases and sentences.

The norm is obligatory and covers all aspects of the language. There are written and oral norms.

Written language norms First of all, these are spelling and punctuation norms. For example, writing H in the word workerNick, and HH in the word birthday boy obeys certain spelling rules. And setting a dash in a sentence Moscow is capital of Russia explained by the punctuation norms of the modern Russian language.

oral rules subdivided into grammatical, lexical and orthoepic.

Grammar norms are the rules for using forms different parts speech, as well as the rules for constructing sentences.

The most common grammatical errors associated with the use of the gender of nouns are: railroad rail, French shampoo, big callus, registered parcel post, patent leather shoes. However rail, shampoo - it's a noun male, a corn, parcel post, shoe - feminine, so you should say: railway rail, french shampoo and a large callus, a registered parcel post, a patent leather shoe.

Lexical norms These are the rules for using words in speech. An error is, for example, the use of the verb lay down instead of put. Even though the verbs lay down and put have the same meaning put - this is a normative literary word, and lay down- spacious. The following expressions are in error: I put the book back He puts the folder on the table etc. In these sentences, you need to use the verb put: I put the books back, He puts the folder on the table.

Orthoepic norms are pronunciation norms of oral speech. They are studied by a special section of linguistics - orthoepia (from the Greek. orthos- "correct" and epos- "speech").

Compliance with the norms of pronunciation is essential for the quality of our speech. Spelling errors cat á log, sound ó nit, means á and others always interfere with perceiving the content of speech: the listener's attention is distracted and the statement in its entirety is not perceived

About stress in words should be consulted in the "Orthoepic Dictionary". The pronunciation of a word is also recorded in spelling and explanatory dictionaries. Pronunciation that corresponds to orthoepic norms facilitates and speeds up the process of communication, therefore the social role of correct pronunciation is very great, especially at present in our society, where oral speech has become the means of the widest communication at various meetings, conferences, forums.

The diagram below shows Various types norms.

Introduction

A linguistic norm is a historically conditioned set of commonly used language means, as well as the rules for their selection and use, recognized by society as the most suitable in a particular historical period. The language norm is the result of a collective understanding of the language, but is based on the private, individual use of language means in the process of speech activity of each native speaker separately.

norm linguistic literary codification

language norm. Aspects and features

One of the main features of the literary language is its normalization, i.e. the existence of norms.

Language norms(norms of the literary language, literary norms) are the rules for the use of language means in a certain period of development of the literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. A norm is an example of a uniform, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences). A linguistic phenomenon is considered normative if it is characterized by such features as: compliance with the structure of the language; mass and regular reproducibility in the process of speech activity of the majority of speakers; public approval and recognition. Norms help the literary language to maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional slang, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.

The linguistic norm is defined and studied in at least two aspects.

First of all, the language norm is understood as stable variants of language units fixed in the process of communication. In this case, the norm determines what is widespread in a given period of development of the national language, describes the options that are often found in speech. With this approach, the language norm reflects the words actually used in the language, their forms and pronunciation features, as well as syntactic constructions (sentences). Thus, the norm understood takes into account the frequency of pronouncing the variant sounds (compared to ringing), the variant hny (compared to them), but in no way evaluates the correctness or incorrectness of the variants. One can draw an analogy between such an understanding of the language norm and an indicator of the central tendency in statistics. Just as the indicator of the central trend in statistics does not reflect the assessment of the phenomenon, the most common variants of language units detected by the language norm are not evaluated.

Secondly, the language norm is considered not only as a linguistic, but also as a socio-historical category. In this case, the norm reflects the social aspect of communication, which is manifested not only in the selection and description of linguistic phenomena, but primarily in the system of their assessments. The variants of language units found in speech are not considered as frequent or rare, but as correct or erroneous, appropriate or inappropriate, beautiful or ugly. We can say that the linguistic norm, understood as a socio-historical category, evaluates the linguistic variants described by the linguistic norm, understood linguistically. The assessment of a linguistic phenomenon includes a normative (correct/incorrect), situational (appropriate/inappropriate) and aesthetic (beautiful/ugly) component. The language norm has two constructive features: the plan of functioning and the plan of codification.

Operational plan- this is the "reality" of the norm, i.e., the presentation by speakers and writers (listeners and readers) of what is correct and appropriate in speech, and what is erroneous. This "reality" of the norm is presented in the minds of people unformulated, as a habit. Functioning norms are embodied in everyday speech and do not exist outside the collective. As an example, let's cite the dialogue of schoolchildren standing in front of a shop window: "You can't puddle a bag on the window, you'll break the glass!" - "We must say not to puddle, but to lie!" Both interlocutors use incorrect variants of the verb, however, in the mind of one of them, the variant lie represents a functioning norm, not being a codified norm (the codified norm recommends putting the variant). Functioning norms are formed on the basis of the frequency of the variant in speech experience.

Codification plan- this is an explanation and description of the norms in the specialized literature. Codification involves the awareness of the norm, fixing it in the codes of rules. Such a set of rules may exist separately from the speakers and rarely appear in everyday speech. For example, the normative variant of pronunciation of the provision is very rare even in official speech, being displaced by the non-recommended vernacular variant of the provision. The codified norm is established on the basis of an analysis of functioning norms, socio-historical and cultural conditions of communication.

The norm as a set of stable and unified linguistic means and rules for their use, which are deliberately fixed in dictionaries and textbooks, is specific sign literary language at all stages of its development. The norm of the literary language is developed by specialists on the basis of the analysis of oral and written speech in different situations communication. It is described both in scientific and mass publications intended for a wide range of readers. different ages. Possession of the literary norm mother tongue is one of the prerequisites for education. In the dictionary of linguistic terms, the norm is defined as "the most common of the coexisting, entrenched in the practice of exemplary use, the best way linguistic (speech) variants performing their function" (Rosenthal, Telenkova 1976: 210).

Introduction

The language norm is defined and studied in at least two aspects.

Firstly, the language norm is understood as stable, fixed in the process of communication variants of language units. In this case, the norm determines what is widespread in a given period of development of the national language, describes the options that are often found in speech. With this approach, the language norm reflects the words actually used in the language, their forms and pronunciation features, as well as syntactic constructions (sentences). Thus, the understood norm takes into account the frequency of pronouncing the variant calls (compared to ringing), the variant theirs (compared to them), but in no way evaluates the correctness or incorrectness of the options. One can draw an analogy between such an understanding of the language norm and an indicator of the central tendency in statistics. Just as the indicator of the central trend in statistics does not reflect the assessment of the phenomenon, the most common variants of linguistic units detected by the language norm are not evaluated. The main task of the study of the language norm in the linguistic aspect is the selection and description of linguistic phenomena, "inventory" state of the art language.

Secondly, the linguistic norm is considered not only as a linguistic, but also as a socio-historical category. In this case, the norm reflects the social aspect of communication, which is manifested not only in the selection and description of linguistic phenomena, but primarily in the system of their assessments. The variants of language units found in speech are not considered as frequent or rare, but as correct or erroneous, appropriate or inappropriate, beautiful or ugly. We can say that the linguistic norm, understood as a socio-historical category, evaluates the linguistic variants described by the linguistic norm, understood linguistically. The assessment of a linguistic phenomenon includes normative (correct/incorrect), situational (appropriate/inappropriate) and aesthetic (beautiful/ugly) components. the main task research of the language norm in the social aspect - the establishment of rules for the use and evaluation of variants of language units, the identification of trends in the development of the norm.

Understanding the language norm as a linguistic and socio-historical category underlies the concept of the literary language norm.

The language norm has two constructive features: the plan of functioning and the plan of codification.

The plan of functioning is the “reality” of the norm, i.e., the presentation by speakers and writers (listeners and readers) of what is correct and appropriate in speech, and what is wrong. Such a "reality" of the norm is presented in the minds of people unformulated, as a habit. Functioning norms are embodied in everyday speech and do not exist outside the collective. As an example, let's cite the dialogue of schoolchildren standing in front of a shop window: “You can’t put a bag on the window, you’ll break the glass!” - “We must say not to lie, but to lie!” Both interlocutors use incorrect variants of the verb, however, in the mind of one of them, the variant lie represents a functioning norm, not being a codified norm (the codified norm recommends the variant to put). Functioning norms are formed on the basis of the frequency of the variant in speech experience.

The codification plan is an explanation and description of the norms in the specialized literature. Codification involves the awareness of the norm, fixing it in the codes of rules. Such a set of rules may exist separately from the speakers and rarely appear in everyday speech. For example, the normative variant of pronunciation of the provision is very rare even in official speech, being replaced by the non-recommended colloquial variant of the provision. The codified norm is established on the basis of an analysis of functioning norms, socio-historical and cultural conditions of communication.

The literary norm is codified.

The norm as a set of stable and unified language means and rules for their use, which are deliberately fixed in dictionaries and textbooks, is a specific feature of the literary language at all stages of its development. The norm of the literary language is developed by specialists on the basis of the analysis of oral and written speech in various situations of communication. It is described both in scientific and mass publications intended for a wide range of readers of different ages. Possession of the literary norm of the native language is one of the indispensable conditions for education. In the dictionary of linguistic terms, the norm is defined as “the most common of the coexisting ones, entrenched in the practice of exemplary use, language (speech) variants that best perform their function” (Rosenthal, Telenkova 1976: 210).

The literary norm is characterized by a number of features.

The first sign of a literary norm is stability. Stability implies: historical stability and tradition; relative territorial uniformity; limiting fluctuations and options. The stability of the literary norm ensures the accessibility and comprehensibility of texts in the literary language to everyone who uses this language. National language regardless of age and place of residence. Thanks to the stability of the literary norm, mutual understanding of people belonging to different generations and social groups is possible.

The measure of the stability of a literary norm is largely determined by the cultural and historical situation in which a given literary language functions. In particular, the current Russian cultural and historical situation determines the mobility of the norms of the modern Russian literary language.

The second sign of the literary norm is variability. Variability provides the possibility of using the literary language in various situations of communication. Firstly, the variability of the norm is manifested in the functional styles of the literary language: statements that convey similar and even the same content may belong to different styles. Secondly, the variability of the norm is manifested in the difference between the written and oral forms of the literary language. Thirdly, territorial variability of the norm is also possible: in Russian literary speech, Moscow and St. Petersburg pronunciation norms are determined.

The third sign can be considered the changeability of the literary norm. Change is expressed in the gradual displacement of the old norm by the new one. With the gradual replacement of the old norm with a new one, two normative options coexist for some time, one of which is preferable (an example is given in section 2.1.). Change of norms is caused by social and cultural processes.

Literary norms regulate the use of language means in communication in different ways.

A dispositive, relatively soft, norm offers a choice of several options that differ in the degree of preference; dispositive norm recommends, but does not dictate.

Imperative, more rigid norm, offers one correct option, established by language researchers based on analysis language system, frequency of use and distribution of options in various communication situations. Violation of the imperative norm leads to errors.

1. Orthoepic norms

The norms of pronunciation of words and the intonation of the phrase are determined by

orthoepy (from Greek Orthos - correct, epos - speech). Quite often, the same word has several variants. Orthoepic variants, i.e. Valid pronunciations of a word usually belong to different areas of use:

1- national and professional. For example, the word mining is pronounced with an accent on the second syllable, but in the professional speech of miners and geologists, its pronunciation is also acceptable with an emphasis on the first syllable: mining;

2- high style and colloquial speech. For example, high style is characterized by okanie (pronunciation of unstressed O) in borrowed words: poetic, nocture;

3- in the speech of the older generation and in the speech of young native speakers. The new pronunciation gradually replaces the old one, but at a certain stage in the development of the literary language, both norms coexist, for example: the outgoing norm insisted on softening the consonant before the soft consonant ([z"v"]er, e[s"l"]u), new normal allows the pronunciation of a solid consonant in these conditions ([sv"] er, e [sl"] and).

Basic orthoepic norms in the field of vowels

In the modern Russian literary language, moderate akanye is considered correct, i.e. indistinguishability between A and O in unstressed positions: for example, in the word milk, the vowel A is pronounced twice and only in the last stressed syllable is the vowel O; vowels in the pre-stressed position in the words milk (in place of spelling O) and ram (in place of spelling A) are pronounced the same.

In the modern Russian literary language, ukane dominates, i.e. the coincidence in the first pre-stressed syllable after the soft consonants of all vowels, except U, in the sound I: we pronounce the river as [r "ika], pronounce the penny as [n" so], pronounce the saw as [p" ila].

Words that do not have an independent stress, which in oral speech are adjacent to the previous or subsequent word, do not obey the norms of vowel reduction. In other words, in such words there is no akanye and hiccups. Let's give examples. The phrase those forests should be pronounced as [t "e-l" isa], although the word telesa is pronounced [t "il" isa]; the phrase loved he should be pronounced as [l "ub" il-on].

The pronunciation of complex and compound words, as well as words with some prefixes, does not obey the reduction norms. Here are some examples: the compound word dr[e] outside Russian, the compound abbreviated word str[o] yotryad, the word with the prefix s[o] chairman.

Basic orthoepic norms in the field of consonants

The long soft consonant Щ in the Russian literary language is pronounced at the place of the accumulation of consonants sch, zch, shch, zhch within one word: [sh ":] astie, ra [sh":] estka, translation [sh":] ik, spring [ sh":]aty.

On the border of the prefix and the root, both me[w":] astny and me[w"h"] astny are possible.

At the junction of a preposition and a significant word or two significant words, pronouncing Щ is not recommended, for example: iemodana, but not i[w ":] emodana; the weight of a suitcase, but not ve[w":] emodana.

The long soft consonant Zh in the modern Russian literary language, in accordance with the spelling zhzh, zzh, szh, zhd, is pronounced only at the root of the words yeast, splashes, squeals, rattles, smashes, grumbles, reins, rides, burns, later, breezes, burnt, vzvomozzhu , buzz, rain, rain. The words are arranged in descending order of their use of a long soft J.

In place of the spelling h before n, it is pronounced:

only H in the words: eternity, exact, excellent student, stove-maker;

only Sh in the words: mustard, loser, of course, eyeglass case, laundry, trifling, birdhouse, boring, scrambled eggs and in female patronymics on -ichna;

both H and W are acceptable in the words: bakery, shopkeeper, candlestick, decent, creamy, dog lover, switchman;

varies the pronunciation of a word different combinations with other words: a heart [h "] attack - a heart [w] friend; a hat [h"] workshop - a hat [w] acquaintance; milk [h "] acid - milk [h] naya / milk [h "] porridge.

In place of a doubled consonant between vowels, a long consonant is pronounced in a position after the stressed vowel, in other positions the longitude is usually lost: gra - but gr[n] ovoy, kly - but cla[s"]ifikation, cola - but kolo[n]ada, sa - but su [m "u] roving, trapping - but trapping [s "u] tracing, breathing - but setting [n] th, stacking [l "an:] th - but scattering [n] aya.

At the junction of the prefix and the root, the longitude of the consonant is preserved regardless of the place of stress in the word: carefree, recreate, pickle, repel, support, give in.

Basic orthoepic norms of borrowed words

In some borrowed words and proper names, the pronunciation of unstressed O is allowed: adazhi[o], b[o]a, b[o]lero, d[o]ce, kaka[o], cred[o], radio[o], r[o]k[o]ko, s[o]ffeji[o], three[o], f[o]ye, F[o]ber, Sh[o]pen, B[o]rne[o] .

In relatively uncommon book words, the vowel E is pronounced at the beginning and after a solid consonant: [e] wreath, [e] kipirovka, [e] kskavator, [e] extract, [e] mbrion, ast [e] roid, bizn [e] change, cord [e] ballet, tend [e] r, andant [e].

AT foreign words, fully mastered by the Russian language, at the beginning of the word, in place of the spelling e, it is possible to pronounce I: economy, emigrant, floor.

In borrowed words, before the spelling e ([e]), only solid consonants are pronounced in the words: antenna, business, steak, delta, cabaret, cafe, scarf, codex, cocktail, model, hotel, parterre, pastel, poetess, mashed potatoes, requiem, tarantella, dash, tunnel, brown hair, masterpiece, highway, eczema, aesthetics, etc.

In a number of words, the pronunciation of both hard and soft consonants is acceptable: deduction, dean, congress, credo, terrorist, etc.

Finally, in some words only a soft consonant is pronounced: beige, brunette, museum, pioneer, rail, term, plywood, overcoat.

Basic orthoepic norms in the area of ​​stress

Equal rights are the stress options in the words: barge and barge, industries and industries, flooded and flooded, spinning and spinning, otherwise and otherwise, notch and notch, frostbite and frostbite, denim and denim, peppery and peppery, soda and soda, rust and rust .

Variants of stress in the word are more preferable and less preferable: amphora / amphora, harrow / harrow, deep / deep load / load, snow-covered / snow-covered, excel / excel, torn / torn, teenage / teenage, walls / walls, stirs / stirs, weaving / weaving,.

Finally, one variant of stress in a word is assessed as correct, literary, and the rest as erroneous. Let's bring correct options accents: pamper, ballet, b[l "y] yes, in se [m" yy], include, ironing, citizenship, contract, leisure, waited, bent, conclude, seal, call, catalog, quarter, more beautiful, kitchen, forester, shop, massage, youth, garbage chute, start, nails, provision, wholesale, repeat, understood, funeral, reward, sentence, wool, shells, beets, employees, customs, cakes, petition, syringes, expert, language.

2. Lexical norms

Lexical norms define the rules for using words depending on their meaning, frequency and context of use.

3. Morphological norms

Morphological norms determine the correct options for the formation of word forms when it changes (declension or conjugation), as well as the rules for using different forms in a statement. The source of information about morphological and - more broadly - grammatical norms are textbooks on the culture of speech and special dictionaries.

4. Syntactic norms

Syntactic norms define the rules for combining words and their forms in a construction and the use of phrases in a statement. Syntactic norms limit word order, establish features of the use of participles and participle turns, stipulate the laws of association simple sentences into compound and complex. The source of information about syntactic norms are manuals on grammar, culture of speech and special dictionaries.

5. Stylistic norms

As far as Table 1 allows us to judge, the selected functional styles have both general and specific features. The differences are due to mismatched areas of distribution of style. Styles are called functional because they function in various fields public life. These spheres intersect and interact. For example, in the media, it is possible to discuss a scientific article, a legislative act, and a religious sermon. Naturally, in each case, in addition to characteristic features journalistic style will show features of other functional styles.

Stylistic norms involve limiting the use of language means that are not characteristic of a given style, if such use is not justified by the genre or situation of communication. For example, the use of dry impersonal clichés formal business style in journalism, of course, are a mistake: “According to the New Companion business weekly, the governor also said that today there are whole line investment projects to the economy of the Kama region with a total volume of at least 12 billion rubles. In the cited quotation from the note “It is better to unite at the expense of the Federation”, published on the second page of the twenty-seventh issue of the Perm weekly “Friday” (November 14, 2003), a cliché is used there are a number of investment projects in the economy, which in this context is inappropriate and, moreover, it is erroneous: various forms of grammatical management of projects> (what?) And investments> (in what?) collide.

Table 1

Specific Features of the Functional Styles of the Book Variety of the Literary Language

Functional literary language style	Scope of use (and main speech genres)	Semantic Features	Vocabulary features	Features of grammar and syntax
	Science (article, monograph, dissertation, textbook, review, abstract review, etc.)	Abstraction, logicality, striving for unambiguity and accuracy of formulations	Bookishness, stylistic neutrality, abstractness, abundance of terms	Complex sentences with branched syntactic links
Official business	Official business relations between people and institutions, the field of law and legislation (law, resolution, contract, instruction, statement, protocol, etc.)	Accuracy of wording, impersonality, standardization	The abundance of stable phrases and clichés, the abundance of verbal nouns.	Impersonal and indefinitely personal constructions, constructions with enumerations
Publicistic	Mass media (information, reportage, commentary, interview, etc.)	Thematic diversity, motivation and informativeness, expressiveness, appraisal	Expressiveness, abundance of phraseological units and figurative means, abbreviations, use of terms from other styles and varieties of language	Variety of constructions, striving for simplicity and ease of understanding of syntactic constructions, use of direct speech
Religious preaching	Religion (teaching, prayer, parable, confession, sermon, etc.)	Motivation, "elevation" of topics	The abundance of archaisms and expressions of high style, expressiveness, the abundance of biblical and book phraseological units	The use of incentive structures stringing similar structures (“the biggest signs, the most amazing miracles”), postposition of definitions (“the human race”), frequency of second person pronouns

List of used literature

1. Vasilyeva A.N. Fundamentals of speech culture. M., 1990.

2. Vvedenskaya L.A., Pavlova L.G., Kashaeva E.Yu. Russian language and culture of speech. Rostov-on-Don, 2003.

3. Verbitskaya L.A. Let's Speak Right (any edition).

4. Brief reference book on the modern Russian language. M., 1991.

5. A complete guide to spelling and punctuation / Ed. O.A. Soboleva. M., 1999.

6. Rosenthal D.E. Practical stylistics of the Russian language (any edition).

7. Rosenthal D.E. Punctuation and management in Russian. M., 1988.

8. Cheshko L.A. Russian language. M., 1990.

9. Linguistics. Russian language. M., 1999.

Language norm- this is the generally accepted use of language means: sounds, stress, intonation, words, syntactic constructions.

The main properties of the language norm:

objectivity- the norm is not invented by scientists, is not prescribed by them;

obligation for all native speakers;

sustainability- if the norms were not stable, easily subjected to various influences, the connection between generations would be broken; the stability of norms ensures the continuity of the cultural traditions of the people, the development of national literature;

historical variability- as the language develops, language norms gradually change under the influence of colloquial speech, various social and professional groups population, borrowings, etc.

Changes in the language lead to the emergence of variants of some words. For example, the options tunnel - tunnel, galoshes - galoshes, cottage cheese - cottage cheese are absolutely equal

However, more often the options receive unequal evaluation: the main option is recognized, which can be used in all styles of speech, has a broader meaning. For example, in all styles of speech, the variant of the contract is appropriate, while the form of the contract has a colloquial coloring. Phenomenon form can be used in all senses of the word, and the colloquial phenomenon is used only in the sense of "a person with unusual abilities".

Many forms that have a colloquial coloration are outside the literary language: calls, understood, lay down, etc.

The admissibility of traditional and new pronunciation gives rise to the idea of two types of norms- "older" and "younger": senior– recommended, more strict; the only possible one in stage and announcer speech; younger- permissible, freer, characteristic of everyday speech.

Society consciously cares about the preservation of linguistic norms, which is reflected in the process of codification - the ordering of linguistic norms. The most important means of codification are linguistic dictionaries, reference books, study guides from which we can obtain information about correct use language units.

In relation to the literary norm, several types of speech are distinguished, For example:

elite speech, which is characterized by compliance with all literary norms, possession of all functional styles the Russian language, the transition from one style to another depending on the sphere of communication, compliance with ethical standards of communication, respect for a partner;

literary speech of the middle level, which is owned by most of the intelligentsia;

literary and colloquial speech;

colloquial familiar type of speech (usually speech at the level of family, relatives);

vernacular(speech of uneducated people);

professional speech.

Types of language norms.

The most important quality of good speech - correctness - is based on the observance of various language norms. Types of language norms reflect hierarchical structure language - each language level has its own set of language norms.

Orthoepic norms is a set of rules that establish a uniform pronunciation. Orthoepy in the proper sense of the word indicates how certain sounds should be pronounced in certain phonetic positions, in certain combinations with other sounds, as well as in certain grammatical forms and groups of words, or even individual words if these forms and words have their own pronunciation features.

Here are some examples of mandatory orthoepic norms (pronunciation of consonants).

The explosive sound [g] at the end of the word is deafened and in its place it is pronounced [k]; fricative pronunciation [γ] is allowed in the words: God, Lord, good.

Voiced consonants, except for sonorants [p], [l], [m], [n], at the end of words and before voiceless consonants are stunned, and voiceless consonants before voiced ones, except for sonorants, are voiced: [teeth] - [mouth], [ kas'it'] - [kaz'ba].

All consonants, except [w], [w], [c], before vowels [i], [e] become soft. However, in some borrowed words, the consonants before [e] remain solid: chalk [m'el], shadow [t'en '], but pace [temp].

At the junction of morphemes, the consonants [h] and [g], [h] and [w], [s] and [w], [s] and [g], [h] and [h '] are pronounced as long hissing sounds: sew [shshtyt '], squeeze [burn '].

The combination of th in the words that, to, nothing is pronounced as [pcs].

Equally important for orthoepy is the issue of stress placement. “There are many words, the pronunciation of which serves as a litmus test of the level of speech culture. It is often enough to hear from stranger wrong stress in a word (like: youth, shop, invention, newborn, tool, document, percentage, whooping cough, beetroot, athlete, self-interest, associate professor, portfolio, condolences, translated, transported, make it easier for people, etc.) to form a not too flattering opinion about his education, degree common culture, so to speak, the level of intelligence. Therefore, there is no need to prove how important it is to master correct accent» [K.S. Gorbachevich. Issues of pronunciation of words are discussed in detail in orthoepic dictionaries, for example: Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language. Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms / edited by R.I. Avanesov. M., 1995 (and other ed.)

Lexical norms- These are the rules for the use of words in accordance with their meanings and possibilities of compatibility.

Lexical norms are subject to historical changes. For example, it is interesting to see how the norm of using the word entrant has changed. In the 1930s and 1940s, both those who graduated from high school and those who entered the university were called applicants, since both of these concepts in most cases refer to the same person. In the post-war years, the word graduate was assigned to those graduating from high school, and the entrant in this sense fell into disuse. Applicants began to call those who pass the entrance exams at the university and technical school.

Dictionaries are devoted to the description of the lexical norms of the Russian language: Vakurov V.N., Rakhmanova L.I., Tolstoy I.V., Formanovskaya N.I. Difficulties of the Russian language: Dictionary-reference book. M., 1993; Rosenthal D.E., Telenkova M.A. Dictionary of the difficulties of the Russian language. M., 1999; Belchikov Yu.A., Panyusheva M.S. Dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language. M., 2002, etc.

Morphological norms These are the rules for the formation of words and word forms.

Morphological norms are numerous and relate to the use of forms of different parts of speech. These norms are reflected in grammars and reference books.

For example, in the nominative case of the plural of nouns, according to the traditional norms of the literary language, most words correspond to the ending -ы, -и: locksmiths, bakers, turners, searchlights. However, in a number of words there is an ending -a. Forms with the ending -a usually have a colloquial or professional coloring. Only in some words the ending -a corresponds to the literary norm, for example: addresses, banks, sides, sides, centuries, bills, director, doctor, tunic, master, passport, cook, cellar, professor, variety, watchman, paramedic, cadet, anchor , sails, cold.

Variant forms, forms corresponding to the literary norm, are described in detail in the book: T.F. Efremova, V.G. Kostomarov. Dictionary of grammatical difficulties of the Russian language. M., 2000.

Syntactic norms These are the rules for constructing phrases and sentences.

For example, choosing the right form of government is perhaps the most difficult thing in modern speech and writing. They reflect the features of the construction of phrases and sentences in the Russian language. The greatest difficulty is usually caused by the choice of a controlled form in a phrase, the agreement of the subject and the predicate, the use of participial and adverbial phrases, as well as the construction of some types of complex sentences.

Stylistic norms- these are the rules for choosing language means in accordance with the situation of communication.

Many words of the Russian language have a certain stylistic coloring - bookish, colloquial, colloquial, which determines the peculiarities of their use in speech.

For example, the word dwell has a bookish character, so it should not be used in combination with stylistically reduced words that evoke ideas of a reduced nature. Wrong therefore: I went to the barn where the pigs lived ...

Mixing vocabulary of different stylistic colors can be used for artistic purposes, for example, to create a comic effect: The forest owner loves to feast on polydrupes and angiosperms... gastrointestinal tract with a concomitant increase in the lipid layer. Yes, the minus range of Mikhailo Ivanovich is not terrible: at least where the hairline, and the noble epidermis ... (T. Tolstaya).

We should not forget about the rules of spelling, which are given the most attention in the school course of the Russian language. These include spelling norms- rules for writing words and punctuation norms - rules for punctuation marks.