Office of the Russian Empire at the end of the XIX century. Russian Empire at the end of the XIX - early twentieth

If in the primary period of its development (XVI-XVII century), the political elite of the Russian state demonstrated a practically ideal foreign policy course, and in the XVIII century, only one serious mistake in Poland (the fruits of which we reap, by the way), then in the century of the XIX, the Russian Empire, Although it continues to mainly adhere to the justice paradigm in relationships with the outside world, still performs three completely unjustified actions. These missions, unfortunately, are still angry with Russians - we can observe them in interethnic conflicts and a large level of distrust of Russia from the "offended" native peoples.

The XIX century begins with the fact that the Russian sovereign takes responsibility to protect the Georgian people from full extermination: December 22, 1800 Paul I, fulfilling the request of the Georgian king George XII, signs the manifesto on the accession of Georgia (Kartil-Kakheti) to Russia. Next, in the hope of defense to Russia, Cuban, Dagestan and other small kingdoms for the southern borders of the country voluntarily joined. In 1803, Mengrelia and the Imereti kingdom were joined, and in 1806 - Baku Khanate. In the same Russian itself, the methods of work of English diplomacy were experiencing. On March 12, 1801, Emperor Paul was killed as a result of an aristocratic conspiracy. The conspirators associated with the English mission in St. Petersburg were unhappy with the rapprochement of Paul with France, which threatened the interests of England. Therefore, the British "ordered" the Russian emperor. And after all, they did not deceive - after the murder performed, they conscientiously paid the executors in the currency equivalent to 2 million rubles.

1806-1812: Third Russian-Turkish war

Russian troops entered the Danube principalities in order to encourage Turkey to stop the briefs of Turkish troops in Serbia. The war was also conducted in the Caucasus, where the attack of Turkish troops on long-suffering Georgia was reflected. In 1811, Kutuzov made a retreat of Akhmebei's army. According to the world in 1812, Russia in Bucharest received Bessarabia, and Turkish Yanychars stopped the systematically to destroy the population of Serbia (what they, by the way, were engaged in the last 20 years). The previously planned hike in India as a continuation of the mission was prudently canceled, because it would be already busting.

Liberation from Napoleon

The next European maniac, who dreams of seizing the world appeared in France. He also turned out to be a very good commander and managed to conquer almost all of Europe. Guess who again saved European peoples from the cruel dictator? After the hardest battles on its territory with a superior and army of Napoleon's army, which relied on the cumulative military-industrial complex of almost all European powers, the Russian army went to the liberation of other nations of Europe. In January 1813, Russian troops, pursuing Napoleon, are transferred through Neman and enter the limits of Prussia. The liberation of Germany begins from the French occupying troops. On March 4, Russian troops liberate Berlin, on March 27, Dresden occupies, on March 18, with the assistance of Prussian partisans, Hamburg liberates. On October 16-19, the general battle under Leipzig takes place, the name of the "Battle of Peoples", the French troops are broken by our army (with the participation of the pathetic residues of the Austrian and Prussian armies). On March 31, 1814, Russian troops are included in Paris.

Persia

July 1826 - January 1828: Russian-Persian War. On July 16, the Persian Shah, incited by England, without declaring the war, directs troops through the Russian border in Karabakh and in Talysh Khanate. On September 13, under Ganja, Russian troops (8 thousand people) were broken by the 35,000th Army of Abbas Mirza and discarded her remnants of the Araks River. In May, they began an offensive in the Yerevan direction, took Echmiadzin, blocked Yerevan, and then mastered the Nakhichevan and the Abbasabad fortress. Attempts by the Persian troops to discard our failures from Yerevan, and on October 1, Yerevan was taken by storm. According to the results of the Turkmanchai peace treaty, Northern Azerbaijan and Eastern Armenia were attached to Russia, whose population, hoping for salvation from complete destruction, was actively supported by Russian troops during hostilities. The contract, by the way, was established during the year the right to free resettlement of Muslims into Persia, and Christians in Russia. For the Armenians, this meant the termination of the centuries-old religious and national oppression.

Error number 1 - Adygi

In 1828-1829, during the fourth Russian-Turkish war, Greece was liberated from Turkish yoke. The Russian empire at the same time received only moral satisfaction from the fulfilled good matter and thank you very much from the Greeks. However, with victorious triumph, the diplomats were made a very serious mistake, which will still be ahead of the future. When concluding a peace treaty, the Ottoman Empire gave the Earth of Adygov (Cherkessia) to the ownership of Russia, while the parties of this agreement did not take into account the fact that the Earth of Adygs were not owned or under the authority of the Ottoman Empire. Adygi (or Circassians) is the common name of the Unified People, divided into Kabardians, Circassians, Kabyov, Adygei and Shapesov, who, together with migrating Azerbaijanis, lived in the territory of the current Dagestan. They refused to obey secret agreements made without their consent, refused to recognize themselves as the power of the Ottoman Empire and Russia, had a desperate military resistance of the aggression of Russia and were conquered by Russian troops after 15 years. At the end of the Caucasian War, part of Adygs and Abazin was forcibly resettled from the mountains to the foothill valleys, where they were announced that wishing to stay there, only adopting Russian citizenship. The rest were offered for two and a half months to move to Turkey. However, it was Adyg, along with Chechens, Azerbaijanis and other small Islamic peoples of the Caucasus, the most problems of the Russian army were given, fighting as mercenaries first on the side of the Crimean Khanate, and then the Ottoman Empire. In addition, the Gorish tribes are Chechens, Lezgins, Azerbaijanis and Adygi - constantly committed attacks and atrocities in Georgia and Armenia protected by the Russian Empire. Therefore, it can be said that on a global scale, without taking into account the principles of human rights (and then it was not accepted at all), this foreign policy error can be not counted. And the conquest of Daebent (Dagestan) and Baku (Baku Khanate, and later Azerbaijan) was due to the requirements of Russia's safety. But disproportionate application military force From Russia, it is still necessary to recognize, there was a place.

Error number 2 - invasion of Hungary

In 1848, Hungary tried to get rid of the power of Austria. After the failure of the Hungarian State Assembly, the Austrian army invaded Franz-Joseph, the Austrian army invaded the country, quickly mastered Bratislava and Budy. In 1849, the famous "spring campaign" of the Hungarian army was held, as a result of which the Austrians were broken in several battles, and most of the territory of Hungary was released. On April 14, the Declaration of Independence of Hungary was adopted, Habsburg was lowered, and the ruler of the country was elected Hungarian Layos Khutut. But on May 21, the Austrian Empire signed the Warsaw Agreement with Russia, and soon the Russian troops of General Field Marshal Pashevich were invaded to Hungary. On August 9, she was broken by Russians under Teeshevar, and the cat resigned. August 13, the Hungarian troops of General Gourgei capitulated. Hungary was occupied, the repression began, on October 6, Layosh Battyan was shot in Pesta, 13 generals of the revolutionary army were executed in Arad. The revolution in Hungary was suppressed by Russia, which turned into essence, in the mercenary of cruel colonists.

middle Asia

Back in 1717, individual leaders of the Kazakhs, taking into account the real threat from external opponents, turned to Peter I asking for citizenship. The emperor at that time did not dare to intervene in the "Kazakh affairs". According to Chokana Valikhanov: "... The first decade of the XVIII century was a terrible time in the life of the Kazakh people. Dzungary, Volzhsky Kalmyki, Yaitskaya Cossacks and Bashkirs from different sides threw their uluses, distilled their cattle and captured entire families. " From the east, a serious danger was represented by the Dzhungarian Khanate. From the south, the Kazakh khanate threatened Khiva and Bukhara. In 1723, the Jungan tribes once again attacked weakened and scattered Kazakh zhuza. This year entered the history of the Kazakhs as a "great disaster."

On February 19, 1731, Empress Anna Ioannovna signed a diploma of the voluntary entry of the younger Zhus to the Russian Empire. On October 10, 1731, Abulkhair and most of the olders of the younger Zhuza concluded an agreement and brought an oath about the inviolability of the contract. In 1740, Middle Zhuza moved to the Russian patronage (protectorate). In 1741-1742, the Jungian troops invaded the middle and younger zhuza again, but the intervention of Russian border authorities made them retreat. Han Ablai himself came pronounced Jungaram, but a year later he was released through the mediation of the Orenburg Governor Neptev. In 1787, in order to save the population of the younger Jus, who were tested by the Khivints, they were allowed to proceed to the Urals and wagged in the Volga. This decision was officially focused by Emperor Paul I in 1801, when from 7500 Kazakh families was formed by Vassa Bokeek (inner) Hard led by the Sultan Bukem.

In 1818, the elders of Senior Zhusa announced the entry into the patronage of Russia. In 1839, in connection with the constant attacks of Kokandsev in the Kazakhs - Russian subjects, the military actions of Russia begin in Central Asia. In 1850, an expedition was taken over the river or to destroy the strengthening of Tychubek, who served as a supporting point for Kokand Khan, but they managed to master only in 1851, and in 1854 the strengthening was built on the Almaty River (today, the Street region was built in Russia. It should be noted that the Jungaria then was the colony of China, forcibly attached in the XVIII century. But in the period of the Russian expansion to the region itself was weakened by the opium war with the United Kingdom, France and the United States, as a result of which almost the entire population of the Middle Kingdom was subjected to violent drug and ruin, and the government in order to prevent total genocide then acutely needed supported by Russia. Therefore, the Zing rulers went to small territorial concessions in Central Asia. In 1851, Russia concluded the Kuldzhinsky treaty with China, which established equal trade relations between countries. Under the terms of the contract, duty-free exchange in Kulje and Chuguchek, a unimpeded passage of Russian merchants for the Chinese side was ensured and trading factors for Russian merchants were created.

On May 8, 1866, at Irrzar, the first major clash of Russians with Bukharians, who received the name Irrzhar battle occurred. This battle was won by Russian troops. Sproved from Bukhara, Sudoyar-Khan adopted in 1868 the proposed general adjutant background Kaufman trade agreement, according to which the Hivintans undertake to stop raids and robbery of Russian villages, as well as to free the captured Russian subjects. Also, according to this agreement, the Russians in the Kokand Khanate and Kokandans in Russian possessions acquired the right to stay and travel, the Karavan-Sarayev devices, the content of trade agencies (caravan-Basi). Me Terms of this Treaty were impressed to the depths of the soul - no resource seizures, only the establishment of justice.

Finally, on January 25, 1884, Merber's deputation arrived at Askhabad and brought the Governor-General Komarovo to the Name of the Emperor about the adoption of Merva to Russian citizenship and brought the oath. Turkestan hiking completed the Great Mission of Russia, first stopped the expansion of nomads to Europe, and with the completion of colonization - finally duplicated Eastern land. The arrival of Russian troops marked the parish best Life. Russian General and Topograd Ivan Blamenberg wrote: "Kyrgyz Kuang Darya thanked that I freed them from enemies and destroyed the robber nests", Military historian Dmitry Fedorov was expressed more definitely: "Russian dominion acquired a huge charm in Central Asia because it marked himself A humane peace-loving attitude towards the natives and, causing the sympathy of the masses, was the desired dominion for them. "

1853-1856: First Eastern War (or Crimean Campaign)

Here it will be possible to observe the quintessence of cruelty and hypocrisy of our so-called "European partners". Not only again, we see before pain familiar to us on the history of the country, a friendly association of almost all European countries in the hope of destroying Russians and plunder Russian lands. We are already accustomed to this. But this time everything was done so openly, without hiding behind even false political occasions that Diva is given. War had to lead Russia against Turkey, England, France, Sardinia and Austria (which took the position of hostile neutrality). Western powers, pursuing their economic and political interests in the Caucasus and the Balkans, have taken Turkey to exterminate the southern peoples of Russia, assures that, "if that," they will help. The very "If that" has come very quickly.

After the Turkish army invaded the Russian Crimea and "cut out" 24 thousand. In anyone no obey people, including more than 2 thousand young children (by the way, cut off the heads of the kids, then kindly gave them to parents), the Russian army just destroyed Turkish And the fleet was burned. In the Black Sea, Sineza, Vice Admiral Nakhimov, 1853 destroyed the Turkish squadron of Osman-Pasha. Following this, the United Anglo-French-Turkish squadron entered the Black Sea. In the Caucasus, the Russian army broke the Turkish bayazet (July 17, 1854) and Kuryuk Dara (July 24). In November 1855, the Kars residents inhabited by Armenians and Georgians were released by Russian troops (which times in a row save the poor Armenians and Georgians at the cost of thousands of lives of their soldiers). On April 8, 1854, the Allied Anglo-French fleet made a bombardment of Odessa fortifications. On September 1, 1854, the English, French and Turkish troops in the Crimea occurred. After the heroic 11-month defense, the Russians were forced to leave Sevastopol in August 1855. At Congress in Paris, on March 18, 1856, the world was concluded. Conditions of this world are surprised by their idiocy: Russia has lost the right to the patronage of Christians in the Turkish Empire (let them cut, rape and dismember!) And it has been obliged to have no fortresses or a military fleet on the Black Sea. To do not care that the Turks cut out not only Russian Christians, but also including French, English (for example, in Central Asia and the Middle East) and even German. The main thing is to weaken the Russians and kill.

1877-1878: Another Russian-Turkish war (also known as the second Eastern War)

The oppression of the Turks Slavic Christians in Bosnia and Herzegovina caused a rebellion there in 1875. In 1876, the uprising in Bulgaria was graspted by the Turks with extreme cruelty, massacres of civilians were committed, tens of thousands of Bulgarians were cut out. The Russian public was outraged by the steady. On April 12, 1877, Russia declared Turkey War. As a result, Sofia was released on December 23, January 8 is busy adrianopol. The path to Constantinople was opened. However, in January, the English squadron entered Dardanelles, threatening with Russian troops, and universal mobilization was appointed in England to invade Russia. In Moscow, so as not to expose their soldiers and the population of obvious masochism in a useless confrontation against almost the whole of Europe, they decided not to continue the offensive. But the protection of innocents she still achieved. On February 19, a peace treaty was signed in San Stefano, according to which Serbia, Montenegro and Romania are recognized as independent; Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina received autonomy. Russia received Ardagan, Lars, Batum (regions inhabited by Georgians and Armenians, who have long been asked to Russian citizenship). The conditions of the San Stefan world summoned the protest of England and Austria-Hungary (the empire, which we recently saved the lives of our lives of our soldiers), which began to prepare for war against Russia. With the mediation of Emperor Wilhelm, a Congress was convened in Berlin to revise the San Stefan peace treaty, which brought Russia's successes to a minimum. Bulgaria was decided to divide into two parts: the Vassal Principality and the Turkish province of Eastern Rumelia. Bosnia and Herzegovina are given to the Office of Austria-Hungary.

Far Eastern expansion and mistake number 3

In 1849, Grigory Nevelskaya begins to explore the mouth of the Amur. Later he bases the wintering on the shore of the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk for trade with the local population. In 1855, the period of economic development of the undeveloped edge began. In 1858, the Aigan Treaty was concluded between the Russian Empire and Qing China, and in the 1860s, the Beijing Treatise, which was recognized by the power of Russia over the Ussuri Territory, and the Russian government in return provides military assistance to China in the fight against Western Interventory - diplomatic support and delivery Weapons. Be at that time China is not so strongly weakened by the opium war with the West, he would, of course, amounted to the competition of St. Petersburg and would not allow so easy to develop border areas. But foreign policy conjuncture favored the peaceful and bloodless expansion of the Russian Empire in the Eastern direction.

The rivalry of the Empire of Qing and Japan for control over Korea in the XIX century expensive costs all the Korean people. But the saddest episode occurred in 1794-1795, when Japan invaded Korea and began real atrocities in order to intimidate the population and elite of the country and forcing the adoption of the citizenship of Japan. The Chinese army stood on the protection of his colony and a bloody meat grinder began, in which the huge number of Korean civilians were killed in both sides. As a result, Japan won, moved hostilities to the territory of China, reached Beijing and forced the Qing rulers to sign the derogious Simonoski Agreement, according to which the Empire Qing was inferior to Japan Taiwan, Korea and the Liaodo Peninsula, and also installed trade preferences by Japanese merchants.

On April 23, 1895, Russia, Germany and France simultaneously appealed to the Japanese government demanding the refusal to annexation of the Liaodong Peninsula, which could lead to the establishment of Japanese control over Port Arthur and further aggressive expansion of Japanese colonizers deep into the continent. Japan was forced to agree. On May 5, 1895, Prime Minister ITO Hurbowum announced the conclusion of the Japanese troops from the Liaodong Peninsula. Recent Japanese soldiers went home in December. Here Russia showed no nobility - forced the cruel aggressor to leave the territory occupied and contributed to the prevention of the dissemination of mass violence into new territories. A few months later, in 1896, Russia entered into an allied agreement with China, according to which it was entitled to build the railway line through the territory of Manchuria, the contract also established the protection of Russia of the Chinese population from possible Japanese aggression in the future. However, under the influence of the shopping lobby, the government could not resist the temptation to use the weakness of a broken unequal brief war and "bent".

In November 1897, German troops occupied Chinese Qingdao, and Germany forced China to give this region into a long-term (for 99 years) rental. Opinions in the Russian government about the reaction to the capture of Qingdao were divided: Minister of Foreign Affairs Muravyov and Military Minister Vannovsky performed for using the favorable moment, take Chinese ports on the Yellow Sea of \u200b\u200bPort Arthur or Dalian Van. He argued this desirability for Russia to obtain a non-freezing port in the Pacific Ocean in the Far East. The Minister of Finance Witte was opposed to this, pointing out that "... from this fact (Cindao seizure of Germany) ... In no way, it is impossible to bring the conclusion that we should do the same as Germany, and also make the seizure of China. Moreover, this output cannot be done because China is not with Germany in union, and we are in China in the Union; We promised to defend China, and suddenly instead of defense we ourselves will begin the seizure of its territory. "

Nicholas II supported the proposal of Muravyeva, and 3 (15) December 1897 Russian military vessels stood on Port Arthur raid. In Beijing, the Russian-Chinese Convention was signed in Beijing in Beijing in Beijing in Beijing, according to which Russia was granted to rent a port of Port Arthur (Luishana) and Far (Dalian) with surrounding territories and aquatic space and gasket was allowed To these ports of the railway (South Manchu Railway) from one of the items of the Sino-Eastern Railway.

Yes, no violence has taken our country to solve its economic and geopolitical tasks. But this episode of the Russian foreign Policy It was unjust in relation to China - the ally, whom we actually betrayed and their behavior were like to Western colonial elites who would not stop before the sake of profit. In addition, these actions, the royal government gave the evil and vengeful enemy for its country. After all, the realization that Russia actually took away from Japan captured during the war of the Liaodan Peninsula, led to the new wave of militarization of Japan, this time directed against Russia, under the slogan "Gasin-Soytn" (Yap. "Sleep on a blackboard with nails"), I called the nation to resist the increase in taxation for the sake of military revenge in the future. As we remember, this revenge will soon be made by Japan - in 1904.

Output

Continuing its global mission to protect oppressive small peoples from enslaving and destruction, as well as defending its own sovereignty, in the XIX century Russia nevertheless admits gross foreign policy errors, which will certainly affect its perception in a number of neighboring ethnic groups for many years. Wild and completely inexplicable invasion of Hungary in 1849 in the future will be the cause of distrust and hostile alertness of this nation to Russian identity. As a result, she became the second "offended" Russian empire for the European people (after Poland). And the cruel conquest of Adygs in the 20-40s, despite the fact that it was provoked, also difficulty. In many ways, due to this, the North Caucasus today is the largest and most complex region in the federal structure of interethnic relations. Although bloodless, but still the unpleasant fact of history was the hypocritical and treacherous behavior of the St. Petersburg Imperial Court in relation to the Allied China in the process of the second opium war. Then the Qing Empire fought with a whole Western civilization, which actually turned into a huge drug carrier. It is also worth noting that the Russian establishment naturally "attracting" to enlightened Europe, in the XIX century continues to try to embed a country into the halo influence of Western civilization, seeks to become "its" for her, but receives even more cruel lessons of European hypocrisy than before.

Please tell me how to ask what territories were attached to the Russian Empire in the 19th century. Posted by the author Remote The best answer is At the beginning of the XIX century. The territory of Russia was 16 million km2.
During the first half of the XIX century. The composition of Russia was included
Finland (1809),
Polish kingdom (1815),
Bessarabia (1812),
almost all of the Transcaucasia (1801-1829),
The Black Sea coast of the Caucasus (from the mouth of the Kuban River to Poti - 1829).
In the 60s. The Ussuri region (Primorye) was enshrined behind Russia, the process of entering Russia most of the Kazakh land, which began in the 30th year, was completed. XVIII century
By 1864, the mountainous regions of the North Caucasus were finally conquered.
In the mid-70s - early 80s. The territory of the Russian Empire entered a significant part of Central Asia, and a protectorate was installed above its territory.
In 1875, Japan recognized the rights of Russia to the Sakhalin Island, and the Kuril Islands moved to Japan.
In 1878, small lands in Transcaucasia were joined to Russia.
The only territorial loss of Russia was the sale of the United States in 1867. Alaska together with the Aleutian Islands (1.5 million km2), as a result of which she "left" from the American continent.
In the XIX century The process of formation of the territory of the Russian Empire was completed and a geopolitical equilibrium of its borders was achieved.
By the end of the XIX century. Its territory was 22.4 million km2

Answer from Eurovision[guru]
Finland, Transcaucasia, Central Asia, Besarabia.

Answer from romanov[newcomer]
yeah

Answer from Drill[guru]
Please tell me which territories were attached to the Russian Empire in the 19th century.
answer:
they were conquered

Answer from AK-61.[active]
Conquesting and accession - not always the same thing. For example, according to the results of the Spanish-American War of 1898, the disheveled (conquered) United States in Spain areas were equipped as follows:
1. GUAM, Puerto Rico and the Philippines are attached to the United States as colonies / possessions.
2. Cuba - passed under the Temporary Office of the United States, from 1902 - transformed into a formally "sovereign" state.
3. Caroline and Northern Mariana Islands - sold Germany.
Louisiana, Alaska, etc. - are attached to the United States, but not conquered, but bought.
Hawaiian Islands are attached to the United States, but not conquer, but annexed. Wars was not at all.
Egypt was conquered and occupied by the United Kingdom in 1882-1953, but did not join the British Empire, remaining formally independent. Only in 1914-22 Egypt was given the status of the temporary protectory of the UK.
As for the Russian Empire, there are also a couple of examples:
1. Manchuria and external Mongolia were conquered by Russia, but not attached, formally remaining part of China.
2. The Quantum Peninsula (with Port Arthur) was attached to Russia as a possession, but not conquered, but purchased (rented).

Answer from Daniel Zenikov[newcomer]
Anthony and Octavian divided the empire among them: The first took the eastern provinces, married the Egyptian queen Cleopatre and began to live in Alexandria, the second remained in Rome. Between them there was never friendship, each of them was looking for a one-owned one. Octavian, more prudent, forced the Senate to declare Antony by the enemy of the Fatherland, broke the fleet of Anthony off the coast of Greece and followed him to Egypt. Anthony and Cleopatra committed suicide, and the kingdom of Ptolemyev in 30 g. To R. X. It was joined to the Roman Empire.
Octavian reached the same purpose as Caesar. He seemed less damned, was unbelievable, shy, hidden, he had no military talent, like Caesar. He helped him a lot of state of affairs.
Long war in all areas around the Mediterranean sea tired most people: many people were looking for peace and crowded to a strong person, hoping for his guard. So, he joined the poet of Horace, who was fought for the republic for the last time under the bosses of Bruta and Cassia. In one poem, Horace remembered then that "badly threw his shield", i.e. fled from the battlefield; But he really advised his friends to leave the war and participate in the Smoothes to get away from all the dangers. At the same time, in the struggle killed for the most part independent proud nobils, who did not want to see any mister on themselves. Residents of the provinces accused to obey Rome; They still have, if they will post the head of the Roman Senate or the military ruler from Rome. The population of Rome itself was put up with that the urchler who was ready to give him the most.
But Octavian achieved power also with his patience and art. He did not accept the name of the dictator, which resembled Sulla and Caesar's celebration; He did not want anything in the title, nor in the setting, nothing like that would like the king, so as not to annoy the old habits and the concepts of Romans. By the way he accepted the title of the tribune. At the same time, Octavian constantly repeated that his main concern is to restore an old order in Rome. He tried to surround himself with the remnants of ancient aristocratic surnames. In his palace, historian Tit Libya was well adopted, which in the huge essay of his own, depicting the republic, depicting its fate from ancient times an elevated oratorical syllable.
Octavian called princeps, i.e., the first person in the state. It meant that it would be considered authorized on his power from the people. He decided not to frighten the population of Italy by military forces: the soldier took place and put on the borders. Finally, Octavian shared with the old gentlemen, nobils. In important cases, the princep was consulted with the Senate, as the consuls did it before.
It was necessary that the Senate would continue to dispose of the old provinces: the Senate will send governor there from its environment. The areas are re-attached, the border guard remained at Octavian: Gallium, the former possession of Caesar, and the rich Egypt, who captured the Octavian himself. In these areas, all Roman troops stood, about 250,000 to keep in the obedience of recently conquered residents and protect the border. The troops were subordinate to Octavian, the soldiers brought oath only to him. The old name of the Military Emperor he assigned to himself alone; It meant now the authorities of the Supreme Commander. The emperor was called him in the provinces. In its areas, Octavian sent to manage his officers and clarifiers.
Pripeps and people
The people stopped calling at the congregation. However, the new ruler was also to please the metropolitan population, as previously made folk leaders or the Senate. He only accepted one spending on his own expense, as they had been made in favor of the people with various persons. Pripeps assumed the feeding of the metropolitan proletarians by bread: his officials were bought, brought the right amount of grain by sea, folded it into huge shops that occupied the whole

Answer from Mikhail Basmanov.[expert]
In 1867, according to the documents, under Tsar Alexandra 2, Russia was selling Alaska USA. In fact, the payment of services of the US military seafarers (military assistance) to the US government was covered by the documents for the sale of Alaska. Alaska Russia sold in 1867 because it was a territory, seized by Russia in the Great Tartaria. Great Tartaria earlier, on the mainland of Eurasia, the space in the territory of the territory of the USSR. Such remote territories control Russia was difficult and Tartarium could return them back. After all, Tartaria existed, according to cards, and in 1867, but already as the remnants of the Great Tartarium in Central Asia. And with the help of the United States about Russian America could not worry. And it was then, the Government of Russia is more important than the people and the natural wealth of Alaska.

Answer from Dimamister13.[expert]
Territories of Georgia, Abkhazia, Armenia, Moldova.

Russian Wikipedia Empire
Russian empire

Rowan Krugati on Wikipedia
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Formation of the territory of the Russian Empire in Wikipedia
Look at the article on Wikipedia about Formation of the territory of the Russian Empire

Help a question! The Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century. Posted by the author Insufficient salting The best answer is 1. Communicable movements in Russia in the first quarter of the XIX century.
The first years of the reign of Alexander I were noted by a notable revival of public life. The actual issues of the internal and foreign policy of the state were discussed in scientific and literary societies, in the circles of students and teachers, in secular salons and in the Masonic lips. The focus on the French revolution, serfdom and autocracy, was attached to the French Revolution.
Removing the prohibition from the activities of private printing houses, permit to import books from abroad, the adoption of a new censorship charter (1804) - all this has had a significant impact on the further spread of European enlightenment ideas in Russia. Educational goals were set by I. P. Pinni, V. V. Parrot, A. X. Eastokov, A. P. Kuckingin, who created free-fans in St. Petersburg the Volnoye Society of Literature Lovers, Sciences and Arts (1801-1825). Being under the strong influence of Radishchev's views, they translated Wolter, Didro, Montesquiece, published articles and literary works.
Supporters of various ideological directions began to be grouped around new magazines. The "Bulletin of Europe", published by N. M. Karamzin, was popular with popularity, and then V. A. Zhukovsky.
Most Russian enlighteners considered it necessary to reform the autocratic board and cancel the serfdom. However, they were only a small part of society and, in addition, remembering the horrors of the Jacobin terror, they expected to achieve their goal in peaceful way, through the enlightenment, moral education and formation of civil consciousness.
The bulk of the nobility and officials was configured conservatively. The views of the majority were reflected in the "note on ancient and new Russia" N. M. Karamzin (1811). Recognizing the need for change, Karamzin opposed the plan of constitutional reforms, since Russia, where the "Sovereign there is a living law", is not a constitution, but fifty "smart and virtuous governors."
A huge role in the development of the national self-consciousness was played by the Patriotic War of 1812 and foreign hiking of the Russian army. The country experienced a huge patriotic ascent, in the people and in society there were expensive on broad transformations, everyone was waiting for change for the better - and did not wait. The first were disappointed the peasants. The heroic participants of the fighting, the Savior of the Fatherland, they hoped to get freedom, but from the manifesto on the occasion of victory over Napoleon (1814) heard:
"The peasants, faithful our people - let them get their own from God." The wave of peasant performances swept around the country, the number of which increased in the post-war period. In total, about 280 peasant unrest occurred for a quarter of a century, and about 2/3 of them in 1813-1820. Especially long and fierce was the movement on Don (1818-1820), which was involved in more than 45 thousand peasants. Permanent unrest was accompanied by the introduction of military settlements. One of the largest rebellion in Chugueva in the summer of 1819
2. Foreign policy of Russia in 1801 - early 1812
After joining the throne, Alexander I began to adhere to the tactics of refusal from political and trading agreements concluded by his father. The foreign policy position made by him with "young friends" can be characterized as a policy " free hands"Russia tried, retaining his position of the Great Power, to act as an arbitrator in the Anglo-French conflict and, having achieved concessions related to swimming in the Eastern Mediterranean of Russian courts, reduce military tensions on the continent.

Answer from twigs[master]
1) The theory of official nationality is the state ideology during the reign of Nicholas I, the author of which became S. S. Uvarov. It was based on conservative views on enlightenment, science, literature. The basic principles were set out in Count Sergei Uvarov when joined the post of Minister of People's Enlightenment in his report Nikolai I "On some of the general principles that can serve as a leadership in managing the Ministry of Folk Enlightenment"
Later, this ideology has become briefly called "Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality."
According to this theory, the Russian people are deeply religious and devoted to the throne, and the Orthodox faith and self-adjustment constitute the indispensable conditions for the existence of Russia. The nation was understood as the need to adhere to their own traditions and reject foreign influence. The term was a kind of attempt by the ideological substantiation of the Government course of Nicholas I early 1830s. In the framework of this theory, the head of the III branch of Benkendorf wrote that the past of Russia is surprising, the present perfectly, the future is above all submissions.
Western - the direction established in the 1830s - 1850s, whose representatives, unlike the Slavophiles and the Foreignas, denied the idea of \u200b\u200bthe originality and the uniqueness of the historical fate of Russia. Features of the cultural, domestic and socio-political defendance of Russia were considered by Westerns mainly as a consequence of delays and lagging in development. Westerners believed that there was the only way to develop humanity, in which Russia is forced to catch up with the developed countries of Western Europe.
Westerners
In a less strict understanding to Wessengers referred to all focused on Western European cultural and ideological values.
The most notable representatives of the Western Direction in Russian literature and philosophical thought are P. Ya. Chayadayev, T. N. Granovsky, V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. P. Ogarov, N. Kh. Ketcher, V. P. Botkin, P. V. Annenkov, E. F. Korsh, K. D. Cavelin.
Such writers and publicists were adjacent to Westerns as N. A. Nekrasov, I. A. Goncharov, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panayev, A. F. Pisemsky, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Slavophilism - literary - the philosophical current of public thought, formed in the 40s of the 19th century, whose representatives argue the special type of culture that arose on the spiritual soil of Orthodoxy, and also deny the thesis of the Westerners that Peter first returned Russia in the Lono of European countries And she must pass this path in political, economic and cultural development.
The course arose in opposition to Westernity, whose supporters advocated for the orientation of Russia to Western European cultural and ideological values.
2)
P.S. To the first question, the Decembrists approached

Domestic policy in the first half of the XIX

When joining the throne, Alexander solemnly proclaimed that from now on the basis of politics will not be a personal will or whim of the monarch, but strict adherence to laws. The population promised legal guarantees from arbitrariness. Around the king there was a circle of friends, called the unlawful committee. It includes young aristocrats: Count P. A. Stroganov, Count V. P. Kochubey, N. N. Novosillesev, Prince A. D. Chartorian. Aggressively tuned aristocracy dubbed the Committee to the Jacobin Sayka. This Committee began from 1801 to 1803 and discussed the draft state reforms, the abolition of serfdom, etc.

In the first period of the reign of Alexander I from 1801 to 1815. It was done a lot, but even more promised. Restrictions imposed by Paul I were canceled. Kazan, Kharkov, St. Petersburg universities were created. Universities are open in Derpte and Vilna. In 1804, Moscow Commercial School was opened. From now on, representatives of all classes could be taken to educational institutions, at the lowest levels, training was free, paid from the state budget. For the reign of Alexander I is characterized by unconditional kindness, which was extremely important for multinational Russia.

In 1802, outdated colleges who were still with Petrovsky times were the main executive bodies were replaced by ministries. The 8 first ministries were established: military-land forces, naval forces, justice, internal affairs, finance. Commerce and folk enlightenment.

In 1810-1811. When reorganizing ministries, their number has increased, and the functions were even more clearly delimited. In 1802, the Senate was reformed, which became the highest judicial and control body in the public administration system. He received the right to make "ideas" the emperor about outdated laws. The spiritual affairs of the Holy Synod, whose members were appointed by the emperor. He was headed by an Ober-Prosecutor, a person is usually close to the king. From military or civilian officials. Under Alexandra I, the position of the Ober-Prosecutor in 1803-1824. Prince A. N. Golitsyn, former since 1816, as the minister of folk enlightenment. The most active supporter of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe reform of the public administration system was the Statis secretary of the indispensable Council M. M. Speransky. However, it is not very for a long time I used the location of the emperor. The implementation of the Speransky project could contribute to the beginning of the constitutional process in Russia. In total, the project "Introduction to the deposits of state laws" was scheduled for the principle of separation of legislative, executive and judicial authorities by convening representatives of the State Duma and the introduction of elected judicial institutions.

At the same time, he considered it necessary to create a public council, which would be a link between the emperor and the authorities of the Central and local self-government. All the newly proposed bodies cautiously emphasized only advisory rights and did not attend the completeness of the autocratic power. A conservative part of the nobility spoke against the liberal project of the Speransky, which he saw a danger to the autocratic-fastened system in it and for its privileged position.

The ideologist of the conservatives was the famous writer and historian I. M. Karamzin. In practical terms, the reaction policy was carried out close to Alexander I Count A. A. Arakcheev, who, unlike M. M. Speransky, sought to strengthen the personal power of the emperor, by further development of the bureaucratic system.

The struggle between liberals and conservatives ended with the victory of the latter. Speransky was removed from affairs and sent to the link. The only result was the establishment of the State Council, in 1810, which consisted of ministers and other Higher Sanovnikov appointed by the emperor. He was attached by deliberative functions when developing essential laws. Reforms 1802 -1811. did not change the autocratic essence of the political system of Russia. They only strengthened the centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. As before, the emperor was the supreme legislative and executive power.

In subsequent years, the reformists of Alexander I were reflected in the introduction of the Constitution in the Kingdom of Polish (1815), the preservation of the Seimas and the Constitutional Device of Finland, attached to Russia in 1809, as well as in the creation of N. N. Novosiltsev, on behalf of the king "Standard Russian Empire "(1819 -1820). The project provided for the division of the branches of the government, the introduction of government agencies. Equality of all citizens to law and federal principle state Device. However, all these proposals remained on paper.

In the last decade, Alexander I, in domestic politics, a conservative trend was increasingly felt. By the name of her conductor, she got the name "Arakcheevshchyna". This policy was expressed in the further centralization of public administration, in police-repressive measures aimed at the destruction of freedomiff, in the "cleaning" of universities, in the planting of a walleling discipline in the army. Military settlements became the most vivid manifestation of the policy of Count A. A. Arakcheev - a special form of the acquisition and content of the army.

The purpose of the creation of military settlements is to achieve self-reproducing army itself. Easy for the budget of the country the severity of the content of a huge army in peaceful conditions. The first attempts of their organization belonged to 1808-1809, but in mass order it began to be created in 1815-1816. The category of military settlements was translated from the state peasants of the St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Mogilev and Kharkiv province. Here the soldiers sent to which their families were also discharged. The wives became dreams, the sons from the age of 7 were credited to the cantonists, and from 18 years old in valid military service. The whole life of the family peasant was strictly regulated. For the slightest violation of the order of corporal punishment. A. A. Arakcheev was appointed the chief boss on military settlements. By 1825, about a third of the soldiers were translated into the settlement.

However, the army failed with self-sufficiency failed. On the organization of settlements, the government spent huge money. The military nights did not become a special estate that expanded the social support of self-adjusting, on the contrary, they worried and rebuilding. The government from this practice in subsequent years refused. Alexander I died in Taganrog in 1825 he had no children. Due to the ambiguity in the question of the Preconsession in Russia, an emergency was created - transformation.

The years of the reign of Emperor Nikolai I (1825-1855) is fairly regarded as "apogee autocracy". The Nikolaev reign began violent over the Decembrists and ended in the days of the defense of Sevastopol. Replacing the heir to the throne Alexander I was a surprise for Nicholas I, who was not prepared for the management of Russia.

On December 6, 1826, the First Secret Committee was created by the emperor, at the head of which the Chairman of the State Council of V. P. Kochubay became. Initially, the Committee was developing projects for the transformation of higher and local governance and the law "On States", i.e. on the rights of estates. It was assumed to consider the peasant question. However, in fact, the work of the Committee did not give any practical results, and in 1832 the Committee ceased to operate.

Nicholas I put the task to focus in my hands the decision of both general and private affairs, bypassing the relevant ministries and departments. The principle of personal power regime was embodied in his own imperial majesty of the office. She was divided into several offices interfering with the country's political, social and spiritual life.

The codification of Russian legislation was assigned returned from the reference M. M. Speransky, who intended to collect and classify all the laws that had had a fundamentally new system of legislation. However, conservative trends in domestic politics limited him a more modest task. Under his leadership, the laws adopted after the Cathedral Casting of 1649 were published in the "full meeting of the laws of the Russian Empire" in 45 volumes. In a separate "Code of Laws" (15 volumes), existing laws were placed, which consisted of legal status in the country. All this was directed also to strengthen the bureaucratization of management.

In 1837-1841 Under the leadership of Count P. D. Kiselev, a wide system of events was carried out - reform of government peasants. In 1826, a committee on educational institutions was established. His task it was: checking the charters of educational institutions, the development of uniform principles of education, the definition of training disciplines and benefits. The Committee has developed the basic principles of government government policy. They were legally enshrined in the charter of the lower and secondary educational institutions in 1828. The data, the closedness, the conclusion of each stage, the restriction in obtaining education by representatives of the lower estates, created the essence of the created education system.

The reaction collapsed on universities. Their network, however, has been expanded in connection with the needs of qualified personnel personnel. The charter of 1835 eliminated the university autonomy, tightened control over the trustees of educational districts, police and local self-government. The Minister of Folk Enlightenment was at this time S. S. Uvarov, who in his policy sought to combine "Wedding" Nicholas I with the development of educational and culture.

In 1826, a new censorship charter was published, which was called Cast-iron contemporaries. The main department of censorship was subordinate to the Ministry of Folk Enlightenment. The fight against advanced journalism was considered by Nikolai I, as one of the priority political tasks. One by one fell damage to the publication of magazines. 1831 was the date of termination of the publication of the "literary newspaper" A. A. Delvich, in 1832. "European" P. V. Kirievsky was closed, in 1834, "Moscow Telegraph" N. A. Polevoye, and B1836 " Telescope »N. I. Nethackin.

In the internal policies of the recent years of the reign of Nicholas I (1848-1855), the reaction-repressive line intensified even more.

By the middle of the 50s. Russia turned out to be "ear on clay legs." It predetermined the failures in foreign policy, defeat in the Crimean War (1853-1856) and caused reforms of the 60s.

Russia's foreign policy in the first half of the XIX century.

At the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries. Two directions in the foreign policy of Russia were clearly defined: Middle Eastern - the struggle for strengthening its position in the Transcaucasus, in the Black Sea and the Balkans and European - Russia's participation in coalition wars against Napoleonic France. One of the first acts of Alexander I after the entry into the throne was the restoration of relations with England. But Alexander I did not want to conflict with France. Normalization of relations with England and France allowed Russia to intensify its activities in the Middle East, mainly in the Caucasus region and Transcaucasus.

According to the manifesto, Alexander I dated September 12, 1801, the Georgian ruling bagration dynasty lost the throne, the management of cards and Kakheti moved to the Russian governor. In Eastern Georgia, the royal administration was introduced. In 1803-1804 In the same conditions, the remaining parts of Georgia were included in Russia - Mengrelia, Guri, Imeretius. Russia has become an important strategy territory to strengthen its position in the Caucasus and in Transcaucasia. Of great importance not only in strategic, but also in economic terms, it was completed in 1814. The construction of the military-Georgian road, which was connected by the Transcaucasia with European Russia.

The joining of Georgia collided Russia with Iran and the Ottoman Empire. The hostile attitude of these countries to Russia was heated by intrigues of England. In 1804, the war with Iran was carried out by Russia successfully: already within 1804-1806. The main part of Azerbaijan was attached to Russia. The war ended with accession in 1813 Talysh Khanate and the Mugan Steppe. In the Gulistan World, signed on October 24, 1813, Iran recognized the consolidation of these territories behind Russia. Russia was given the right to keep their military courts in the Caspian Sea.

In 1806, the war of Russia began with Turkey, which relied on the help of France, which supplied it with weapons. The reason for the war was shifting in August 1806 with the posts of the rulers of Moldova and Valahia at the insistence of the Napoleonic General Sebastiana who arrived in Turkey. In October 1806, Russian troops under the command of General I. I. Michelson took Moldova and Valachia. In 1807, D. N. Sensky's escade defeated the Ottoman fleet, but then the distraction of the fundamental forces of Russia to participate in the anti-drug coalition did not allow Russian troops to develop success. Only when in 1811 the commander of the Russian army was appointed M. I. Kutuzov, military actions took a completely different turn. The main forces of Kutuzov focused on the fortress Rushchuk, where June 22, 1811 inflicted the Ottoman Empire crushing defeat. Then the main blows of Kutuzov defeated the main forces of Ottomans on the left bank of the Danube in parts, the remnants of them folded the weapons and surrendered. On May 28, 1812, Kutuzov signed a peace treaty in Bucharest, according to which Moldova, which later received the status of the Bessarab region. Serbia, which rising to the struggle for independence in 1804 and the autonomy supported by Russia was presented.

In 1812, the Eastern part of Moldova entered Russia. Its western part (for the river. Prut) called the principality of Moldova remained in vassal dependence on the Ottoman Empire.

In 1803-1805 The international situation in Europe sharply aggravated. The strip of Napoleonic wars begins, in which all European countries were involved, incl. and Russia.

At the beginning of the XIX century. Under the rule of Napoleon was almost all the central and southern Europe. In foreign policy, Napoleon expressed the interests of the French bourgeoisie, competing with the Bourgeoisie of English in the struggle for world markets and for the colonial section of the world. The Anglo-French rivalry acquired a pan-European character and took the lead place in international relations at the beginning of the XIX century.

The proclamation in 1804 on May 18, Napoleon, the emperor further grew the situation. April 11, 1805 was concluded. The Anglo-Russian Military Convention, according to which Russia was obliged to set 180 thousand soldiers, and England to pay a subsidy of Russia in the amount of 2.25 million pounds of sterling and participate in land and maritime hostilities against Napoleon. Austria, Sweden and Neapolitan Kingdom have joined this convention. However, only Russian and Austrian troops with a number of 430 thousand soldiers were directed against Napoleon. Having learned about the movement of these troops, Napoleon took his army in the Boulogne camp and quickly moved it to Bavaria, where the Austrian army was held under the command of General Makka and the headwood broke it with Ulm.

Commanded by the Russian army M. I. Kutuzov, given the four-time superiority of Napoleon in the forces, by a number of skillful maneuvers, escaped a large battle and, having committed a heavy 400 kilometer maneuver, connected with another Russian army and Austrian reserves. Kutuzov offered to take the Russian-Austrian troops further to the East to collect enough strength to successfully conduct hostilities, but the emperors of Franz and Alexander I insisted under the army on the general battle of June 20, 1805. It happened with Austerlice (Czech Republic) and ended with the victory Napoleon. Austria capitulated and entered into a humiliating world. The coalition actually broke up. Russian troops were assigned to Russia and Russian-French talks about the world began in Paris. On July 8, 1806, a peace treaty was concluded in Paris, but Alexander I refused to ratify it.

In mid-September 1806, the fourth coalition against France (Russia, United Kingdom, Prussia and Sweden) was created. In the battle at Jena and Auersthedte, the Prussian troops were fully defeated. Almost all Prussia was occupied by French troops. The Russian army had one for 7 months to carry out a stubborn struggle against the superior forces of the French. The most significant were the battles of Russian troops with the French in Eastern Prussia on January 26-27, during Passache-Eilau and June 2, 1807 under Friedland. During these battles, Napoleon managed to push Russian troops to Neman, but he did not decide to enter into Russia and proposed to conclude the world. The meeting of Napoleon and Alexander I took place in Tilsit (on Neman) at the end of June 1807. The peace treaty was concluded on June 25, 1807

Accession to the continental blockade applied severe damage to the Russian economy, as England was its main trading partner. The conditions of the Tilzite world caused strong discontent both in conservative circles and in advanced circles of Russian society. A serious blow to the international prestige of Russia was inflicted. A painful impression of the Tilzite world was somewhat "compensated" by success in the Russian-Swedish war of 1808-1809, which became a consequence of Tilzist agreements.

The war began on February 8, 1808 and demanded a lot of strength from Russia. First, military actions were successful: In February-March 1808, the main city centers and fortresses of Southern Finland were occupied. Then the military actions were suspended. By the end of 1808, Finland was liberated from the Swedish troops, and in March, a 48-thousand body of M. B. Barclay de Tolly, having completed the transition along the ice of the combat bay, went to Stockholm. On September 5, 1809, the world was concluded between Russia and Sweden, according to the terms of which Finland and the Aland Islands passed to Russia. At the same time, contradictions between France and Russia were gradually deepened.

The new war between Russia and France became inevitable. The main motive for the unleashing war was the desire of Napoleon to the world domination, on the way to which Russia stood.

On the night of June 12, 1812, the Napoleonic army forced Nemman and invaded Russia. The left flank of the French army was 3 corps under the command of McDonald, which were advancing at Riga and St. Petersburg. The main, central group of troops consisting of 220 thousand people led by Napoleon was an offensive on Coveno and Vilna. Alexander I at that time was in wine. With the news of the transition of France of the Russian border, he sent to Napoleon General A. D. Balashov with peaceful sentences, but received a refusal.

Usually, Napoleon's war boiled down to one - two general battles, which solved the fate of the company. And on this rose, the calculation of Napoleon was to ensure that, using its numerical superiority, break the dispersed Russian army alone. On June 13, the French troops occupied Coveno, and on June 16, Vilna. Napoleon's attempt at the end of June to surround and destroy the Army Barclay de Tolly in the Dris camp (in Western Dvina) failed. Barclay de Tollya with a successful maneuver brought his army from the trap, which a DRISA camp could be and headed through Polotsk to Vitebsk on the connection with the Army of Bagration, which was south of the south in the direction of Bobruisk, the new bychika and Smolensk. The difficulties of the Russian army were further aggravated by the lack of a single command. On June 22, after the heavy arker fighting of the Army, Barclaya da Tolly and Bagration were connected in Smolensk.

The thrust fight of the Russian ariecard with the casual invertible parts of the French army on August 2 under the red (west of Smolensk) allowed Russian troops to strengthen Smolensk. On August 4-6, a bloody battle for Smolensk occurred. On the night of August 6, burned and destroyed city was left by Russian troops. In Smolensk, Napoleon decided to adopt Moscow. August 8, Alexander I signed a decree on the appointment of the commander-in-chief of the Russian army M. I. Kutuzov. In nine days of Kutuzov arrived in the existing army.

For the general battle of Kutuzov, he chose the position at the village of Borodino. On August 24, the French army approached the best strengthening to the Borodino Field - Shevardinsky Rally. Heavy battle has ringed: 12 thousand Russian soldiers held the entire day to restrain the onslaught of the 40,000 French squad. This battle helped to strengthen the left flank of the Borodino position. Borodino battle began at 5 am on August 26, the attack of the French division General Delzone on Borodino. Only by 16 o'clock was captured by Raevsky French Cavalry. By evening, Kutuzov gave an order to move back to a new line of defense. Napoleon stopped the attacks, limiting the artillery cannonade. As a result of the Borodino battle, both army suffered heavy losses. Russians lost 44 thousand, and the French are 58 thousand people.

1 (13) September in the village of Fili was collected by the military council, in which Kutuzov took the only right decision - to leave Moscow to preserve the army. The next day, the French army approached Moscow. Moscow was empty: no more than 10 thousand inhabitants remained in it. On the same night, fires that raged the whole week broke out at different points of the city. Russian army, leaving Moscow first moved to Ryazan. Near Kolomna Kutuzov, leaving a barrier of several Cossack regiments, turned his army from under the impact of the French cavalry. Russian army joined Tarutino. On October 6, Kutuzov suddenly strikes the corpus of Murat, standing on the river. Inhibit not far from Torutina. The defeat of Murata forced Napoleon to speed up the movement of the main forces of his army to Kaluga. Kutuzov sent his troops to him in the midwalls. On October 12, the battle occurred under Maloyaroslavetz, who forced Napoleon to abandon the movement to the south and turn to Vyazma on the broken war to the old Smolensk road. The retreat of the French army began, subsequently turned into flight, and its parallel persecution of the Russian army.

Since the invasion of Napoleon to Russia, they flared out in the country people's War against foreign invaders. After leaving Moscow and especially during the Tarutinsky camp, the partisan movement took a wide range. Partisan detachments, deploying a "small war", violated the communications of the enemy, carried out the role of intelligence, sometimes given real battles and actually blocked the retreating French army.

Departing from Smolensk to r. Berezina, the French army still retained combat capability, although he carried large losses from hunger, diseases. After crossing through the r. Berezin began the disorderly flight of the remains of the French troops. On December 5 in Smorgan Napoleon handed over the command of Marshal Murata, and Himself hurried to Paris. On December 25, 1812, the royal manifesto was issued, which heated on the end of the Patriotic War. Russia was the only country in Europe, capable of not only to resist the Napoleonic aggression, but also to apply a crushing defeat. But this victory went to the people an expensive price. 12 provinces that have become the enemy of the fighting were ruined. The ancient cities such as Moscow, Smolensk, Vitebsk, Polotsk, and others, were burned and ruined.

To ensure its security, Russia continued military actions and led the movement for the liberation of European peoples from French domination.

In September 1814, the Vienna Congress opened, on which the winner's powers solved the question of the post-war device of Europe. The allies were difficult to agree among themselves, because There were sharp contradictions, mainly on territorial issues. The work of the Congress was interrupted due to Napoleon's flight with about. Elba and restoration of 100 days of his power in France. The United States of European States inflicted him a final defeat in the battle of Waterloo in the summer of 1815, Napoleon was captured and Soslated on about. St. Helena from the west coast of Africa.

The ruling of the Vienna Congress led to the return of old dynasties in France, Italy, Spain and other countries. Of most Polish lands, the kingdom of Polish was created as part of the Russian Empire. In September 1815, Russian Emperor Alexander I, the Austrian Emperor Franz and Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm III signed an act of creating a sacred union. His author himself was Alexander I. The text of the Union contained the obligations of Christian monarchs to provide each other with all the assistance. Political goals - support for old monarchical dynasties based on the principle of legitimism (recognition of the legality of preserving their power), the fight against revolutionary movements in Europe.

At the Congress of the Union for 1818 to 1822. The suppression of revolutions in Naples (1820-1821), Piedmont (1821), in Spain (1820 -1823) was authorized. However, these actions were aimed at maintaining peace and stability in Europe.

The news of the uprising in St. Petersburg in December 1825 was perceived by the Shah government as a good time to unleash hostilities against Russia. On July 16, 1826, the 60-thousand Iranian army without declaring war invaded the limits of Transcaucasia and began the rapid movement on Tbilisi. But soon was stopped and began to tolerate defeat. At the end of August 1826, the Russian troops under the command of A. P. Yermolov completely cleaned the Transcaucasia from Iranian troops and hostilities were transferred to the territory of Iran.

Nicholas I, not trusting Yermolov (he suspected him in relations with the Decembrists), passed the command of the Caucasian District of I. F. Pashevich. In April 1827, the offensive of Russian troops in Eastern Armenia began. Local Armenian population rose to the help of Russian troops. In early July, Nakhichevan fell, and in October 1827 - Erivan - the largest fortresses in the center of Nakhichevan and Erivanian Khunni. Soon, all Eastern Armenia was released by Russian troops. At the end of October 1827, the Russian troops occupied Tauris - the second capital of Iran and quickly moved to Tehran. Among Iranian troops began panic. Under these conditions, the Shah government was forced to go to the world's conditions proposed by Russia. On February 10, 1828, the Turkmanchai peace treaty of Russia with Iran was signed. In Turkmanchai Agreement, Nakhichevan and Erivanian Khanate joined Russia.

In 1828, the Russian-Turkish war began, which was extremely severe for Russia. The troops accustomed to the front art, technically poorly equipped and led by the talentless generals, were initially unable to achieve any significant success. Soldiers are starved, among them the diseases were rapidly, from which heaven more than from enemy bullets. In the company of 1828, the price of considerable effort and losses managed to take Valachia and Moldova, go Danube and take the fortress Varna.

The company 1829 was more successful. The Russian army crossed the Balkans and at the end of June after a long siege took possession of the strong fortress of Silistria, then she was noisy, and in July Burgas and Sozopol. In the Transcaucasus, Russian troops besieged the Kars Fortress, Ardagan, Bayazet and Erzem. August 8 fell Adrianopol. Nicholas I tracked the commander-in-chief of the Russian Army Dibic with the conclusion of the world. On September 2, 1829, a peaceful treatise was concluded in Adrianopol. Russia received the mouth of the Danube, the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus from Anapa to approaches to the Batum. After the joining of the Transcaucasia, before the Russian government, it became the task of ensuring a stable environment in the North Caucasus. Under Alexander I, the general began promoting in charge of Chechnya and Dagestan, building military support points. The local population was rumped into the construction of fortresses, fortified points, the construction of roads and bridges. The result of the rebellion of the rebellion of the uprising in Kabarda and Adygea (1821-1826) and Chechnya (1825-1826), which, but subsequently were suppressed by the Ermolov Corps.

A large role in the movement of Highlanders of the Caucasus played Muridism, which was widespread among the Muslim population of the North Caucasus in the late 20s. XIX century He meant religious fanaticism and an implacable struggle against the "wrong", which gave him a nationalist character. In the North Caucasus, it was directed exclusively against the Russians and received the greatest distribution in Dagestan. There was a peculiar state - Immat. In 1834, Imam (head of state) became Shamil. Under his leadership in the North Caucasus, the struggle against the Russians intensified. She continued for 30 years. Shamil managed to combine the wide masses of the horses, carry out a number of successful operations against Russian troops. In 1848, his power was declared hereditary. It was the time of the greatest success of Shamil. But at the end of the 40s - early 50s, the city population, dissatisfied with feudal-theocratic orders in Imamate Shamil, began to gradually move away from movement, and Shamil began to endure failure. The mountaineers left Shamil with whole auls and stopped armed struggle against Russian troops.

Even Russia's failures in the Crimean War did not make facilitated the position of Shamil, who tried to actively promote the Turkish army. Failed his raids on Tbilisi. The peoples of Kabardia and Ossetia did not want to join Shamil and oppose Russia. In 1856-1857 Chechnya disappeared from Shamil. Began uprings against Shamil in the accident and Northern Dagestan. Under the onslaught of troops, Shamil retreated to South Dagestan. On April 1, 1859, General Evdokimov's troops took Shamil's "capital" - Aul was kept and destroyed it. Shamil with 400 Murids hid in Aulu Gunib, where August 26, 1859, after a long and stubborn resistance, surrendered. Imamat ceased to exist. B1863-1864. Russian troops occupied the entire territory along the northern slope of the Caucasian Range and suppressed the resistance of Circassians. Caucasian war ended.

For European absolutist states, the problem of combating revolutionary hazards was dominated in their foreign policy, it was associated with the main task of their internal policies - the preservation of feudal-serfdom.

In 1830-1831. In Europe, a revolutionary crisis arose. On July 28, 1830, a revolution broke out in France, who overthrew the bourbon dynasty. Upon learning of it, Nikolai I began to prepare the intervention of European monarchs. However, the sent delegations Nikolai I in Austria and Germany returned with anything. The monarchs did not decide to accept proposals, believing that this intervention could turn into serious social shocks in their countries. European monarchs recognized the new French king Louis Philippa Orleans, as follows and Nikolai I. In August 1830, a revolution in Belgium broke out, which declared himself an independent kingdom (earlier Belgium was part of the Netherlands).

Under the influence of these revolutions in November 1830, an uprising broke out in Poland, caused by the desire to return the independence of the borders of 1792. The prince of Konstantin managed to hide. A temporary government was formed from 7 people. I gathered on January 13, 1831, the Polish Sejm proclaimed the "identification" (deprivation of the Polish throne) Nicholas I and the independence of Poland. Against 50 thousand army of the rebels, 120 thousand army under the command of I. I. Dibica, who was embedded on February 13, a major defeat of the Poles under the gross. On August 27, after a powerful artillery cannonade, the storming of Warsaw's suburbs - Prague began. The next day, Warsaw fell, the uprising was suppressed. The Constitution of 1815 was annulled. According to the limited statute of the Kingdom of the Polish, published on February 14, 1832, the Polish was an integral part of the Russian Empire. Poland's management was assigned to the administrative council, at the head of which the Emperor's governor was put in Poland I. F. Pashevich.

In the spring of 1848, the wave of bourgeois-democratic revolutions covered Germany, Austria, Italy, Valachia and Moldova. At the beginning of 1849, the revolution broke out in Hungary. Nicholas I took advantage of the Austrian Habsburgs request for help in suppressing the Hungarian revolution. In early May 1849, 150 thousand Army I. F. Pashevich was directed to Hungary. A significant advantage of forces allowed Russian and Austrian troops to suppress the Hungarian revolution.

Especially acute for Russia was the question of the mode of the Black Sea strait. In the 30-40s. XIX century Russian diplomacy led a tense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, a UNKYAR-SKELECII contract was concluded between Turkey and Russia for a period of 8 years. Under this contract, Russia received the right to free wire of their warships through the straits. In the 40s, the situation has changed. Based on a number of agreements with European states, the straits were closed to all military fleets. It was hardly reflected in the Russian Fleet. He was locked in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on his military power, sought to respond to solving the problem of straits, strengthen positions in the Middle East and the Balkans. The Ottoman Empire wanted to return the territory lost as a result of Russian-Turkish wars in the late XVIII - the first half of the XIX century.

England and France hoped to crush Russia as a great power and deprive her influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula. In turn, Nicholas I sought to use the conflict for a decisive attack on the Ottoman Empire, believing that he would have to lead the war with a one weakened empire, hoped to agree with England about the section, according to his expression: "Inheritance of a sick person." He expected to isolation of France, as well as to support Austria for the "service" provided to her in the suppression of the revolution in Hungary. His calculations were erroneous. England did not go to his proposal about the section of the Ottoman Empire. The erroneous was the calculation of Nicholas I and that France does not have sufficient military forces for aggressive policies in Europe.

In 1850, a pan-European conflict began in the Middle East, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic Church, which of the churches belongs to the right to own the keys from the Vaflia temple, possess other religious monuments in Jerusalem. The Orthodox Church supported Russia, and Catholic - France. The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, rose to the side of France. This caused a sharp discontent of Russia and Nikolai I. In Constantinople, a special representative of King Prince A. S. Menshikov was sent to Constantinople. He was instructed to achieve privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and the right of patronage of the Orthodox, citizens of Turkey. However, his ultimatum was rejected.

Thus, the dispute about the holy places served as a reason to the Russian-Turkish, and later the European War. For pressure on Turkey in 1853, the Russian troops occupied the Danube Principles Moldova and Valachia. In response, Turkish Sultan in October 1853, supported by England and France declared the war of Russia. Nikolai I was published by the manifesto about the war with the Ottoman Empire. Military actions were deployed on the Danube and Transcaucasia. On November 18, 1853, Admiral P. S. Nakhimov at the head of the Squadron from six linear ships and two frigates defeated the Turkish fleet in the Sinop Bay and destroyed coastal fortifications. The brilliant victory of the Russian fleet in Sinopove was a reason for the proportion of direct intervention of England and France in a military conflict between Russia and Turkey, which was on the verge of defeat. In January 1854, 70 thousandth English-French Army was concentrated in Varna. In early March 1854, England and France showed Russia an ultimatum about the purification of Danube Principles, and without receiving an answer, declared the war of Russia. Austria for its part signed with the Ottoman Empire on the occupation of the Danube Principles and moved to their borders 300 thousandth army, threatening with Russia by Russia. Austria's requirement supported Prussia. At first, Nicholas I responded with refusal, but the Commander-in-Chief of the Danube Front I. F. Paskevich convinced him to bring troops from the Danube principalities, which were soon occupied by the Austrian troops.

The main purpose of the United Anglo-French Command was the seizure of Crimea and Sevastopol - the naval base of Russia. On September 2, 1854, the Allied forces began landing the landing on the Crimean Peninsula near Evpatoria as part of 360 ships and 62 thousandth army. Admiral P. S. Nakhimov ordered to sink the entire sailing fleet in the Sevastopol bay, in order to prevent allies ships. 52 thousand Russian troops, of which 33 thousand at 96 guns at Prince A. S. Menshikova, was located on the whole Crimean Peninsula. Under his leadership battle on r. Alma In September 1854, Russian troops lost. By order, Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol, and moved to Bakhchisaray. On September 13, 1854, the siege of Sevastopol began, which lasted 11 months.

The defenser was headed by the head of the Black Sea Fleet, Vice-Admiral V. A. Kornilov, and after his death, at the very beginning of the siege - P. S. Nakhimov, who was mortally wounded on June 28, 1855. The main part of the Russian army took distracting operations: the battle under Inkerman (November 1854), an offensive in Evpatoria (February 1855), battle on a black river (August 1855). These hostilities did not help Sevastopol. In August 1855, the last assault on Sevastopol began. After the fall of Malakhov Kurgan, to continue the defense was hopeless. At the Caucasus Theater, military operations developed more successfully for Russia. After the defeat of Turkey in the Transcaucasia, the Russian troops began to act on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish Fortress of Kars fell. Maintenance of hostilities was discontinued. Negotiations began.

On March 18, 1856, the Paris Mirny treatise was signed, through which the Black Sea was announced neutral. Russia has been rejected only by the southern part of Besarabia, however, she lost the right of the patronage of the Danube Principles in Serbia. With the "neutralization" of France, Russia was forbidden to have naval forces, arsenals and fortresses on the Black Sea. It applied a blow to the safety of southern borders. The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the placement of international forces and the inner position of Russia. The defeat failed the sad outcome to the Nikolaev rule, the social masses stirred and forced the government to tightly to reform the state.



1. Socio-economic and political development of Russia under Alexandra 1.

2. Internal and foreign policy of Nicholas 1.

3. Alexander 2 reforms and their meaning.

4. The main features of the country's development in the pureformal period.

By the beginning of the 19th century, Russia was the largest world power, stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean, from the Arctic to the Caucasus and the Black Sea. The population increased sharply and amounted to 43.5 million people. Approximately 1% of the population was a nobility, and the Orthodox clergy, merchants, burghers, Cossacks, was also a few. 90% of the population were state, landlord and specific (formerly palace) peasants. In the studied period in a social strict country, everything is more clearly a new trend - the class system gradually makes himself up, strictly distinguishing the estates goes into the past. New features appeared and in the economic sphere - serfdom inhibits the development of landlord economy, market formation work force, growth of manufactories, trade, cities, which indicated the crisis of the feudal-serf system. Russia acutely needed reforms.

Alexander 1, when he joined the throne ((1801-1825), announced the revival of Catherine traditions of the Board and restored the action by the father of the complained governance and cities, returned from the referencing from the link about 12 thousand repressed persons, opened the borders to leave the nobles, allowed foreign subscriptions The publication, abolished the secret expedition, announced freedom of trade, announced the cessation of the suggestions of the peasants of the peasants in private hands. Back in the 90s. With Alexander, a circle of young like-minded people, who immediately after his jurgement were included in the segless committee, which was actually the government of the country. In 1803, he signed a decree on "free blades", according to which the landowners could release their fortresses to the will with the land for the redemption by whole villages or individual families. Although the practical results of this reform were small (0.5% D.M.) The main ideas were based on the peasant reform of 1861. In 1804, peasant reform was launched in the Baltic States: Es were clearly defined by payments and the size of the mantles of the peasants, the principle of inheritance of land with peasants was introduced. Special attention to the emperor paid the reform of the central government bodies - in 1801 created an indispensable Council, replaced by the State Council in 1810. In 1802-1811. The college system was replaced by 8 ministries: military, maritime, justice, finance, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce and public enlightenment. Senate under Alexander 1 acquired the status of the highest court and carried out control over the local authorities. The projects of reforms put forward in 1809-1810 were of great importance. Stats-Secretaria, Deputy Minister of Justice M.M. Speransky. State reforms Speranski assumed a clear separation of the authorities to the legislative ( The State Duma), executive (ministries) and judicial (Senate), the introduction of the principle of the presumption of innocence, recognition of electoral rights behind the nobles, merchants and state peasants and the possibilities of lower classes to move to the highest. Economic reforms Speranski envisaged a reduction in public spending, the introduction of a special tax on landlord and specific estates, termination of the issuance not secured by the values \u200b\u200bof bonds and others. The implementation of these reforms would lead to the restriction of autocracy, the abolition of serfdom. Therefore, the reforms caused dissatisfaction of the nobles and criticized. Alexander 1 sent Speransky retired and exiled first to the bottom, and then to Perm.

An unusually active and fruitful was the foreign policy of Alexander. With it, Georgia turned out to be included in Russia (as a result of the active expansion of Turkey and Iran in Georgia, the latter applied for the patronage of Russia), North Azerbaijan (as a result of the Russian-Iranian war of 1804-1813), Bessarabia (as a result of the Russian-Turkish war 1806-1812), Finland (as a result of the Russian-Swedish war of 1809). The main direction of foreign policy at the beginning of the 19th century. There was a struggle with Napoleonic France. By this time, a significant part of Europe was already occupied by the French troops, in 1807. After a number of defeats, Russia signed a humiliating Tilzite world for her. With the beginning of the Patriotic War in June 1812. The emperor was as part of the army. IN Patriotic War 1812. Several stages can be distinguished:

December 1, June 4-5, 1812. The French army is transferred through Neman (220-160) and moves to Smolensk, where they held a bloody battle between Napoleon's army and the Barclay de Tolly and Bagrationi united armies. The French army lost 20 thousand soldiers and after a 2-day assault entered the destroyed and burned Smolensk.

1.13 August 5 -26 Agust- Offensive of Napoleon to Moscow and Borodino battle, after which Kutuzov leaves Moscow.

1.14 September- Start of October 1812- Napoleon robitis and burns Moscow, Kutuzov's troops are replenished and rest in the Tarutinsky camp.

1.15 started October 1812 - December 25, 1812. The efforts of the Kutuzov army (the battle near Maloyaroslavets October 12) and the partisans move the movement of Napoleon's army to the south was stopped, it is returning on a ruined Smolensk road; Most of his army dies, Napoleon himself secretly runs to Paris. On December 25, 1812, Alexander published a special manifesto on the expulsion of the enemy from Russia and the end of the Patriotic War.

However, the expulsion of Napoleon from Russia did not give guarantees of the country's security, so on January 1, 1813, the Russian army crossed the border and began the persecution of the opponent, a significant part of Poland was liberated, Berlin, and in October 1813. After creating the anti-Napoleon coalition in the composition of Russia, England, Prussia, Austria and Sweden in the famous "Battle of Peoples" under Leipzig, Napoleon's army suffered defeat. In March 1814, the Allied troops (the Russian army, led by Alexander 1) entered Paris. At the Vienna Congress 1814. The territory of France was restored in pre-revolutionary borders, and a significant part of Poland became part of Russia along with Warsaw. In addition, Russia, Prussia and Austria, created the Holy Union for the joint struggle against the revolutionary movement in Europe.

The post-war policy of Alexander has changed significantly. Fearing the revolutionary impact on the Russian Society of FR ideas, a more progressive political system established in the West, the emperor banned the secret societies in Russia (1822), creates military settlements 91812), the secret police in the army (1821), strengthens the ideological pressure on the university public. Nevertheless, during this period, he does not depart from the ideas of the reform of Russia, signs the Constitution of the Kingdom of Polish (1815), declares its intention to introduce the constitutional system throughout Russia. On his instructions, N.I. Novosillese developed a stately authorized diploma, which contained the other elements of constitutionalism. From his knowledge A.A. Arakcheev prepared special projects for the gradual liberation of serfs. However, all this did not change general character Political course conducted by Alexander1. In September 1825, during a trip to Crimea, he fell ill and died in Taganrog. With his death, a dynastic crisis arose, caused by secret addiction (after the life of Alexander 1), the duties of the throne of the Grand Prince Konstantin Pavlovich. This situation was used by the Decembris-social movement, which arose after the war of 1812. And the priority of the personality of man, his freedoms over all the rest.

On December 14, 1825, on the day of the oath, Nikolai 1, the Decembrists raised the uprising, which was brutally suppressed. This fact largely predetermined the essence of the policy of Nicholas 1, the main direction of which was the struggle with freedomiff. It is not by chance that its reign period - 1825-1855- is called apogee autocracy. In 1826, 3 branch of his own imperial Majesty of the Office, which became the main tool for controlling the mindset and the struggle against dissenters. Under Nicolae, the official government ideological doctrine, "theory of official nationality", was taken shape, the essence of its author Count Uvarov expressed in Formula-Orthodoxy, autocracy, nation. The reaction policy of Nicholas 1 was mostly manifested in the field of enlightenment and printing, which was most brightly manifested in the charter of educational institutions of 1828, the university charter of 1835, a censored charter of 1826, numerous prohibitions for publishing magazines. Among the most important events of the reign of Nicholas:

1. Reform management of state peasants P.D. Kiselev, which consisted in the introduction of self-government, the basis of schools, hospitals, allocating the best lands under the "Public Sparge" in the villages of state peasants;

2. Inventory reform - in 1844, in Western provinces, committees were created to generate "inventories", i.e. Descriptions of landlord estates with accurate fixation of peasant incidents and duties in favor of a landowner who could not be changed;

3. Codification of laws M.M. Speransky- In 1833, PSZ RI and "Code of Existing Laws" were published in 15 volumes;

4. Financial reform E.F. Kancina, the main directions of which began to transform the silver ruble to the main payment agent, the release of credit tickets, freely exchanged on silver;

5. Introduction to the first railway railways.

Despite the rigid government course Nikolai 1, it was during the years of his rule in Russia that there is a wide social movement in which three main directions can be distinguished by a conservative (headed by Uvarov, Shevyrev, Pogodin, Greek, Bulgarian), revolutionary democratic (Herzen, Ogarov, Petrashevsky), Westerners and Slavophiles (Cavelin, Granovsky, Brothers Aksakov, Samarine, etc.).

In the field of foreign policy, Nicholas 1 considered the main tasks of his reign, the expansion of Russia's influence on the state of affairs in Europe and the world, as well as the struggle against the revolutionary motion. To this end, in 1833, along with Monarchs, Prussia and Austria, he issued a political union (sacred), for several years, identifying the alignment of forces in Europe in favor of Russia. In 1848, he broke a relationship with revolutionary France, and in 1849, ordered the Russian army to suppress the Hungarian revolution. In addition, Nikolai 1 significant part of the budget (up to 40%) was spent on military needs. The main direction in the foreign policy of Nicholas became the "Eastern Question", which led Russia to wars with Iran and Turkey (1826-1829) and international isolation at the beginning of the 50s. Ended by the Crimean War (1853-1856). For Russia, the decision of the Eastern Question meant ensuring the safety of southern borders, the establishment of control over the Black Sea Strait, strengthening the political influence on the Balkan and Middle Eastern regions. The reason for the war was the dispute between Catholic (France) and the Orthodox (Russia) clergy about the "Palestinian shrines". In fact, it was about strengthening the position of these camp in the Middle East. England and Austria, the support of which was counted Russia in this war, switched to strand France. On October 16, 1853 after entering Russia's troops in Moldova and Valachia under the pretext of the protection of the Orthodox population, the Turkish Sultan declared the war of Russia. England and France made OI allies. (November 18, 1853. The last major battle of the era of the sailing fleet of the Sailing Fleet, October 54- August 55-Siege of Sevastopol) because of the military-technical backwardness, the priesthood of the military command, Russia lost this war and in March 1856 was signed peaceful in Paris The contract by which Russia lost the islands in the Danube and South Bessarabia delta, returned to Turkey Kars, and in exchange received Sevastopol and Evpatoria, deprived of the right to have a military fleet, fortresses and arsenals on the Black Sea. The Crimean War showed the backwardness of fortress Russia and significantly lowered the international prestige of the country.

After the death of Nicholas in 1855 Alexander 2 (1855-1881) joined the throne (1855-1881). He immediately amnestied the Decembrists, Petrashevtsev, the participants of the Polish uprising of 1830-31. And announced the beginning of the reform era. In 1856, he personally headed the Special Secret Committee to cancel serfdom, later gave an indication of the establishment of the provincial committees to prepare local reform projects. On February 19, 1861, Alexander 2 signed the "Regulations on reform" and "Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom." The main provisions of the reform:

1. The fortress peasants received personal freedom and independence from the landowner (they could not be made, to sell, buy, resettled, lay, but their civil rights were incomplete, they continued to pay the pillow to submit, carried the recruitous service, corporal punishment;

2. The elected peasant self-government was introduced;

3. The owner of the land in the estate remained a landowner; The peasants received the established land put on the ransom, which was equal to the annual summary summary, increased by an average of 17 times. The state paid the landlord of 80% of the amount, 20% paid the peasants. Within 49 years, the peasants had to return the debt to the state with%. Before the redemption of the Earth, the peasants were considered temporaryly obligated towards the landowner and carried old ultrasound. The owner of the land was a community, to get out of which the peasant could not be paid before the redemption.

Cancellation of serfdom made inevitable reforms in other areas of Russian society. Among them:

1. Zemskoy reform (1864) - the creation of non-symptomed elected bodies of local governments. The provinces and counties were created by the administrative bodies of Zemstvo Meetings and executive bodies of the urban councils. Elections to the county Zemsky collections were held 1 time in 3 years at 3 election congresses. Voters were divided into three curias: landowners, citizens and elected from rural societies. The Zemstvas solved local problems - the discovery of schools, hospitals, construction and repair of roads, providing assistance to the population in lack of town years, etc.

2. Urban reform (1870) - the creation of urban dums and urban councils, decisive business issues of cities. Headed these institutions of the city chapter. The right to elect and be elected was limited to property valuable.

3. Judicial reform (1864) - A Court, secret, dependent on the administration and the police, was replaced by a nonsense, a vice competing, an independent court with the selection of some judicial authorities. The guilt or innocence of the defendant established 12 jury meetings from all classes. The sentence was determined by the government and 2 member of the Court appointed by the government, and only the Senate or Military Court could be sentenced to the death penalty. 2 system of ship-world systems were established (created in counties and cities, minor criminal and civil cases) and general-district courts, created within the limits of provinces and court chambers that united several judicial districts. (Political Cases, Official Crimes)

4. Military reform (1861-1874) - Recruited sets and a universal military service (from 20 years old are all men), the service life is reduced to 16 years in infantry and 7 years in the fleet and depended on the degree of education of the serviceman. The Military System was also reformed: 15 military districts were introduced in Russia, the administration of which was subordinate to the military minister. In addition, military schools were reformed, re-equipment was carried out, corporate punishment and others were canceled. As a result, the Russian military forces turned into a mass army of modern type.

In general, Liberal Reforms A 2, for which he was nusted by the Obligator, were progressive and were of great importance for Russia - contributed to the development of market relations in the economy, the increase in the standard of living and education of the country's population, an increase in the country's defense capability.

During the period of the Board, a 2 large scope reaches a social movement in which 3 main directions can be distinguished:

1. Conservative (rinks), who spent the political stability and reflecting the interests of the nobility;

2. Liberal (Cavelin, Chicherin) with the requirements of various freedoms (freedom from the serfdom, freedom of conscience, public opinion, typography, teaching, publicity of the court). The weakness of Liberals was that they did not put forward the main liberal principle of the introduction of the Constitution.

3. Revolutionary (Herzen, Chernyshevsky), the main slogans of which were the introduction of the Constitution, the freedom of the press, the transfer of the peasants of the entire Earth and the appeal of the people to active actions. Revolutionaries in 1861 created a secret illegal organization "Earth and Volya", in 1879. Splitted for 2 organizations: the propaganda "black redistribution" and the terrorist "folk will". The ideas of Herzen and Chernyshevsky became the basis of the nationality (Lavrov, Bakunin, Tkachev), but those organized by their walking in the people (1874 and 1877) were unsuccessful.

Thus, a feature of the social movement of the 60-80s. There was a weakness of a liberal center and strong extreme groupings.

Foreign policy. As a result of the continuation, the Caucasus was initiated by Alexander 1 of the Caucasian War (1817-1864) to Russia. In 1865-1881. Turkestan entered Russia, the borders of Russia and China on Amur are fixed. And 2 continued his father's attempts to solve the "Eastern Question", in 1877-1878. Len war with Turkey. In matters of foreign policy, he focused on Germany; In 1873 he concluded with Germany and Austria "Union of Three Emperors." March 1, 1881 A2. It was mortally wounded on the Ekaterininsky Channel Embankment Bomb of the People's Office I.I. Grinevitsky.

In the varying period, serious changes occur in the social structure of Russian society and the economy of the country. The process of stratification of the peasantry is enhanced, the bourgeoisie, the working class is formed, the number of intelligentsia is growing, i.e. The textures are erased and the formation of communities for economic, class sign takes place. By the beginning of the 80s. In Russia, the industrial revolution is completed - the creation of a powerful economic base began, the industry is being modernized, its organization in capitalist principles.

A3 Upon joining the throne in 1881 (1881-1894) immediately declared the refusal of reformists, but the first events continued the previous course: a mandatory ransom was introduced, redemption payments were destroyed, the convening plans of the Zemstvo Cathedral were developed, the peasant bank was established, Canceled the pillow (1882), provided the benefits to the Old Believers (1883). At the same time, A3 defeated the "folk will". With the arrival of the Government of Tolstoy (1882), there was a change in the domestic political course, which began to be based on the "revival of inviolability of autocracy". For this purpose, the control over the seal was strengthened, special rights were given to the nobility in obtaining higher educationThe noble bank was established, measures taken to conservate the peasant community. In 1892, with appointment to the post of Minister of Finance S.Yu. Witte, whose program included hard tax policies, protectionism, wide attraction of foreign capital, the introduction of the Golden Ruble, the introduction of a state monopoly on the production and sale of vodka, the "Golden Decade of the Russian Industry" begins.

At A3, serious changes occur in public movement: conservatism (rinks, victoriousness) increases, after the defeat of the "People's Will", reformist liberal population began to play a significant role, Marxism (Plekhanov, Ulyanov) was distributed. In 1883, Russian Marxists create a group of Labor Liberation, in 1895 Ulyanov organizes the "Union of the struggle for the liberation of the working class" in St. Petersburg, and in 1898 the RSDLP was founded in Minsk.

With 3, Russia did not led large wars (peacemaker), but still significantly expanded its borders in Central Asia. In European Policy and 3 continued to navigate the Union with Germany and Austria, and in 1891. Signed the Union Agreement with France.