Literary tricks of the writer, which can be useful to everyone. Poetic techniques

Everyone knows that art is the self-expression of an individual, and literature, therefore, is the self-expression of the personality of a writer. The "baggage" of the writing person consists of vocabulary, speech techniques, skills in using these techniques. The richer the artist's palette, the more opportunities he has when creating a canvas. The same is with the writer: the more expressive his speech, the brighter images, the deeper and more interesting the statements, the stronger the emotional impact on the reader his works will be able to have.

Among the means of speech expressiveness, often called "artistic devices" (or otherwise figures, tropes) in literary creation, the metaphor is in the first place in terms of frequency of use.

Metaphor is used when we use a word or expression in a figurative sense. This transfer is carried out according to the similarity of individual features of the phenomenon or object. More often than not, it is the metaphor that creates the artistic image.

There are quite a few varieties of metaphor, among them:

metonymy is a trope that mixes meanings by contiguity, sometimes involving the imposition of one meaning on another

(examples: "I'm still shooting a plate!"; "Van Gogh is hanging on the third floor");

(examples: "nice boy"; "pitiful little man", "bitter bread");

comparison - a figure of speech that characterizes an object through comparing one with another

(examples: “as the flesh of a child is fresh, as the call of the flute is tender”);

personification - "revitalization" of objects or phenomena of inanimate nature

(examples: "ominous haze"; "autumn cried"; "blizzard howled");

hyperbole and litota - a figure in the meaning of exaggeration or understatement of the described subject

(examples: "he always argues"; "sea of tears"; "there was no poppy dew in his mouth");

sarcasm is an evil, sarcastic mockery, sometimes outright verbal mockery (for example, in the recent times rap battles);

irony is a mocking statement when the speaker means something completely different (for example, the works of I. Ilf and E. Petrov);

humor is a trope that expresses a cheerful and most often good-natured mood (in this vein, for example, the fables of I.A.Krylov are written);

grotesque - a figure of speech that deliberately violates the proportions and true dimensions of objects and phenomena (it was often used in fairy tales, another example is “Gulliver's Travel” by J. Swift, the work of NV Gogol);

pun - deliberate ambiguity, a play on words based on their ambiguity

(examples can be found in anecdotes, as well as in the works of V. Mayakovsky, O. Khayyam, K. Prutkov, etc.);

oxymoron - a combination in one expression of the incompatible, two conflicting concepts

(examples: "scary handsome", "original copy", "flock of comrades").

but speech expressiveness is not limited to stylistic figures only. In particular, we can also mention sound writing, which is an artistic device that implies a certain order of construction of sounds, syllables, words to create an image or mood, imitation of sounds the real world... The reader will often find sound writing in poetry, but this technique is also found in prose.

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Literary and poetic techniques

Allegory

Allegory is the expression of abstract concepts through concrete artistic images.

Allegory examples:

The stupid and stubborn are often called the Donkey, the coward - the Hare, the cunning - the Fox.

Alliteration (sound writing)

Alliteration (sound writing) is the repetition of identical or homogeneous consonants in a verse, which gives it a special sound expressiveness (in versification). In this case, the high frequency of these sounds in a relatively small speech section is of great importance.

However, if whole words or word forms are repeated, as a rule, we are not talking about alliteration. Alliteration is characterized by irregular repetition of sounds, and this is precisely the main feature of this literary technique.

Alliteration differs from rhyme primarily in that the repetitive sounds are concentrated not at the beginning and end of the line, but absolutely derivatively, albeit with a high frequency. The second difference is the fact that, as a rule, consonants are alliterated. The main functions of the literary technique of alliteration include onomatopoeia and the subordination of the semantics of words to associations that evoke sounds in a person.

Examples of alliteration:

"Where the grove neighing guns neighs."

"Up to a hundred years
grow
us without old age.
Year to year
grow
our cheerfulness.
Praise,
hammer and verse,
the land of youth. "

(V.V. Mayakovsky)

Repetition of words, phrases, or sound combinations at the beginning of a sentence, line, or paragraph.

For example:

“The winds were not blowing in vain,

The thunderstorm was not in vain "

(S. Yesenin).

Black-eyed girl

Black-maned horse!

(M.Lermontov)

Quite often, anaphora, as a literary device, forms a symbiosis with such a literary device as gradation, that is, an increase in the emotional character of words in the text.

For example:

"The cattle dies, the friend dies, the man himself dies."

Antithesis (opposition)

Antithesis (or opposition) is a comparison of words or phrases that are sharply different or opposite in meaning.

The antithesis makes it possible to make a particularly strong impression on the reader, to convey to him the strong excitement of the author due to the rapid change of the opposite in meaning concepts used in the text of the poem. Also, the opposing emotions, feelings and experiences of the author or his hero can be used as an object of opposition.

Examples of antithesis:

I swear by the first day of creation, I swear by its last day (M. Lermontov).

Whoever was nothing will become everything.

Antonomasia

Antonomasia is an expressive means, when using which the author uses a proper name instead of a common noun for a figurative disclosure of the character's character.

Examples of antonomasia:

He is Othello (instead of "He's a big jealous man")

The stingy is often called Plyushkin, the empty dreamer - Manilov, the person with excessive ambitions - Napoleon, etc.

Apostrophe, address

Assonance

Assonance is a special literary technique that involves repeating vowel sounds in a given utterance. This is the main difference between assonance and alliteration, where consonants are repeated. There are two slightly different uses of assonance.

1) Assonance is used as an original instrument that gives artistic text, especially poetic, special flavor. For example:

Our ears are on top of our heads
A little morning lit up the cannons
And the forests are blue tops -
The French are right there.

(M.Yu. Lermontov)

2) Assonance is widely used to create imprecise rhymes. For example, "the hammer city", "the princess is incomparable."

One of the textbook examples of the use of both rhyme and assonance in one quatrain is an excerpt from the poetic work of V. Mayakovsky:

I will turn not into Tolstoy, so into fat -
I eat, I write, from the heat of the bald.
Who has not philosophized over the sea?
Water.

Exclamation

An exclamation can appear anywhere in a poetic work, but, as a rule, authors use it, intonationally highlighting especially emotional moments in a verse. At the same time, the author focuses the reader's attention on the moment that particularly excited him, informing him of his experiences and feelings.

Hyperbola

Hyperbole is a figurative expression containing an exaggerated exaggeration of the size, strength, meaning of any object or phenomenon.

Hyperbole example:

Some houses are as long as the stars, others are as long as the moon; to the skies of baobabs (Mayakovsky).

Inversion

From lat. inversio - permutation.

Changing the traditional order of words in a sentence to give the phrase a more expressive shade, intonational highlighting of a word.

Inversion examples:

The lonely sail is white
In the fog of the blue sea ... (M.Yu. Lermontov)

The traditional order requires a different construction: A lone sail in the blue mist of the sea gleams white. But this will no longer be Lermontov and not his great creation.

Another great Russian poet Pushkin considered inversion one of the main figures poetic speech, moreover, the poet often used not only contact, but also remote inversion, when other words are wedged between them when the words are rearranged: "An old man obedient to Perun alone ...".

Inversion in poetic texts performs an accent or semantic function, a rhythm-forming function for building a poetic text, as well as the function of creating a verbal-figurative picture. In prose works, inversion serves to arrange logical stress, to express the author's attitude to the characters and to convey their emotional state.

Irony is a powerful means of expression that has a tinge of mockery, sometimes light mockery. When using irony, the author uses words with the opposite meaning in meaning so that the reader himself guesses about the true properties of the described object, object or action.

Pun

Play on words. A witty expression, a joke based on the use of words that sound similar but different in meaning, or different meanings one word.

Examples of puns in literature:

In a year for three clicks on your forehead,
Give me boiled spelled.
(A.S. Pushkin)

And the verse that served me before,
Torn by a string, verse.
(D.D. Minaev)

Spring will drive anyone crazy. Ice - and that started.
(E. Meek)

The opposite of hyperbole, a figurative expression containing an exorbitant understatement of the size, strength, value of any object or phenomenon.

Litota example:

The horse is being led by the bridle by a peasant in large boots, in a sheepskin coat, in large mittens ... and he himself has a fingernail! (Nekrasov)

Metaphor

Metaphor is the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison. The metaphor is based on similarity or similarity.

Transferring the properties of one object or phenomenon to another according to the principle of their similarity.

Examples of metaphors:

A sea of problems.

The eyes are burning.

Desire boils.

The afternoon was blazing.

Metonymy

Examples of metonymy:

All flags will visit us.

(flags replace countries here).

I ate three plates.

(here the plate replaces the meal).

Address, apostrophe

Oxymoron

Deliberate combination of conflicting concepts.

Look, she has fun to be sad

So smartly naked

(A. Akhmatova)

Impersonation

Impersonation is the transfer of human feelings, thoughts and speech to inanimate objects and phenomena, as well as to animals.

These signs are selected according to the same principle as when using a metaphor. Ultimately, the reader has a special perception of the described object, in which the inanimate object has the image of a living being or is endowed with the qualities inherent in living beings.

Examples of impersonation:

What, dense forest,

Thoughtful
With sadness in the dark
Fogged out?

(A.V. Koltsov)

Caution wind
I came out of the gate,

Knocked on the window
I ran across the roof ...

(M.V. Isakovsky)

Parcelling

Parcellation is a syntactic technique in which a sentence is intonationally divided into independent segments and highlighted in writing as independent sentences.

Parcel example:

“He went too. To the store. Buy cigarettes ”(Shukshin).

Periphrase

A periphery is an expression that descriptively conveys the meaning of another expression or word.

Examples of paraphrase:

King of beasts (instead of a lion)
Mother of Russian rivers (instead of the Volga)

Pleonasm

Verbosity, the use of logically redundant words.

Examples of pleonasm in everyday life:

In the month of May (suffice it to say: in May).

Local Aboriginal (suffice it to say: Aboriginal).

White albino (suffice it to say: albino).

I was there personally (suffice it to say: I was there).

In literature, pleonasm is often used as a stylistic device, a means of expressiveness.

For example:

Sadness-melancholy.

Sea ocean.

Psychologism

An in-depth image of the hero's mental and emotional experiences.

A repeating verse or group of verses at the end of a song verse. When a refrain grows into an entire stanza, it is usually called a chorus.

A rhetorical question

A proposal in the form of a question that is not expected to be answered.

Or is it new for us to argue with Europe?

Or has the Russian lost the habit of victories?

(A.S. Pushkin)

Rhetorical appeal

An appeal addressed to an abstract concept, an inanimate object, an absent person. A way to enhance the expressiveness of speech, to express an attitude towards a particular person, object.

Russia! where are you rushing?

(N.V. Gogol)

Comparisons

Comparison is one of the expressive techniques, when used, certain properties most characteristic of an object or process are revealed through similar qualities of another object or process. At the same time, such an analogy is made so that the object, the properties of which are used in comparison, is better known than the object described by the author. Also, inanimate objects, as a rule, are compared with animate ones, and the abstract or spiritual with the material.

Comparison example:

Then my life sang - howl -

Buzzed - like the autumn surf -

And she cried over herself.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

A symbol is an object or word that conventionally expresses the essence of a phenomenon.

The symbol contains a figurative meaning, and in this it is close to the metaphor. However, this closeness is relative. The symbol contains a certain secret, a hint that allows only guessing what is meant, what the poet wanted to say. The interpretation of the symbol is possible not so much by reason as by intuition and feeling. The images created by symbolist writers have their own characteristics, they have a two-dimensional structure. In the foreground - a certain phenomenon and real details, in the second (hidden) plane - the inner world of the lyrical hero, his visions, memories, pictures generated by his imagination.

Examples of symbols:

Dawn, morning - symbols of youth, the beginning of life;

Night is a symbol of death, the end of life;

Snow is a symbol of coldness, cold feeling, alienation.

Synecdoche

Replacing the name of an object or phenomenon with the name of a part of this object or phenomenon. In short, replacing the name of a whole with the name of a part of that whole.

Examples of synecdoches:

Home (instead of "home").

The sail is floating (instead of "sailing boat is sailing").

“... and it was heard until dawn,
how the Frenchman rejoiced ... "(Lermontov)

(here "French" instead of "French soldiers").

Tautology

Repetition in other words of what has already been said, which means that it does not contain new information.

Examples:

Car tires are tires for a car.

We have come together.

Trope is an expression or a word used by the author in a figurative, allegorical sense. Thanks to the use of tropes, the author gives the described object or process a vivid characteristic that evokes certain associations in the reader and, as a result, a sharper emotional reaction.

Types of trails:

Metaphor, allegory, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, irony.

Default

Silence is a stylistic device in which the expression of thought remains unfinished, is limited to a hint, the speech started is interrupted in the expectation of the reader's guess; the speaker, as it were, declares that he will not talk about things that do not require detailed or additional explanation. Quite often the stylistic effect of silence is that an unexpectedly interrupted speech is complemented by an expressive gesture.

Default examples:

This fable could be better explained -

Yes, so as not to tease the geese ...

Gain (gradation)

Gradation (or amplification) is a series of homogeneous words or expressions (images, comparisons, metaphors, etc.) that consistently intensify, increase or, conversely, lower the semantic or emotional significance of the transmitted feelings, the expressed thought or the described event.

An example of upward gradation:

I do not regret, do not call, do not cry…

(S. Yesenin)

In sweetly hazy care

Not an hour, not a day, not a year will go away.

(E. Baratynsky)

Downward gradation example:

He promises half the world, And France only himself.

Euphemism

A word or expression that is neutral in meaning, which in conversation replaces other expressions considered indecent or inappropriate in this case.

Examples:

I'm going to powder my nose (instead of going to the toilet).

He was asked to leave the restaurant (he was kicked out instead).

Figurative definition of an object, action, process, event. The epithet is a comparison. Grammatically, an epithet is most often an adjective. However, other parts of speech can also be used in its capacity, for example, numerals, nouns or verbs.

Examples of epithets:

Velvet skin, crystal ringing.

Repetition of the same word at the end of adjacent segments of speech. The opposite of anaphora, in which words are repeated at the beginning of a sentence, line, or paragraph.

"Festoons, all scallops: scallop cape, scallop on the sleeves, scallop epaulettes ..." (N. V. Gogol).

What are art techniques for? First of all, in order for the work to correspond to a certain style, implying a certain imagery, expressiveness and beauty. Moreover, the writer is a master of associations, an artist of words, and a great contemplator. Artistic techniques in poem and prose make the text deeper. Consequently, both the prose writer and the poet are not satisfied with just the linguistic layer; they are not limited to using only the superficial, basic meaning of the word. In order to be able to penetrate into the depths of thought, into the essence of the image, it is required to use various artistic means.

In addition, the reader needs to be enticed and attracted. To do this, various techniques are used, giving special interest to the narrative and some mystery that needs to be solved. Artistic means are called in another way paths. These are not only integral elements of the overall picture of the world, but also the author's assessment, the background and the general tone of the work, as well as many other things that we, reading the next creation, sometimes do not even think about.

The main artistic techniques are metaphor, epithet and comparison. Although the epithet is often viewed as a kind of metaphor, but we will not go into the jungle of the science of "literary criticism" and traditionally single it out as a separate means.

Epithet

Epithet is the king of description. Not a single landscape, portrait, interior is complete without it. Sometimes a single correctly chosen epithet is much more important than a whole paragraph, created specifically for clarification. Most often, speaking about it, we mean participles or adjectives that endow this or that artistic image with additional properties and characteristics. The epithet should not be confused with simple definition.

So, for example, the following words can be proposed to describe the eyes: live, brown, bottomless, large, painted, crafty. Let's try to divide these adjectives into two groups, namely: objective (natural) properties and subjective (additional) characteristics. We will see that words such as "big", "brown" and "painted" convey by their meaning only what anyone can see, since it lies on the surface. In order for us to imagine the appearance of this or that hero, such definitions are very important. However, it is the "bottomless", "living", "crafty" eyes that will best tell us about his inner essence and character. We begin to guess that there is an unusual person in front of us, inclined to various inventions, having a living, mobile soul. This is precisely the main property of epithets: to indicate those features that are hidden from us during the initial examination.

Metaphor

Let's move on to another equally important path - metaphor. comparison expressed by a noun. The author's task here is to compare phenomena and objects, but very carefully and tactfully so that the reader cannot guess that we are imposing this object on him. This is exactly how, smoothly and naturally, you need to use any artistic techniques. "tears of dew", "fire of dawn", etc. Here dew is compared to tears, and dawn is compared to fire.

Comparison

The last most important artistic technique is a comparison, given directly through the use of such unions as "as if", "how", "as if", "exactly", "as if". Examples include the following: eyes like life; dew like tears; tree like an old man. However, it should be noted that the use of an epithet, metaphor or comparison should be not only for the sake of "catchphrase". There should be no chaos in the text, it should gravitate towards grace and harmony, therefore, before using this or that trope, you need to clearly understand for what purpose it is used, what we want to say by this.

Other, more complex and less common artistic techniques are hyperbole (exaggeration), antithesis (opposition), and inversion ( reverse order words).

Antithesis

Such a trope as an antithesis has two varieties: it can be narrow (within one paragraph or sentence) and expanded (placed over several chapters or pages). This technique is often used in the works of Russian classics in the case when it is required to compare two heroes. For example, Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin in his story " Captain's daughter"compares Pugachev and Grinev, and a little later Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol will create portraits of the famous brothers, Andriy and Ostap, also based on the antithesis. Artistic techniques in the novel" Oblomov "also include this trope.

Hyperbola

Hyperbole is a favorite technique of such literary genres as epic, fairy tale and ballad. But it is found not only in them. For example, the hyperbole "he could eat the boar" can be used in any novel, story, or other work of the realistic tradition.

Inversion

Let's continue to describe artistic techniques in the works. Inversion, as you might guess, serves to add additional emotionality to the work. It can be most often observed in poetry, but prose is often used as well. You can say, "This girl was prettier than the others." And you can shout out: "This girl was more beautiful than others!" Immediately arises and enthusiasm, and expression, and much more, which can be seen when comparing two statements.

Irony

The next trope, irony, in another way - a hidden author's mockery, is also used quite often in fiction... Of course, a serious work should be serious, but the subtext hidden in irony sometimes not only demonstrates the writer's wit, but also makes the reader take a breath and prepare for the next, more intense scene. In a humorous work, irony is irreplaceable. The great masters of this are Zoshchenko and Chekhov, who use this trope in their stories.

Sarcasm

Another one is closely connected with this technique - it is no longer just a good laugh, it reveals flaws and vices, sometimes exaggerates the colors, while irony usually creates a bright atmosphere. In order to have a more complete picture of this path, you can read several tales of Saltykov-Shchedrin.

Impersonation

The next trick is impersonation. It allows you to demonstrate the life of the world around us. Images such as grumbling winter, dancing snow, singing water appear. In other words, personification is the transfer of animate properties to inanimate objects. So, we all know that only humans and animals can yawn. But in literature, there are often such artistic images as a yawning sky or a yawning door. The first of them can help create a certain mood in the reader, prepare his perception. The second is to emphasize the sleepy atmosphere in this house, perhaps loneliness and boredom.

Oxymoron

Oxymoron is another interesting technique, which is a combination of incongruous. This is both a righteous lie and an Orthodox devil. Such words, chosen quite unexpectedly, can be used by both science fiction writers and lovers of philosophical treatises. Sometimes just one oxymoron is enough to build a whole work that has a dualism of being, an insoluble conflict, and a subtle ironic overtones.

Other artistic techniques

Interestingly, the "and, and, and" used in the previous sentence is also one of the artistic means called multi-union. What is it for? First of all, to expand the narrative range and show, for example, that a person has beauty, intelligence, courage, and charm ... And the hero also knows how to fish, and swim, and write books, and build houses ...

Most often, this trope is used together with another, called This is the case when it is difficult to imagine one without the other.

However, these are not all artistic techniques and means. Let us also note the rhetorical questions. They do not require an answer, but at the same time they make readers think. Perhaps everyone knows the most famous of them: "Who is to blame?" and "What to do?"

These are just basic artistic techniques. In addition to them, one can distinguish parceling (division of a sentence), synecdoche (when the singular is used instead of the plural), anaphora (similar beginning of sentences), epiphora (repetition of their endings), litota (understatement) and hyperbole (on the contrary, exaggeration), paraphrase (when some word is replaced by it brief description... All these tools can be used both in poetry and prose. Artistic techniques in a poem and, for example, a story, are not fundamentally different.

1. Means of poetic vocabulary

Application (lat. - "attachment") - weaving a well-known expression into the text as a direct or close quote:

Now all the faithful in the world are rejoicing,
All the powers in Christ triumph in heaven,
"Our king is born," - they sing in praise, -
"Glory to God in the highest, peace on earth!"

Another example:

Or or! lama sawahfani?
What a pain, how hard, and they
Ruthlessly hammering nails into hands ...
Around the cross - angry sounds of ridicule

Applications help, without the help of references to the Bible, to strengthen this or that statement of the author.

Archaisms (Greek - "ancient") - words that have fallen out of use for a long time. They are used to more vividly convey the flavor of the era:

Rise, prophet, and see, and hearken,
Fulfill my will
And, bypassing the seas and lands,
Burn the hearts of people with the verb.

V this example outdated words are used that bring the author's text closer to its true, biblical expression.

Because literary language in Russia until the 18th century was Church Slavonic, then typical archaisms are Slavicisms ("vale", "today", "zane", "am").

Example: (biblical):
Let the companion be firm
All virtues with You,
Walking the commandments path,
By justice is merciful;
Yes I will visit in dungeons,
Thirsty to drink, there are smooth ladies,
Balm for sufferers in hospitals
And father bosom of orphans.

Slavicisms common for biblical language and the language of worship, are called biblical ("hunger", "se", "kolmi more", "for")

The introduction of words of a foreign language into coherent speech is called barbarism.
Most often, barbarisms are found in an altered form, assimilated by the Russian language, when the sounds foreign language are replaced by the corresponding Russians, foreign suffixes are also replaced by Russians: French resignation becomes "resignation", English fashionable - into "fashionable"

As they are applied, barbarisms are assimilated into the language, turning into words of foreign origin. The use of barbarism in spiritual poetry is not justified.

Dialectisms - borrowing words from dialects of the same language, mostly non-literary, i.e. do not have their own written literature. At the same time, they distinguish: ethnic dialectisms - from the dialects of ethnic groups (Little Russian dialect, Ukraine); provincialisms - from regional dialects; use of individual dialects social groups... Basically, dialectisms are taken from the dialects of persons far from literary culture, and here some "language decline" is noticed, i.e. the use of forms of speech neglected in the dialect of the average "literary educated person".

Examples: "identity", "spokutkovali", "sklo", "nonche", "mamma", "reliable".
This lexicon class also includes the imitation of the Russian dialect of foreigners who do not speak Russian well: "you will get state-owned apartments."

The use of vocabulary should also be attributed to the field of dialectisms. professional groups, as well as dialects that arise in a well-known everyday environment - the so-called jargons (thieves' jargon, street "argot", etc.).

The so-called "vulgarisms" also adjoin jargonisms, i.e. the use of coarse vernacular words in literature (rotten and nasty words, to put it simply).
Dialecticisms should be avoided in the poetic speech of a Christian.

Neologisms are newly formed words that did not exist in the language before. T.N. "word creation" uses the laws of Russian word formation and is widespread in poetry.

Example:
Where in the quiet turquoise waters
The Forerunner John baptized Him,
When for the first time to His people
The Son of Man has revealed Himself.

Benediktov has neoplasms like: "ebullience", "daredevil", "alienate", "rhyme", "non-softening", etc.
Neologisms are not characteristic of spiritual poetry. Like dialectisms, they attract too much attention to themselves, sometimes destroying the spiritual impact on the listener.

Proseisms are words related to prosaic vocabulary used in a poetic context.
In poetry, the law of the lexical tradition is very strong. Words that have long been out of use in prose live in poetry, and, on the other hand, words of a new origin, which have the full right of citizenship in the prose language, hardly penetrate into poetry. Therefore, in every era there are a number of words that are not used in poetry.

The introduction of these words into poetry is called prose:

And perjury and torture
And laughter, and abuse, and slander -
Ineffective attempts
To humiliate the Lord Christ.

Another example:
"XX century"
The twentieth century rushes
Tears and bubbles.
Turn to God
The person does not want to.
Invented displays
Videocassettes.
Every day it's getting angrier
Rockets are grinning.
The twentieth century is busy
He is good, then terrible!
The clouds are piercing
Peaks of TV towers.
Smog over the entire planet
Spilled thickly:
The man in this
Life is lost.
These stresses, twists,
Thunder and gloomy talk
Leaked clean
The brook is transparent.
That trickle - the Word -
Heals, not hurts.
He calls us to a new one
Lives in God's plan!

The use of prose and foreign words is here justified by the direction of the verse. In the last two stanzas - an appeal to the Word, the vocabulary changes.
Many words that were considered prosaic in the 19th century have poetic synonyms. For example, the word "cow" in verses was replaced by the word "heifer", "horse" - "horse", "eyes" - "eyes", "cheeks" - "cheeks", "mouth" - "mouth". The introduction of a colloquial synonym instead of a poetic one into verse was considered prosaic. The use of a scientific or technical term sounds similarly prosaic in verse.

2. Stylistic techniques of poetics

Anaphora (Greek - "one-man command") - repetition of related sounds, words, syntactic, rhythmic and other equivalent groups. The composition of any lyric poem, especially a song, is not complete without the use of anaphora.

Sound anaphora is a repetition of consonant combinations at the beginning of adjacent lines:

From the top of Mount Golgotha
"It is finished!" - there was an exclamation.

From the given example, it can be seen that the sound anaphora is a kind of sound alliteration or assonance.

Lexical anaphora is the repetition of the same words at the beginning of poetic lines:

When trials prevail
When in an unbearable struggle you get tired

Most often, the lexical anaphora are not those that carry meaning, but the service parts of speech: pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, particles. The most common is the biblical anaphora, expressed by the conjunction "and":

And he clung to my lips,
And tore out my sinful tongue,
And idle and crafty,
And the sting of a wise snake
My frozen lips
Inserted with a bloody right hand.

In this example, the stylistic meaning of the repeated "and" is especially vividly revealed; it creates the impression of an increase in lyrical excitement directed towards one event.
A syntactic anaphora is the parallel arrangement of two or more members of a sentence in adjacent verses:

I see a face in a crown of thorns,
I hear a groan from the mouth of Christ.
Strophic anaphora is the repetition of one or more words at the beginning of each new stanza:

Oh really, King of the universe,
Your throne is not glorious in heaven,
That in the depths of a humble soul
Have you found the Kingdom for Yourself?
Oh really, King of heaven,
The vastness of your heavens is so small,
What's in my bodily hut
You wanted to build a temple?

This stylistic device is typical for many works intended for musical arrangement. The repetition of the same words at the beginning of each stanza maximally connects the entire work together, which contributes to a better understanding of the topic.

Syntactic inversion (Latin - "permutation") - the arrangement of words in a sentence or phrase in an order not established by the rules of grammar. With a successful inversion, the sharply changing intonation gives the verse more expressiveness:

I'm not looking for heaven on this earth,
And God is the Creator of this paradise.
Or:
God gives gifts so willingly,
With which people cannot accept them.

In these examples, the inverted word order does not in the least hide the meaning of the sentence, but, on the contrary, makes it brighter and more memorable. Unfortunately, such permutations are very rare in spiritual verses. More often than not, inversion is just a good patch to hide the poverty of the composer's vocabulary. Sometimes you have to read a stanza for several minutes in order to understand the meaning of the sentence distorted by the inversion.

Often, unreasonable permutations of words make sentences ambiguous, where the secondary meaning sometimes brings the thought to the point of absurdity:

The fire of forgiveness lit up
In the faces of extinct people.
(The word "extinct" can be attributed to "persons" and ... to "people")
Or:

And the altar of the bulls was stained with blood ...

(The author means: the altar was stained with the blood of the bulls, but an unsuccessful inversion led to the notion that the altar of the bulls was stained with some kind of blood).
Such gross mistakes typical, they are found in almost all novice poets. Therefore, when working on a verse, you should pay special attention to the comprehension of inversion sentences.

Ring - repetition at the end of a poetic line, stanza or the entire work initial words or individual sounds.
Sound ring:
The cross responded, echoed back to life.
Or:

The past is thrown into the sea of oblivion.
Such a repetition of consonant words at the beginning and at the end of a verse (an increase in the number of rhymes in a stanza) contributes to a vivid expression of the author's feelings.
Lexical ring:

I'm tired of tormenting my soul
I'm tired of doubts deadly.
This repetition reinforces the meaning of the word that is important to the sentence.

Strophic ring:
The Lord is with me - and the cross, for many a heavy one,
Doesn't crush the flesh ...
And I'm not afraid of anything in the world -
The Lord is with me!

Both the lexical and the stanzaic ring serves to strengthen the emphasis on the phrase conceived by the author, which carries a particularly deep feeling or thought. Such repetitions extremely tighten different stanzas by verbal repetition and give the whole poem a single connection with the theme.

Multi-union is the construction of a phrase, in which all homogeneous members of the sentence are connected with each other by the same union (more often the union "and"):

And rivers, and fields, and groves, and mountains,
Both the sky and the stars magnify the Creator!

With the help of a repeating word, the purposefulness and unity of the item is emphasized.

Transfer - non-coincidence of the completeness of a sentence with the end of a verse or stanza:
He was dying ... And the blood from His wounds

Tekla ... and more and more difficult
He breathed ... On Him
Spit ... Nazarene,
Get off the cross quickly
Then we will believe
That you are from God ...

Transference as a deliberate technique for recreating a more expressive image is used very rarely. Its use in this example is justified by the agitated confused speech of the narrator. In other cases, transferring a special one word that carries meaning to another line or stanza is a violation of the law of euphony. Such hyphenations are especially unacceptable in texts intended for singing, since a musical phrase followed by a caesura (pause) usually coincides with the end of a verse (line). And this distorts the meaning of the text beyond recognition:

Will remove the burden from all nations
Enmity. We will be given a good lot.

God calls darkness who rejects the Light.
He denounces the liar with the word of truth,
Who says that it was not and is not
He calls Christ a madman.

Polymetry (Greek - "multidimensionality") - the use in large poetic works (usually in poems) of various poetic sizes.
The use of this technique relieves a large piece of monotony, gives it a rhythmic variety.

Enclitics is the construction of a phrase, in which the word behind the percussion, as it were, merges with it into one:
Call to salvation, singing a song,
For the glory of the Gospel.

Enclitics is the main principle of constructing compound rhymes, which serves to introduce fresh, not pretentious sound repetitions into the verse.

3. Compositional and methodological techniques

Allusion (lat. - "hint") - a short explanation, the transmission by the author of his experiences or thoughts through one or more words associated with well-known historical events:

Hosanna often covers
The path to Calvary with flowers of glory.

Alogism (Greek - "denying generally accepted inference") - deliberate violation of logical connections in order to emphasize the depth of the expressed thought:

I am blind by the illumination of thought,
I see an invisible world.

This technique is continuously associated with the affirmation of all Christian positions. Pages Holy Scripture contain countless examples of such a vivid expression of truth.

An example of poetic illogism is the following words of the Apostle Paul:

We are beggars, but we enrich many,
We have nothing, but we have everything ...

Antithesis (Greek - "opposition") - the use of sharp contrasts in the expression of words and concepts, images and provisions:
Do not love the world, nor what is in the world:
Love the world as Christ did.
Turn your heart away from the worldly feast,
Take eternity seriously with your heart.

The antithesis, like illogism, permeates all Christian teaching: the incarnation of the King of kings in the form of a slave, His love for those who hate, the trampling on death by death. Poems built on the antithesis do not create a soullessly flat, but three-dimensional, living image.

O Pavel, tell me where I can get strength,
To consider yourself a sinner first ?!

Or referring to an inanimate object (allegory) as animate (this technique is more common in poetry):

Tell me, branch of Palestine,
Where did you grow up, where did you bloom?

Time, where are you going?
Time, where are you in a hurry?

The apostrophe is a kind of personification - one of the key provisions of poetics.

Apophasia - (Greek - "contrary to the above") - refutation of the above thought:

Eternal learning is slain
A shameful death with a sting?
- No! The death of Christ was the beginning
Sunday wins.

Hyperbole (Greek - "exaggeration") is a figurative expression, exaggerating action, object, phenomenon. Used to enhance the artistic impression:

The soul suffered so much that a groan reached it
The borders of countless, invisible galaxies.

Holy blood flows like a stream
To wash away sins.

The use of such a technique in Christian verses cannot be considered a distortion of the truth, since it symbolizes a great spiritual truth: that which is insignificant in front of people is great in front of God.

Ladder - the arrangement in the poem of words and expressions in ascending order of their meaning:

My Friend, my Shepherd, my Teacher,
Heavenly Father, my Savior -
The creator of everything is the great God!

This stylistic technique helps to better express the growth of the emotional flow of the topic and creates an advantageous contrast for the approval of the resolving main idea.

Litota (Greek - "simplicity"):

A) definition of a concept by denying the opposite:
We are bought by God at a great price
(instead of "big")

B) understatement - the opposite of hyperbole:
My blood is frozen
And the tongue went numb.
No strength to breathe
There are no words for repentance.

David's psalms are impregnated with the understatement of one's capabilities, the belittling of one's "I". Unfortunately, in the verses of modern Christian poets, litota is almost never found. But the hyperbole of one's "I" is used all the time. In contrast to the quatrain built on the lithote, we present a similar stanza (typical for many poets), built on a hyperbole:

My blood burns
By the fire of holy love.
My inspirational verse
Brings salvation for all.
I have gained the power of God
In Christ's blood,
I have become a light
In the valley of the shadow of death.

Metaphor (Greek - "transfer") - the use of the word in a figurative sense. Metaphor is one of the main tropes (provisions) in the theory of verse. It is based on an unnamed comparison of one object with another on the basis of a feature common to both.

In a metaphor, context allows you to understand what word is meant here. And the word used instead of it must have secondary features that are similar to the features of the replaced word. The more of these signs and the more naturally they arise in the representation, the brighter and more effective the metaphor, the more it "strikes the imagination."

Example:
Bee from a wax cell
Flies for a tribute to the field.
The metaphorical state or action of inanimate objects can be expressed in the form of verbs, nouns, adjectives inherent in thinking beings:
Among the meadows and blue grew
Small sunflower sprouted.
And suddenly, as to an old acquaintance,
He turned his head towards the sun.
All day long beautiful light
He watered him with his warmth.
He loved the sun. So what then?
He himself became like the sun.

The metaphor is a kind of comparison in which comparative words are omitted: "like", "like", "like", etc.

Metonymy (Greek - "renaming") - replacement of a word or concept with another word that has a causal relationship:

Read, people, fiery prophets,
Listen, people, to the Book of Books.
Instead of: "Read the books of the fiery prophets. Listen, people, to the words of the Bible."

Whitewashed walls were silent,
Their black hearts grew more and more black.
Instead of: "The Pharisees were silent."

This technique expands the poet's use of words, makes speech brighter, contributes to the easy selection of the desired rhyme.

Metonymy differs from metaphor in that it does not imply comparative words: "as if", "as if", "like", etc.

Periphrase (Greek - "retelling") - replacement of a word or phrase with a turn of speech, which indicates the signs of an unnamed object:

A mountain of damnation and a mountain of salvation
The pinnacle of torment and glory is height,
Rock of immortality, faith on Sunday,
Soaked in the blood of Christ.
(Instead of one word "Golgotha").

The example shows that periphrasis is based on the principle of expanded metonymy. Such a technique makes us look in a new way and re-evaluate the words that have become habitual, emasculated by frequent use.
Sarcasm (the highest degree of irony). Used in accusatory verses:
Crucify Him. It's not worth it anymore!

For having heaven in His eyes
They interfere with your life, your conscience is disturbed,
They instill fear before the judgment of those to come.

The speech of Jesus Christ addressed to the Pharisees is built on sarcasm: "Painted coffins," "whitewashed walls," etc.

Sylleps (Greek - "combination") is a stylistic device in which the subject and predicate have no agreement in number:
Not afterlife mysticism
She saved us from sin.
This is life, this is the truth
She entered our heart.
(Instead of "entered".)

The people stood indifferent.
They looked at the crucifix,
Not knowing that God was dying.
("They" instead of "He".)

Sileps expands the possibilities of the poet in his handling of the word.
Symphor (Greek - "correlation") is the highest form of metaphorical expression without comparative words:

"Heaven repented - tears shed ..."
Instead of: "There was a thunder and it began to rain."

The use of a refined form of metaphor sometimes makes it difficult to understand the text, but nevertheless it is a highly artistic expression of everyday phenomena. Without naming the object directly, the symphor evokes a new figurative representation of it, leaving a deep aesthetic impression.

Synecdoche is one of the types of metonymy associated with the use of:

A) parts instead of whole:
Jerusalem, Jerusalem,
Why did you give God to be crucified ?!
(Instead of: Judea or the Chosen People);

B) whole instead of part:
After the resurrection of Jesus
Humanity exclaimed: "I'm sorry!"
(Instead of: followers or believers);

V) more instead of an indefinite set:
And a million transcendental luminaries
They sang a song of rejoicing to God
(Instead of: countless);

G) singular instead of plural:
Christian, carry your wonderful fire,
Which Christ gave you.
(Instead of: Christians, bear ...)

Synecdoche, like sylleps, liberates the poet in the choice of the word required for the rhythmic flow of the verse, and performs the function of a kind of hyperbole or litota.

Synonymy (Greek - "name") is the use of synonyms in artistic speech, that is, words different in sound, but identical in meaning:

By the day of the glorious harvest, the fields turned yellow,
The autumn fields were dressed in gold.
Both lines say the same thing, but expressed in different synonymous words, they paint us a brighter, lyrical picture of autumn.
Comparison is the most common stylistic device used in poetry of any genre.

The simplest form of comparison is expressed using the words: "like", "exactly", "like", "like", "like", "like", etc.

For example:

"Hope will flash like a bright ray"
"The eyes of the saved are shining like the sky."
"Like a bird, I aim for azure"
A more complex, but at the same time beautiful form is the comparison formed without auxiliary words by means of the instrumental case of the definitions:
Grace poured out in a gentle wave ...
(Instead of: "like a gentle wave".)

Such forms of comparisons actually develop into metaphors and give the poem unique lyrical shades and an extraordinary, figurative reproduction of everyday phenomena.

Silence is a stylistic figure in which the started speech is interrupted in anticipation of the reader's or listener's guess:

And now the Savior is brought to trial:
“He blasphemes,” the high priest said.
"He is beside himself, in Him is a devil," the crowd shouted. "He ...
... And He was silent in the name of their salvation.

The use of silence sharpens the emotional essence of the image, contributes to the reader's empathy for the events described.

Use is a stylistic turnover based on the principle of detailed comparison. All gospel parables and moralistic poems are based on this technique.

Swim to the saving shore in clothes -
Deprive yourself of your saving hope.
So, observing decency before people,
We perish in the abyss of hypocrisy,
Sometimes we lose eternity because of clothes.

A detailed comparison contributes to an easier assimilation of the truth and makes the most complex concepts accessible to every person.

Ellipse - a gap in a phrase of implied words:

To partake of the life of the Bread,
Build a temple from the rubble -
Gaze - at Calvary, heart - to the sky
And reason - to God's words.

(The verbs "direct", "turn", "direct" are meant.)

The ellipse does not confuse the meaning of the phrase, but, on the contrary, makes it more expressive and laconic.

An epithet (Greek - "application") is a figurative characteristic of a person, a phenomenon through a metaphorical adjective.
The epithet is often confused with attributive adjectives, which differ from it in the literal characterization of the noun. For example: "bright sun", "white snow", "cold winter". Adjectives in these combinations are simply subject definitions, and, for example, "kind sun", "laughing snow", "sleepy winter" are epithets in which there is a metaphorical image.
Sometimes, instead of an adjective, the role of an epithet is played by a pronoun expressing superlative degree states:

What kind of grace is this -
Awakening from a dead life!

Poets often use constant (generally accepted) epithets: "blue sea", "clear field", "white snow", "red sun", etc. Such epithets are very close to attributive adjectives and, by their habit of sounding, usually do not create a vivid lyrical image inherent in metaphorical epithets.
The above some techniques of expressiveness of the image should serve only as an auxiliary means for the approval of the idea of the work.

Bibliography:
1. Shatalovsky N.F. Structure and clarity (a guide to versification). M .: "Spiritual Renaissance" ECB, 1999.-90 p.
2. Tomashevsky B.V. Literature theory. Poetics: Textbook. allowance. - M .: Aspect Press, 2002 .-- 334 p.
3. Butterflies flying: Japanese three-verses/ 612 Per. with jap. V. N, Markova.-M .: LLP Letopis, 1998.-348 p.
4. Carnegie D. How to develop self-confidence and influence people by speaking in public. / Per. from English - Rybinsk: Rybinsk Printing House OJSC, 1996. - 800 p.
5. Christian lyre (poems). Moscow: Transfiguration, 1992.
6. Song of Revival (collection of spiritual songs of the ECB), edition 1. "Friedenstimme", 1993
7. Song of revival, edition 2. Publishing house "Christian", 2002
8. Faithfulness (collection of Christian verses), publishing house of the SC ECB, 1984
9. Poetry of heaven (God and man in Russian classical poetry of the XVIII-XX centuries). - SPb., "Bible for All", 1999. - 640 p.
10. Collection of Christian verses ("with Ruth"), vols. 1 and 2.Minsk, 1997

Poetic techniques are so important in poetry that it is simply impossible to overestimate their significance. They can only be compared with the poet's arsenal, the use of which will make speech soft, lyrical, lively and melodic. Thanks to them, the work becomes bright, emotional, expressive. The reader can more sensitively and fully feel the atmosphere created by the author.

Characters in the works come to life, become more expressive. Russian speech is very rich in poetic techniques, of which there are more than two dozen, among them:

Allusion.
Antonomasia.
Assonance.
Aphorism.
Exclamation.
Hyperbola.
Inversion.
Irony.
Pun.
Contamination.
Metaphor.
Metonymy.
Conversion (apostrophe).
Streamlined expressions.
Impersonation.
Parallel constructions.
Repetition.
Opposition (antithesis).
Sarcasm.
Synecdoche.
Comparison.
Trails.
Default.
Gains (gradation).
Shapes.
Epithet.

However, not all of them are widespread in poetry. We will consider the frequently encountered poetic techniques of poems.

Poetic techniques with examples

The epithet in translation from Greek means "attached", the epithet is an expressive definition of a certain object (action, event, process), which serves to emphasize, highlight some property characteristic of this object.

An epithet is a figurative, metaphorical definition, not to be confused with a simple definition of an object, for example, “loud voice” is just a definition, “bright voice” is an epithet, “cold hands” is just a definition, and “golden hands” is an epithet ...

Examples of epithets are also the following series of phrases: ruddy dawn, singing bonfire, angelic light, wonderful evening, leaden cloud, piercing gaze, scratching whisper.

As a rule, adjectives (affectionate waves) serve as epithets, it is rare to find a numeral (first friend), an adverb (to love ardently), and verbs (a desire to forget), as well as nouns (fun noise).

Comparison is a poetic technique with the help of which the properties most inherent in the described object are reflected in the analogous properties of a completely different object. Moreover, the properties of the subject being compared are usually more familiar and close to the reader than the object indicated by the author. So inanimate objects are brought an analogy of animate ones, spiritual or abstract - material ones. Examples of comparison can be: "eyes are like the sky, blue", "leaves are yellow, like gold."

Metaphor is an expression based on the use of words in a figurative sense. That is, a property characteristic of one object is assigned to another on the basis of some similarity. As a rule, to describe an inanimate object, the definition of an animate one is used and vice versa. For example, “eye-diamond”, “ice heart”, “nerves of steel”, “the honey of your words is bitter to me”, “the mountain ash was lit with a red brush”, “pouring out of a bucket”, “mortal boredom”.

Incarnation also refers to poetic techniques, which means transferring the properties of animate ones to inanimate objects. Or the attribution of human feelings, emotions, actions to an object that it does not possess. With the help of personification, the reader perceives the picture created in front of him dynamically and vividly. For example, "a thunderstorm is coming," "the sky is crying," "streams are running," "the sun is smiling," "frost is drawing patterns on the window," "leaves are whispering."

Hyperbole, translated from the Greek "hyperbole", means excess, exaggeration. Poets often use this technique of poetic speech for explicit, undeniable, conspicuous exaggeration for greater expressiveness of their thoughts. For example, "I will repeat it for the hundredth time", "we have enough food for years." The opposite of hyperbole is litota - a deliberate understatement of the properties of an object: "a boy with a finger", "a little man with a fingernail."

As you have already seen, poetic techniques are very diverse and numerous, and for any poet, this, in turn, is a wide scope in order to create, create his own works, enriching them with a beautiful literary language.