§1 Figures of poetic speech: Multi-union, non-union, inversion. Poetic syntax. Shapes

Poetic syntax. Shapes.

No less significant than the poetic dictionary, the field of study of expressive means is poetic syntax. The study of poetic syntax consists in analyzing the functions of each of the artistic methods of selection and the subsequent grouping of lexical elements into unified syntactic constructions. If in the immanent study of vocabulary artistic text in the role of analyzed units are words, then in the study of syntax - sentences and phrases. If, in the study of vocabulary, facts of deviation from the literary norm in the selection of words are established, as well as facts of transfer of the meanings of words (a word with a figurative meaning, that is, a trope, manifests itself only in a context, only with a semantic interaction with another word), then the study of syntax obliges not only typological consideration of syntactic unity and grammatical connections of words in a sentence, but also to identify the facts of correction or even change in the meaning of the whole phrase in the semantic relationship of its parts (which usually occurs as a result of the use of so-called figures by the writer).

It is necessary to pay attention to the author's selection of the types of syntactic constructions because this selection can be dictated by the subject matter and general semantics of the work. Let us turn to examples, which will serve as excerpts from two translations of F. Villon's The Ballad of the Hanged.

There are five of us hanged, maybe six.

And the flesh, which knew a lot of delights,

It has been devoured for a long time and has become a stench.

Bones of steel - we will become dust and putrefaction.

Whoever grins will not be happy himself.

Pray to God that everything will be forgiven for us.

(A. Parin, "The Ballad of the Hanged")

There were five of us. We wanted to live.

And they hanged us. We have turned black.

We lived like you. We are no more.

Do not try to condemn - people are insane.

We will not object to anything in return.

Look and pray, and God will judge.

(I. Ehrenburg, "Epitaph, written by Villon for him

and his comrades waiting for the gallows ")

The first translation more accurately reflects the composition and syntax of the source, but its author fully showed his poetic individuality in the selection of lexical means: the verbal series are built on stylistic antitheses (for example, the high word "delights" collides within one phrase with the low "devoured") ... From the point of view of the stylistic diversity of the vocabulary, the second translation appears to be impoverished. In addition, we can see that Ehrenburg filled the translation text with short, "chopped" phrases. Indeed, the minimum length of the phrases of the translator Parin is equal to a line of verse, and the maximum length of Ehrenburg's phrases in the above passage is equal to it. Is this a coincidence?

Apparently, the author of the second translation strove to achieve the utmost expressiveness through the use of exclusively syntactic means. Moreover, he agreed on the choice of syntactic forms with the point of view chosen by Villon. Villon endowed the right of a narrating voice not with living people, but with the soulless dead, turning to the living. This semantic antithesis had to be emphasized syntactically. Ehrenburg was supposed to deprive the speech of the hanged of emotionality, and that is why there are so many uncommon, vaguely personal sentences in his text: naked phrases communicate naked facts ("And we were hanged. We turned black ..."). In this translation, the absence of evaluative vocabulary, in general of epithets, is a kind of "minus-device".

An example of a poetic translation of Ehrenburg is a logical deviation from the rule. This rule was formulated in their own way by many writers when they touched on the issue of distinguishing between poetic and prosaic speech. A.S. Pushkin spoke about the syntactic properties of verse and prose as follows:

"But what can we say about our writers, who, considering it as mean to explain just the most ordinary things, think to revive children's prose with additions and sluggish metaphors? These people will never say friendship without adding: this sacred feeling, of which a noble flame, etc. say: early in the morning - and they write: as soon as the first rays of the rising sun lit up the eastern edges of the azure sky - ah, how all this is new and fresh, is it only better because it is longer. Accuracy and brevity are the first advantages of prose. It requires thought. and thoughts - without them brilliant expressions are useless. Poems are another matter ... "(" On Russian Prose ")

Consequently, the "brilliant expressions" about which the poet wrote - namely, the lexical "beauties" and the variety of rhetorical means, in general, types of syntactic constructions - a phenomenon in prose is not obligatory, but possible. And in poetry it is widespread, because the aesthetic function of a poetic text itself always significantly emphasizes the informative function. This is proved by examples from the work of Pushkin himself. Pushkin the prose writer is syntactically short:

"Finally, something began to turn black to the side. Vladimir turned there. Approaching, he saw a grove. Thank God, he thought, now it is close." ("Blizzard")

On the contrary, Pushkin the poet is often verbose, constructing long phrases with rows of peripheral phrases:

The philosopher is frisky and drinking,

Parnassian lucky sloth

Harit pampered pet,

Confidant of lovely aonids,

Mail on the golden-stringed harp

Has fallen silent, joy singer?

Can it be you, young dreamer,

Parted with Phoebus at last?

("To Batyushkov")

EG Etkind, analyzing this poetic message, comments on the periphrastic series: "Piit" - this old word means "poet". "Parnassian lucky sloth" also means "poet". "Harit pampered pet" - "poet". "Confidant of lovely aonids" - "poet". The "Singer of Joy" is also a "poet". In essence, a "young dreamer" and a "high-spirited philosopher" are also a "poet". "Something on the golden-stringed harp fell silent ..." This means: "Why did you stop writing poetry?" But then: "Can it be that you too ... parted with Phoebus ..." - this is the same "- and concludes that Pushkin's lines" in all ways modify the same thought: "Why are you, poet, not do you write more poetry? "

It should be clarified that lexical "beauties" and syntactic "lengths" are necessary in poetry only when they are semantically or compositionally motivated. Verbosity in poetry can be unjustified. And in prose, lexico-syntactic minimalism is just as unjustified if it is raised to an absolute degree:

"The donkey put on a lion's skin, and everyone thought it was a lion. The people and the cattle ran. The wind blew, the skin flew open, and the donkey became visible. The people ran away: they beat the donkey."

("Donkey in a lion's skin")

Stingy phrases give this finished work the appearance of a preliminary plot plan. The choice of elliptical constructions ("and everyone thought it was a lion"), the economy of meaningful words leading to grammatical violations ("the people and the brute ran"), finally, the economy of official words ("the people came running: they beat the donkey") determined the excessive schematism of the plot of this parables, and therefore weakened its aesthetic impact.

The other extreme is the overcomplication of constructions, the use of polynomial sentences with different types logical and grammatical connections, with many ways of distribution. For example:

"It was a good year, two, three, but when is it: evenings, balls, concerts, dinners, ball dresses, hairstyles that show the beauty of the body, young and middle-aged suitors, all are the same, all seem to know something, who seem to have the right to use everything and to laugh at everything, when the summer months in the country with the same nature, which also only gives the heights of the pleasantness of life, when music and reading are also the same - only bullying questions of life, but not solving them - when all this lasted seven , for eight years, not only without promising any change, but, on the contrary, losing more and more charms, she fell into despair, and a state of despair, a desire for death, began to be found on her "(" What I saw in a dream ")

In the field of Russian language research, there are no established ideas about how long a Russian phrase can reach. However, readers should feel the extreme length of this sentence. For example, the part of the phrase "but when all this" is not perceived as an imprecise syntactic repetition, as a paired element to the part "but when it is". Because we, reaching the first specified part in the process of reading, cannot keep in memory the second part already read: these parts are too far apart from one another in the text, too many details mentioned within one phrase, the writer complicated our reading. The author's striving for maximum detail in describing actions and mental states leads to violations of the logical connection of the parts of the sentence ("she fell into despair, and she began to find a state of despair").

The cited parable and story belong to the pen of L.N. Tolstoy. It is especially easy to determine its authorship when referring to the second example, and attention to the style-forming syntactic devices helps in this. G.O. Vinokur wrote about the above quote from the story: "... I recognize Leo Tolstoy here not only because this passage speaks about what this writer often and usually speaks about, and not only because of that tone, with which he usually speaks about such subjects, but also by the language itself, by its syntactic features ... According to the scientist's thought, which he expressed more than once, it is important to trace the development of language features, the author's style as a whole, throughout the writer's work, because the facts evolutions of style are facts of the author's biography, therefore, in particular, it is necessary to trace the evolution of style at the level of syntax.

The study of poetic syntax also involves an assessment of the facts of the correspondence of the methods of grammatical connection used in the author's phrases to the norms of the national literary style. Here we can draw a parallel with passive vocabulary of different styles as an important part of the poetic vocabulary. In the sphere of syntax, as well as in the sphere of vocabulary, barbarisms, archaisms, dialectisms, etc. are possible, because these two spheres are interconnected: according to BV Tomashevsky, "each lexical environment has its own specific syntactic turns."

In Russian literature, the most common syntactic barbarisms, archaisms, vernaculars. Barbarism in syntax arises if a phrase is constructed according to the rules of a foreign language. In prose, syntactic barbarisms are more often recognized as speech errors: "Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat flew off" in A.P. Chekhov's story "The Book of Complaints" - this gallicism is so obvious that it makes the reader feel comic ... In Russian poetry, syntactic barbarisms were sometimes used as signs of a high style. For example, in Pushkin's ballad "There was a poor knight in the world ..." the line "He had one vision ..." is an example of such barbarism: the link "he had a vision" appears instead of "he had a vision." Here we also meet syntactic archaism with the traditional function of raising the style height: "There is no prayer to the Father, nor to the Son, / Neither the Holy Spirit forever / It has not happened to the paladin ..." (it should be: "neither the Father, nor the Son"). Syntactic vernaculars, as a rule, are present in epic and dramatic works in the speech of characters for a realistic reflection of the individual speech style, for the auto-characterization of heroes. To this end, Chekhov resorted to using vernacular: "Your daddy told me that he was a court counselor, but now it turns out that he is only titular" ("Before the wedding"), "What are you talking about Turkins? This is about those that your daughter plays on the pianos? " ("Ionych").

Of particular importance for identifying the specifics of artistic speech is the study of stylistic figures (they are also called rhetorical - in relation to a private scientific discipline, within which the theory of tropes and figures was first developed; syntactic - in relation to that side of the poetic text, for the characterization of which they are required. description).

The doctrine of figures took shape already at the time when the doctrine of style was taking shape — in the era of Antiquity; developed and supplemented - in the Middle Ages; finally, it finally turned into a permanent section of normative "poetics" (textbooks on poetics) - in the New Time. The first experiments in describing and systematizing figures are presented in ancient Latin treatises on poetics and rhetoric (more fully in the "Education of an orator" by Quintilian). The ancient theory, according to M.L. Gasparov, "assumed that there is some simplest," natural "verbal expression of any thought (like a distilled language without stylistic color and taste), and when real speech somehow deviates from this difficult-to-imagine standard , then each individual deviation can be separately and accounted for as a "figure".

Paths and figures were the subject of a single teaching: if "trope" is a change in the "natural" meaning of a word, then a "figure" is a change in the "natural" order of words in a syntactic construction (rearrangement of words, omission of necessary or the use of "unnecessary" - from the point of view " natural "speech - lexical elements). We also note that within the limits of everyday speech, which does not have an attitude towards artistry, imagery, the "figures" that are found are often considered as speech errors, but within the limits of art-oriented speech, the same figures are usually singled out as effective means of poetic syntax.

Currently, there are many classifications of stylistic figures, which are based on one or another - quantitative or qualitative - differentiating feature: the verbal composition of a phrase, the logical or psychological relationship of its parts, etc. Below we list the most significant figures, taking into account three factors:

1. Unusual logical or grammatical connection of elements of syntactic constructions.

2. Unusual mutual arrangement of words in a phrase or phrases in the text, as well as elements that are part of different (adjacent) syntactic and rhythmic-syntactic structures (verses, columns), but possessing grammatical similarity.

3. Unusual ways intonation marking of text using syntactic means.

Taking into account the dominance of an individual factor, we will single out the corresponding groups of figures. But we emphasize that in some cases, in the same phrase, one can find a non-trivial grammatical connection, and the original arrangement of words, and techniques that indicate a specific intonational "score" in the text: within the same segment of speech, not only different paths, but also different figures.

The group of techniques for non-standard connection of words into syntactic unity includes ellipse, anacoluphus, sylleps, alogism, amphibole (figures differing in an unusual grammatical connection), as well as catachresis, oxymoron, gendiadis, enallag (figures with an unusual semantic connection of elements).

One of the most common syntactic techniques not only in artistic, but also in everyday speech is the ellipse (Greek elleipsis - abandonment). This is an imitation of a break in a grammatical connection, which consists in missing a word or a series of words in a sentence, in which the meaning of the missing members is easily restored from the general speech context. This technique is most often used in epic and dramatic compositions when constructing dialogues of characters: with its help, the authors give life-like scenes of communication of their heroes.

Elliptical speech in a literary text gives the impression of being reliable, because in the life situation of a conversation, an ellipse is one of the main means of phrase composition: when exchanging remarks, it allows you to skip previously sounded words. Consequently, in colloquial speech, an exclusively practical function is assigned to the ellipses: the speaker transmits information to the interlocutor in the required volume while using the minimum vocabulary.

Meanwhile, the use of an ellipse as an expressive means in artistic speech can also be motivated by the author's attitude towards the psychologism of the narrative. A writer, wishing to portray various emotions, psychological states of his hero, can change his individual speech style from scene to scene. So, in the novel by FM Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment" Raskolnikov is often expressed in elliptical phrases. In his conversation with the cook Nastasya (part I, chapter 3), ellipses serve as an additional means of expressing his alienated state:

-… Before, you say, I went to teach children, but now why don't you do anything?

I'm doing [something] ... ”Raskolnikov said reluctantly and sternly.

What are you doing?

- [I'm doing] Work ...

What kind of work [are you doing]?

“[I] Think,” he answered seriously after a pause.

Here we see that the omission of some words emphasizes the special semantic load of the remaining others.

Often, ellipses also denote rapid changes in states or actions. This is, for example, their function in the fifth chapter of Eugene Onegin, in the story about Tatyana Larina's dream: “Tatyana ah! and he roars ... "," Tatiana into the forest, the bear is behind her ... ".

Both in everyday life and in literature, anakoluf (Greek anakoluthos - inconsistent) is recognized as a speech error - the incorrect use of grammatical forms in coordination and management: unbearable life in this place "(AF Pisemsky," Senile Sin "). However, its use can be justified in cases where the writer gives expression to the character's speech:" Stop, brothers, stop! You don't sit like that! "(In Krylov's fable" The Quartet ").

On the contrary, it is more a deliberately applied technique than an accidental mistake that appears in the literature sylleps (Greek syllepsis - conjugation, capture), which consists in the syntactic design of semantically heterogeneous elements in the form of a number of homogeneous members of the sentence: cheeks "(Turgenev," A Strange Story ").

European writers of the twentieth century, especially representatives of the "literature of the absurd", regularly turned to alogism (Greek a - negative particle, logismos - reason). This figure is a syntactic correlation of semantically incompatible parts of a phrase with the help of its service elements expressing a certain type of logical connection (cause-and-effect, generic relations, etc.): "The car drives fast, but the cook cooks better" (E. Ionesco, "Bald Singer"), "How wonderful the Dnieper is in calm weather, so you, Nentsov, why are you here?" (A. Vvedensky, "Minin and Pozharsky").

If anacoluthus is more often seen as a mistake than as an artistic device, and sylleps and alogism - more often as a device than a mistake, then amphibole (Greek amphibolia) is always perceived in two ways. Duality is in its very nature, since amphibole is the syntactic indistinguishability of the subject and the direct object, expressed by nouns in the same grammatical forms. "Hearing a sensitive sail strains ..." in Mandelstam's poem of the same name - a mistake or a trick? It can be understood as follows: "A sensitive ear, if its owner wants to catch the rustle of the wind in the sails, magically affects the sail, making it tense", or so: "A wind-blown (ie tense) sail attracts attention, and a person strains his hearing" ... Amphibolia is justified only when it turns out to be compositionally significant. So, in the miniature by D. Harms "Chest" the hero checks the possibility of life after death by self-strangulation in a locked chest. The ending for the reader, as planned by the author, is unclear: either the hero did not suffocate, or he suffocated and rose again, as the hero summarizes ambiguously: "So, life conquered death in an unknown way for me."

An unusual semantic connection between parts of a phrase or a sentence is created by a catachreza (see the section "Paths") and an oxymoron (Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid). In both cases, there is a logical contradiction between the members of a single structure. Catachreza arises as a result of the use of an erased metaphor or metonymy, and within the framework of "natural" speech is assessed as an error: " cruise"- the contradiction between" sail on the sea "and" march on land "," oral prescription "- between" oral "and" written "," Soviet champagne "- between" Soviet Union"and" Champagne. "Oxymoron, on the contrary, is a planned consequence of the use of a fresh metaphor and even in everyday speech is perceived as an exquisite figurative means." Mom! Your son is perfectly ill! "(V. Mayakovsky," A Cloud in Pants ") - here" sick "is a metaphorical substitute for" in love ".

Gendiadis (from the Greek hen dia dyoin - one through two), in which complex adjectives are divided into the original constituent parts: "longing road, iron" (A. Blok, "On the iron road "). Here the word "railway" underwent splitting, as a result of which three words entered into interaction - and the verse acquired an additional meaning. EG Etkind, referring to the question of the semantics of the epithets "iron", "iron" in the poetry dictionary of Blok, noted: "Iron melancholy" - this phrase casts a reflection on something else, on the combination two definitions, directed towards each other, as if forming one word "railway", and at the same time repelling from this word - it has a completely different meaning. "Iron anguish" is despair caused by the dead, mechanical world of modern - "iron" - civilization. "

Words in a column or verse receive a special semantic connection when the writer applies enallage (Greek enallage - moving) - the transfer of a definition to a word adjacent to the defined. So, in the line "Through the meat fatty trenches ..." from N. Zabolotsky's poem "Wedding" the definition "fatty" became a vivid epithet after the transfer from "meat" to "trenches". Enallaga is a sign of verbose poetic speech. The use of this figure in an elliptical construction leads to a disastrous result: the verse "A familiar corpse lay in the valley of that ..." in Lermontov's ballad "Dream" is an example of an unexpected logical error. The combination "familiar corpse" was supposed to mean "the corpse of a familiar [person]", but for the reader it actually means: "This person has long been familiar to the heroine precisely as a corpse."

Various types of parallelism and inversion are among the figures with unusual mutual arrangement of parts of syntactic constructions.

Paralleling (from the Greek parallelos - going side by side) implies the compositional correlation of adjacent syntactic fragments of the text (lines in a poetic work, sentences in the text, parts in a sentence). The types of parallelism are usually distinguished on the basis of some feature possessed by the first of the correlated constructions, which serves as a model for the author when creating the second.

So, projecting the word order of one syntactic segment onto another, one distinguishes between the parallelism of a straight line ("The animal is sleeping Dog, / The bird is sleeping Sparrow" in the verse. Sail "Lermontov). We can write the columns of the Lermontov line vertically:

the waves are playing

the wind whistles

And we will see that in the second column the subject and predicate are given in reverse order relative to the arrangement of words in the first. If now graphically connect nouns and - separately - verbs, you can get the image of the Greek letter "". Therefore, inverted parallelism is also called chiasm (Greek chiasmos - -shaped, cruciform).

When comparing the number of words in paired syntactic segments, complete and incomplete parallelism is also distinguished. Complete parallelism (its common name is isokolon; Greek isokolon - equivalence) - in Tyutchev's two-word lines "Amphorae are emptied, / baskets are overturned" (verse "The feast is over, the choirs are silent ..."), incomplete - in its unequal lines " Slow, hesitate, evening day, / Lasted, lasted, charm "(verse" Last Love "). There are other kinds of parallelism as well.

The same group of figures includes such a popular poetic means as inversion (Latin inversio - permutation). It manifests itself in the arrangement of words in a phrase or sentence in a different order from the natural one. In Russian, for example, the order "subject + predicate", "definition + defined word" or "preposition + noun in case form" is natural, and the reverse order is unnatural.

"Eros lofty and dumb wings on ..." - this is how the parody of the famous satirist of the early twentieth century begins. A. Izmailov on verses by Vyacheslav Ivanov. The parodist suspected the symbolist poet of abusing inversions, so he oversaturated the lines of his text with them. "Eros wings on" - the order is wrong. But if a separate inversion of "Eros wings" is quite admissible, moreover, it is felt as traditional for Russian poetry, then "wings on" is perceived as a sign not of artistic speech, but of inarticulateness.

Inverted words can be placed in a phrase in different ways. With a contact inversion, the contiguity of words is preserved ("Like a tragedian in the provinces, a drama to Shakespeare ..." in Pasternak), with a distant inversion, other words are wedged between them ("An old man obedient to Perun alone ..." in Pushkin). In fact, and in another case, an unusual position a single word affects its intonation selection. As Tomashevsky noted, "in inverted constructions, words sound more expressive, more weighty."

The group of figures that mark the unusual intonation composition of the text or its individual parts includes different types of syntactic repetition, as well as tautology, annomination and gradation, polysyndeton and asyndeton.

There are two subgroups of repetition techniques. The first includes techniques for repeating individual parts within a sentence. With their help, authors usually emphasize a semantically tense place in a phrase, since any repetition is an intonation selection. Like inversion, repetition can be contact ("It's time, it's time, the horns are blowing ..." in Pushkin's poem "Count Nulin") or distant ("It's time, my friend, it's time! The heart asks for peace ..." in the Pushkin's poem of the same name. ).

A simple repeat is applied to different units text - both to the word (as in the above examples), and to the phrase ("Evening bells, evening bells!" The repetition of one word in different case forms while preserving its meaning has been identified since ancient times as a special figure - polyptoton (Greek polyptoton - multiplying): "But a man / He sent a man to the Anchar with an imperious gaze ..." (Pushkin, "Anchar"). On the polyptoton, according to R. Yakobson's observation, Mayakovsky's "The Tale of the Little Red Riding Hood" is built, in which the full paradigm of the case forms of the word "cadet" is presented. An equally ancient figure is antanaklasis (Greek antanaklasis - reflection) - a repetition of a word in its original grammatical form, but with a change in meaning. "The last eagle owl is broken and sawn. / And, with a clerical button, is pinned / To the autumn branch head down, // Hangs and thinks with his head ..." (A. Eremenko, "In dense metallurgical forests ...") - here the word "head "is used in a direct and then metonymic sense.

The second subgroup includes repetition figures, which are extended not to a sentence, but to a larger part of the text (stanza, syntactic period), sometimes to the entire work. Such figures mark the intonation equalization of those parts of the text to which they were extended. These types of repetition are distinguished by their position in the text. So, anaphora (Greek anaphora - carrying out; paternal term - monotony) is the fastening of speech segments (columns, verses) with the help of repeating a word or phrase in the initial position: / This is a chilling night, / This is a duel between two nightingales "(Pasternak," The Definition of Poetry "). Epiphora (Greek epiphora - an addition; paternal term - monotonous), on the contrary, connects the ends of speech rows by lexical repetition: | festoons everywhere "(Gogol," Dead Souls "). Having projected the principle of an epiphora onto an integral poetic text, we will see its development in the phenomenon of refrain (for example, in a classical ballad).

Anadiplosis (Greek anadiplosis - doubling; swelling term - joint) is a contact repetition connecting the end of a speech row with the beginning of the next one. This is how the columns are connected in S. Nadson's lines "Only the morning of love is good: | Only the first, timid speeches are good", this is how Blok's verses are connected "Oh, spring without end and without edge - / Endless and without edge dream". Anaphora and epiphora often play the role of a structure-forming device in small lyric genres. But anadiplosis can also acquire the function of a compositional core around which speech is built. The best examples of early Irish lyrics, for example, are composed of long chains of anadiplosis. Among them, perhaps the oldest is the anonymous "Spell of Amergin", presumably dating from the 5th-6th centuries. AD (below is its fragment in a syntactically accurate translation by V. Tikhomirov):

Erin I cry loudly

The chilly sea is fat

The grasses are fat on the hillside

The grasses in the oak groves are juicy

Juicy moisture in the lakes

Moisture rich source

The source of the tribes is one

One ruler of Temra ...

Anadiplosis is opposed to prosapodosis (Greek prosapodosis - addition; paternal term - ring, coverage), a distant repetition, in which the initial element of the syntactic construction is reproduced at the end of the following: "The sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy ..." in Pushkin's "Demons". Prozapodosis can also cover a stanza (a verse by Yesenin is built on circular repetitions "You are mine, Shagane ...") and even the entire text of the work ("Night. Street. Lantern. Pharmacy ..." by A. Blok)

This subgroup also includes a complex figure formed by a combination of anaphora and an epiphora within the same segment of the text - a symlock (Greek symploce - plexus): "I don't want Falaley, | I hate Falaley, | I spit on Falaley, | I will crush Falaley, | I will love Asmodeus, | than Falaley! " (Dostoevsky, "The Village of Stepanchikovo and Its Inhabitants") - this example from the monologue of Foma Opiskin serves as a clear evidence that not only repetitive elements are intonationally emphasized: with a symlock, words framed by anaphora and epiphora are highlighted in each column.

When repeating, you can reproduce not only the word as a single character, but also the meaning torn from the character. Tautology (Greek tauto - the same, logos - word), or pleonasm (Greek pleonasmos - surplus) is a figure, when using which the word is not necessarily repeated, but the meaning of any lexical element is necessarily duplicated. For this, the authors select either synonymous words or peripheral phrases. The writer's deliberate use of tautology creates in the reader a sense of verbal excess, irrational verbosity, makes him pay attention to the corresponding segment of speech, and the reciter - intonationally isolate this entire segment. So, into the verse. A. Eremenko "Pokryshkin" double tautology intonationally distinguishes against the background of the general flow of speech of the columns "an evil bullet of gangster evil".

For the purpose of intonational selection of a semantically significant speech segment, they also use annomination (lat. Annominatio - subservience) - a contact repetition of one-root words: "I think my own thought ..." in N. Nekrasov's "Railway". This figure is widespread in song folklore and in the works of poets, in whose work their passion for stylizing speech is reflected.

The figures of repetition are close to gradation (lat. Gradatio - change in degree), in which words grouped into a number of homogeneous members have a common semantic meaning (feature or action), but their location expresses a consistent change in this meaning. The manifestation of a unifying sign can gradually increase or decrease: "I swear by the sky, it is undoubtedly that you are beautiful, it is undeniable that you are beautiful, it is true that you are attractive" ("The fruitless efforts of love" by Shakespeare, translated by Y. Korneev). In this phrase, next to "undoubtedly-indisputably-truly" is the strengthening of one feature, and next to "beautiful-beautiful-attractive" is the weakening of the other. Regardless of whether the sign is strengthening or weakening, the graduated phrase is pronounced with increasing emphasis (intonational expressiveness): "It sounded over a clear river, / It rang in a faded meadow, / It rolled over a grove mute ..." (Fet, "Evening").

In addition, the group of intonation marking tools includes polysyndeton (Greek polysyndeton - multi-union) and asyndeton (Greek asyndeton - non-union). Like the gradation, which both figures are often accompanied by, they presuppose the emphatic emphasis of the corresponding part of the text in the sounding speech. Polysindeton is essentially not only a multi-union ("life, and tears, and love" in Pushkin), but also a multi-sentence ("about valor, about exploits, about glory" by Blok). Its function is either to mark the logical sequence of actions (Pushkin's "Autumn": "And thoughts in my head are agitated in courage, And light rhymes run towards them, / And fingers ask to pen ...") or to encourage the reader to generalize, to perceive a series details as an integral image ("I erected a monument to myself miraculous ..." Pushkin: a species "And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn, and now the wild / Tungus, and the Kalmyk friend of the steppes" is formed when perceived as a generic "peoples of the Russian Empire"). And with the help of asyndeton, either the simultaneity of actions is emphasized ("The Swede, the Russian stabs, chops, cuts ..." in Pushkin's "Poltava"), or the fragmentation of the phenomena of the depicted world ("Whisper. Timid breathing... / Trills of a nightingale. / Silver and swaying / Sleepy stream "at Fet).

The use of syntactic figures by a writer leaves an imprint of individuality on his writing style. By the middle of the twentieth century, by the time when the concept of "creative individuality" was significantly depreciated, the study of figures ceased to be relevant, which was recorded by A. Kvyatkovsky in his "Dictionary of Poetic Terms" published in 1940: "At present, the names of rhetorical figures have been preserved behind the three most stable phenomena of style, such as: 1) a rhetorical question, 2) a rhetorical exclamation, 3) a rhetorical appeal ... ". Today, there is a revival of interest in the study of syntactic devices as means of artistic stylistics. The study of poetic syntax has taken on a new direction: modern science is increasingly analyzing phenomena that are at the junction of different sides of a literary text, for example, rhythm and syntax, verse meter and syntax, vocabulary and syntax, etc.

Bibliography

Antique rhetoric / Under total. ed. A.A. Taho-Godi. M., 1978.

Antique theories of language and style / Under total. ed. O.M. Freidenberg. M .; L., 1936.

Gornfeld A.G. Figure in poetics and rhetoric // Questions of theory and psychology of creativity. 2nd ed. Kharkov, 1911.T.1.

Dubois J., Edeline F., Klinkenberg J.M. and others. General rhetoric. M., 1986.

Korolkov V.I. To the theory of figures // Sat. scientific. works of Mosk. state ped. in-that foreign languages. Issue 78. M., 1974.

Essays on the history of the language of Russian poetry of the twentieth century: Grammatical categories. Syntax of the text. M., 1993.

Pospelov G.N. The syntactic structure of Pushkin's poems. M., 1960.

Tomashevsky B.V. Stylistics and versification: A course of lectures. L., 1959.

Jacobson R. Grammatical parallelism and its Russian aspects // Jacobson R. Works on poetics. M., 1987.

Lausberg H. Handbuch der literaturischen Rhetorik: eine Grundlegung der Literaturwissenschaft. Bd.1-2. Munchen, 1960.

Todorov T. Tropes et figures // To honor R. Jakobson. Essays on the occasion of his seventieth birthday. The Hague; P., 1967. Vol. 3.

Etkind E.G. Prose about poetry. SPb., 2001.S. 105.

Vinokur G.O. On the study of the language of literary works // Russian literature: from the theory of literature to the structure of the text. Anthology. Ed. V.P. Neroznak. M., 1997.S. 185.

Tomashevsky B.V. Literature theory. Poetics. M., 1996.S. 73.

Gasparov M.L. Medieval Latin poetics in the system of medieval grammar and rhetoric. // Gasparov M.L. Selected works, in 3 vols. Volume 1, About poets. M., 1997.S. 629. Wed: Gasparov M.L. Ancient rhetoric as a system. // Ibid. P.570.

Etkind E.G. Prose about poetry. SPb., 2001.S. 61.

Tomashevsky B.V. Literature theory. Poetics. P.75.

Yakobson R. The basis of comparative Slavic literary criticism // Yakobson R. Works on poetics. M., 1987.S. 32.

Kvyatkovsky A.P. Dictionary of poetic terms. M., 1940.S. 176.

See, for example, articles by M. Tarlinskaya, T.V. Skulacheva, M.L. Gasparov, N.A. Kozhevnikova in the publication: Slavic verse: Linguistic and applied poetics / Ed. M.L. Gasparova, A.V. Prokhorova, T.V. Skulacheva. M., 2001.

Figures of poetic syntax are called various methods of combining words into sentences, the task of which is to enhance the effect of what is said.

Let's consider the most common figures of poetic syntax with examples:

Inversion (or permutation) is a change in the usual word order in an expression. In Russian, the word order is considered arbitrary, but there are still generally accepted constructions, deviation from which entails a partial change in meaning. No one would argue that the expressions “I said it,” “I said it,” and “I said it,” have different connotations.

Repeat. In general, repetition is a fundamental feature of poetic speech. Repetitions at the level of phonetics and orthoepy form the rhythmic structure of poems. Repetitions at the level of morphemics (endings of the final lines of words) form a rhyme. Syntax-level repetitions can also play a large role. Syntactic repetitions include anadiplosis (or joint), anaphora and epiphora. Anadiplosis is a text structure in which the end of one phrase is repeated at the beginning of the next phrase. The technique helps to achieve greater coherence and flow of the text. An example is K. Balmont's poem “I was catching with a dream”, where “leaving shadows” are repeated, “steps trembled”, etc. Anaphora - the repetition of the initial word or group of words in each new line of the poem. An example is M. Tsvetaeva's poem "I fell in love with the rich - the poor", where the words "loved" and "do not love" are repeated. Epiphora is the opposite of anaphora. In this case, words that end lines or phrases are repeated. An example is a song from the movie "Hussar Ballad", each verse of which ends with the words "a long time ago."

Gradation is a consistent strengthening or weakening of the semantic coloring of words included in a group of homogeneous members. This technique helps to represent the phenomenon in its development. For example, N. Zabolotsky in his poem "Road Makers" depicts the explosion with the following sequence of words: "howled, sang, took off ..."

A rhetorical question, a rhetorical exclamation, a rhetorical address - these expressions, unlike ordinary questions, exclamations and addresses, do not refer to anyone in particular, they do not require an answer or response. The author uses them to make his text more emotional and dynamic. For example, M. Lermontov's poem "Sail" begins with rhetorical questions and ends with a rhetorical exclamation.

The cemetery contains a variety of monuments. On the site http://izgotovleniepamyatnikov.ru/ you can purchase gravestones at very competitive prices.

» » Figures of Poetic Syntax

Poetic syntax is a system special means constructing speech, contributing to the enhancement of its figurative expressiveness.

The study of stylistic figures is of particular importance for identifying the specifics of artistic speech.

To the group of receptions non-standard connection of words in syntactic unity include ellipse, anacoluphus, sylleps, alogism, amphibole, and gendiadis and ennalag.

Among the figures with unusual arrangement of parts syntactic constructs include various types parallelism and inversions.

To a group of shapes marking unusual intonation composition the text or its individual parts, are different types syntactic repeat, and tautology, annomination and gradation, polysyndeon and asyndeton.

Ellipsis- a linguistic term, a gap in a phrase of any word that is easily implied. E. - a phenomenon widespread in everyday and poetic speech. Examples of E. in Russian poetry:

It was not there (it was). The sea does not burn.

(I. Krylov)

Anacoluthon- Intaxic inconsistency of the members of the sentence, not noticed by the author or deliberately made to give the phrase a characteristic acuity (for example, in everyday speech or in the speech of an agitated person). However, the incorrect construction of the anacoluph phrase does not obscure the meaning, which is observed in amphibole.

Having prayed earnestly to God, shouting hurray to the Lyceum, Excuse me, brothers, I'm on my way, And it's time for you to go to bed.

(A. Pushkin)

Here, between the first and second couplet, words ("I say") are missing, the second couplet is not in quotation marks, like direct speech. A. of these lines is that adverbial turns the first two lines are attached without an intermediary link to the speech enclosed in the second couplet.

Silleps- stylistic turnover, in which:

1) The subject is plural, and the predicate is a verb in singular imperative mood, for example:

Those who are in need, those are arrogance, they lie in the dust, And those who are higher, weave flattery like lace.

(A. Griboyedov)

2) The subject is in the singular, and the predicate in the plural:

With my heart I never lived until May, And in my life, only the hundredth April is.

(V. Mayakovsky)

3) With two subjects, the predicate in the singular:

This dawn, This spring, So incomprehensible, but so clear.

4) The subject is a third person pronoun, and the predicate is a verb in imperative mood(second person):

She does not notice him, No matter how he fight, even die.

(A. Pushkin, "Eugene Onegin")

5) The subject is the first person pronoun, and the predicate is in the imperative mood (second person):

Or again, no matter how much I ask, There is no business for you forever.

(S. Yesenin)

6) Subject and predicate in the plural, and their dependent complement in the singular:

She took familiar sheets And looked at them wonderfully, As souls look from a height At their abandoned body.

(F. Tyutchev)

7) Such a turnover will also be syllabic when in a phrase the subject and predicate are put in the first case in the singular, and then in the adjacent phrase - in the plural, for example:

... The dead are buried in the ground; the sick are hidden in dugouts; working people A close crowd gathered at the office ... They scratched their heads tightly: Each contractor must stay, They have become a penny of leisure days!

(N. Nekrasov)

Alogism- a stylistic device close to oxymoron; willful violation of literary work logical connections in order to emphasize the internal inconsistency of this position (dramatic or comic).

Amphibolia- ambiguity of expression resulting from a number of stylistic reasons.

1) Structural ambiguity in the construction of a sentence, most often ambiguity, when the subject in the nominative case is difficult to distinguish from the direct object in the accusative case, that is, in other words, it is not known who is who:

Brega Aragva and Kura Saw Russian tents.

(A. Pushkin)

2) Unsuccessful enjambement with a sharp grammatical inversion, in other words, an unsuccessful transfer of a part of a phrase from one line to another when the syntactic word order is violated:

And a proud mind will not conquer Love with cold words.

(K. Batyushkov)

Pushkin remarked about these verses: “The meaning comes out: with cold words of love; a comma won't help. "

3) Too complex or confusing syntactic construction of the phrase in the presence of a sharp grammatical inversion and in the absence of precise punctuation:

And he bequeathed when dying, To carry His yearning bones to the south, And by death - alien to this land Unsettled guests.

(A. Pushkin, "Gypsies")

Gendiadis- a figure of speech expressing one concept in two lexical units: for example. scream and cry, greedy beef.

Enallaga- This is a rhetorical figure, consisting in the displacement of a word or turnover by transferring its attitude from one defined to another. A type of metonymy, the transfer of a definition (epithet) to a word adjacent to the defined.

F.I. Tyutchev:

But for me your gaze is a boon;

Like life is the key, in the depths of the soul

Your gaze lives and will live in me:

She needs him like the sky and breath.

The word “her” refers to “the depth of the soul,” and not to the soul, and it turns out that the “look” is needed by the “depth of the soul,” that is, the soul, as it begins to possess the property of depth, akin to a deep gaze that comes from the depths of another soul.

Parallelism- a compositional technique that emphasizes the structural relationship of two (usually) or three elements of style in a work of art; the connection of these elements lies in the fact that they are located in parallel in two or three adjacent phrases, verses, stanzas, due to which their commonality is revealed. Modern poetics has established the following types of P.

Chiasm- a stylistic figure, which consists in the fact that in two adjacent sentences (or phrases) built on syntactic parallelism, the second sentence (or combination) is built in the reverse sequence of members. In other words, X. is a cross-arrangement of parallel members in two adjacent sentences of the same syntactic form.

Automedons are our strikers, Our troikas are indefatigable.

(A. Pushkin)

... The Spanish grandee, like a thief, Waits for the night and is afraid of the moon.

(A. Pushkin)

Can't I be more miserable And no one is more guilty than him.

(M. Lermontov)

Here Pushkin's exile began And Lermontov's exile ended.

(A. Akhmatova)

Isokolon- stylistic figure of the parallel arrangement of parts of speech in adjacent sentences:

He listens with his usual ear

Whistling.

He stains with one spirit

Sheet.

(A. Pushkin)

Inversion- violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of the phrase, giving it special expressiveness; an unusual sequence of words in a sentence.

Reruns- stylistic features inherent in poetry and thus distinguishing it from prose, as an opposing stylistic category. The system of poetic repetitions includes: metric elements - foot, verse, tactometric period, stanza, anacruse and epicruse; euphonic elements - anaphora and epiphora, rhymes, assonances, dissonances, refrain; various parallelisms.

Repetition- a figure consisting in the repetition of words, expressions, song or poetic line in order to draw special attention to them.

Every house is alien to me, every temple is not empty, And everything is the same and everything is one ... M. Tsvetaeva

Polyptotone- repetition of one word in different case forms while preserving its meaning:

"But a man is a man / Sent to anchar with an imperious gaze ..." (A. Pushkin, "Anchar").

Antanaklasis- a stylistic figure, repetition of the same word in a different sense.

"... one spouse in the absence of a spouse ..." - Pushkin

Anaphora- consonance; repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several phrases or stanzas.

I love you, Peter's creation, I love your strict, slender look ... AS Pushkin.

Epiphora- a figure opposite to anaphora, repetition of the same elements at the end of adjacent segments of speech (words, lines, stanzas, phrases):

Baby, We are all a little bit of a horse, Each of us is a horse in his own way. V.V. Mayakovsky

Refrain- compositional technique of repeating a verse or a series of verses at the end of a stanza (verse). Many folk songs are constructed in this way.

Ring- compositional and stylistic technique, consisting in repetition at the end of a poetic line (stanza or the whole work) initial words or individual sounds.

The bells rang out discordant sounds.

(M. Lermontov)

Simplock- the figure of syntactic parallelism in adjacent verses, which have a) the same beginning and end at different middle and b) vice versa, - different start and end at the same middle.

Samples of S. of the first type are more often found in folk poetry:

In the field, a birch tree stood, In the field, curly stood.

Pleonasm- verbosity, unnecessary identifying words in a phrase. These are P., which we use at every step: in a dream, underwear, turned back, snub nose, ran, saw with my own eyes, etc. Examples of P. in poets.

Gradation- a stylistic figure, which consists in consistently forcing or, conversely, weakening comparisons, images, epithets, metaphors and other expressive means of artistic speech. There are two types of G. - climax (rise) and anticlimax (descent).

Ascending gradation:

The bipod at the orata maple, Omeshiks on the bipod are damask, The bipod at the bipod is silver, And the stag at the bipod is red gold. A story about Volga and Mikula.

Downward gradation:

Fly! less fly! destroyed to a grain of sand. N.V. Gogol

Polysindeon(multi-union) - a phrase construction in which all or almost all of the homogeneous members of the sentence are connected with one and the same union (more often the union "and"), while usually in this case only the last two homogeneous members of the sentence are connected. With the help of M. purposefulness and unity of the enumerated are emphasized.

Oh! Summer is red! I would love you, If it were not for the heat, yes dust, mosquitoes, and flies ...

(Pushkin)

Asyndeton or asyndeton- a stylistic device in which there are no (omitted) alliances connecting words and sentences in phrases, as a result of which speech becomes more concise, compact. B. is the opposite of multi-union (polysindeton), which is used much more often. Examples B:

Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts, Drum beat, clicks, rattle.

(A. Pushkin)

Rhetorical figures- the term of the old Russian poetics (rhetoric, or rhetoric) - stylistic turns, the purpose of which is to enhance the expressiveness of speech. In the past, rhetoric was the science of oratory, it originated in Ancient Greece (the school of Pythagoras). In Russia, the rules of literary stylistics in its broad sense were described in the "Rhetoric" by M. Lomonosov, who considered the use of R. f. a sign of high style. To R. f. included such stylistic phenomena as antithesis, hyperbole, conversion, exclamation, asteism, gradation, prosopopeia, irony, assimilation, silence, etc.

Currently, the name of R. f. survived only for three phenomena of style related to intonation:

1) A rhetorical question that does not require an answer, but has a lyrical and emotional meaning:

2) Rhetorical exclamation, playing the same role of amplification emotional perception:

3) Rhetorical appeal, designed for the same effect, especially in cases where interrogative intonation is combined with exclamation; this form R. f. most often found in poetry.

The general nature of the writer's work leaves a certain stamp on his poetic syntax, that is, on his manner of constructing phrases and sentences. It is in the poetic syntax that the conditionality of the syntactic structure of poetic speech is manifested general nature creative talent of the writer.

Poetic figures of language are associated with a special role played by individual lexical resources and visual means of the language.

Rhetorical exclamations, addresses, questions are created by the author to focus the attention of readers on a phenomenon or problem about which in question... Thus, they should draw attention to them, and not demand an answer ("O field, field, who littered you with dead bones?" "Do you know the Ukrainian night?", "Do you love theater?", "O Rus! Raspberry field...").

Repetitions: anaphora, epiphora, joint. They belong to the figures of poetic speech and are syntactic constructions based on the repetition of individual words that carry the main semantic load.

Among the repetitions, stand out anaphora, that is, the repetition of the initial words or phrases in sentences, verses or stanzas ("I loved you" -AS Pushkin;

I swear on the first day of creation

I swear on his last day

I swear by the shame of crime

And the triumph of eternal truth. - M.Yu. Lermontov).

Epiphora is a repetition of the final words or phrases in sentences or stanzas - "Here comes the master" N.А. Nekrasov.

Joint- a rhetorical figure in which a word or expression is repeated at the end of one phrase and at the beginning of the second. Most often found in folklore:

He fell on the cold snow

On the cold snow like a pine tree

Like a pine tree in a damp forest ... - (M.Yu. Lermontov).

Oh spring, without end and without edge,

A dream without end and without edge ... - (A.A. Blok).

Gain represents the arrangement of words and expressions according to the principle of their increasing power: "I spoke, persuaded, demanded, ordered." Authors need this figure of poetic speech for greater power and expressiveness when conveying the image of an object, thought, feeling: "I knew him as lovers tenderly, passionately, furiously, boldly, modestly ..." - (IS Turgenev).

Default- a rhetorical technique based on the omission of individual words or phrases in speech (most often this is used to emphasize the emotion or unpreparedness of speech). - "There are such moments, such feelings ... You can only point to them ... and pass by" - (IS Turgenev).

Parallelism- is a rhetorical device - a detailed comparison of two or more phenomena, given in similar syntactic constructions. -

What is clouded, clear dawn,

Has fallen to the ground with dew?

What are you thinking, red girl,

Are your eyes flashing with a tear? (A.N. Koltsov)

Parcelling- dismemberment of a single syntactic structure of a sentence with the aim of a more emotional, vivid perception of it by the reader - "The child needs to be taught to feel. Beauty. People. All living things around."

Antithesis(opposition, opposition) is a rhetorical technique in which the disclosure of contradictions between phenomena is usually carried out using a number of antonymic words and expressions. -

Black evening, white snow ... - (A.A. Blok).

I decay with my body in dust,

I command the thunders with the mind.

I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god! (A.N. Radishchev).

Inversion- unusual word order in a sentence. Despite the fact that in the Russian language there is no once and for all fixed word order, nevertheless there is a familiar order. For example, the definition comes before the word being defined. Then Lermontov's "A lone sail whitens in the blue mist of the sea" seems unusual and poetically sublime in comparison with the traditional one: "A lone sail whitens in the blue fog of the sea." Or "The longed-for moment has come: My work is over for many years" - A.S. Pushkin.

Alliances can also serve to make speech expressive. So, asyndeton usually used to convey the swiftness of action when depicting pictures or sensations: "Balls are rolling, bullets are whistling, Cold bayonets are hanging ...", or "Lanterns are flashing past, Pharmacies, fashion stores ... Lions on the gates ..." - A. WITH. Pushkin.

Multi-Union usually creates the impression of separation of speech, emphasizes the importance of each word separated by a union:

Oh! Summer is red! I would love you

If not for the heat, yes, dust, mosquitoes, and flies. - A.S. Pushkin.

And a cloak, and an arrow, and a crafty dagger -

Keep the lord for years. - M.Yu. Lermontov.

Non-union to multi-union connection- also a means of emotional expressiveness for the author:

Beat of drums, screams, rattling,

The thunder of the guns, the stomp, the neigh, the groan,

And death and hell from all sides. - A.S. Pushkin.

No less significant than the poetic dictionary, the field of study of expressive means is poetic syntax. The study of poetic syntax consists in analyzing the functions of each of the artistic methods of selection and the subsequent grouping of lexical elements into unified syntactic constructions. If in the immanent study of the vocabulary of a literary text words play the role of the analyzed units, then in the study of syntax - sentences and phrases. If, in the study of vocabulary, facts of deviation from the literary norm in the selection of words are established, as well as facts of transfer of the meanings of words (a word with a figurative meaning, that is, a trope, manifests itself only in a context, only with a semantic interaction with another word), then the study of syntax obliges not only typological consideration of syntactic unity and grammatical connections of words in a sentence, but also to identify the facts of correction or even change in the meaning of the whole phrase in the semantic relationship of its parts (which usually occurs as a result of the use of so-called figures by the writer).

There are five of us hanged, maybe six.

And the flesh, which knew a lot of delights,

It has been devoured for a long time and has become a stench.

Bones of steel - we will become dust and putrefaction.

Whoever grins will not be happy himself.

Pray to God that everything will be forgiven for us.

(A. Parin, "The Ballad of the Hanged")

There were five of us. We wanted to live.

And they hanged us. We have turned black.

We lived like you. We are no more.

Do not try to condemn - people are insane.

We will not object to anything in return.

Look and pray, and God will judge.

(I. Ehrenburg, "Epitaph, written by Villon for him

and his comrades waiting for the gallows ")

"But what to say about our writers, who, considering it as mean to explain just the most ordinary things, think to revive children's prose with additions and sluggish metaphors? These people will never say friendship without adding: this sacred feeling, of which a noble flame, etc. say: early in the morning - and they write: as soon as the first rays of the rising sun lit up the eastern edges of the azure sky - oh, how new and fresh it all is, is it really better because it is longer.<...>Precision and brevity are the first virtues of prose. It requires thoughts and thoughts - without them, brilliant expressions are useless. Poems are another matter ... "(" On Russian Prose ")

"Finally, something began to turn black to the side. Vladimir turned there. Approaching, he saw a grove. Thank God, he thought, now it is close." ("Blizzard")

On the contrary, Pushkin the poet is often verbose, constructing long phrases with rows of peripheral phrases:

The philosopher is frisky and drinking,

Parnassian lucky sloth

Harit pampered pet,

Confidant of lovely aonids,

Mail on the golden-stringed harp

Has fallen silent, joy singer?

Can it be you, young dreamer,

Parted with Phoebus at last?<...>

("To Batyushkov")

EG Etkind, analyzing this poetic message, comments on the periphrastic series: "Piit" - this old word means "poet". "Parnassian lucky sloth" also means "poet". "Harit pampered pet" - "poet". "Confidant of lovely aonids" - "poet". The "Singer of Joy" is also a "poet". In essence, a "young dreamer" and a "high-spirited philosopher" are also a "poet".<...>"Something on the golden-stringed harp fell silent ..." This means: "Why did you stop writing poetry?" But then: "Really you too ... parted with Phoebus ..."<...>- this is the same "- and concludes that Pushkin's lines" in every way modify the same idea: "Why, poet, do not you write more poetry?"

("Donkey in a lion's skin")

The other extreme is the overcomplication of constructions, the use of polynomial sentences with different types of logical and grammatical connections, with many ways of distribution. For example:

1. Unusual logical or grammatical connection of elements of syntactic constructions.

3. Unusual ways of intonational marking of text using syntactic means.

Elliptical speech in a literary text gives the impression of being reliable, because in the life situation of a conversation, an ellipse is one of the main means of phrase composition: when exchanging remarks, it allows you to skip previously sounded words. Therefore, in colloquial speech, an exclusively practical function is assigned to the ellipses: the speaker conveys information to the interlocutor in the required volume, using the minimum lexical stock.

-… Before, you say, I went to teach children, but now why don't you do anything?

I'm doing [something] ... ”Raskolnikov said reluctantly and sternly.

What are you doing?

- [I'm doing] Work ...

What kind of work [are you doing]?

“[I] Think,” he answered seriously after a pause.

Here we see that the omission of some words emphasizes the special semantic load of the remaining others.

Both in everyday life and in literature, anakoluph (Greek anakoluthos - inconsistent) is recognized as a verbal mistake - the incorrect use of grammatical forms in coordination and management: "The smell of makhorka and some sour cabbage soup felt almost unbearable in this place" (A. F. Pisemsky, "Old Man's Sin"). However, its use can be justified in cases where the writer gives expression to the character's speech: "Stop, brothers, stop! You are not sitting like that!" (in Krylov's fable "Quartet").

An unusual semantic connection between parts of a phrase or a sentence is created by a catachreza (see the section "Paths") and an oxymoron (Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid). In both cases, there is a logical contradiction between the members of a single structure. Catachreza arises as a result of the use of an erased metaphor or metonymy and within the framework of "natural" speech is assessed as a mistake: "sea voyage" is a contradiction between "sailing on the sea" and "walking on land", "oral prescription" - between "verbally" and " in writing "," Soviet Champagne "- between" Soviet Union "and" Champagne ". Oxymoron, on the other hand, is a planned consequence of the application of a fresh metaphor and even in everyday speech is perceived as an exquisite figurative means. "Mom! Your son is perfectly ill!" (V. Mayakovsky, "A Cloud in Pants") - here "sick" is a metaphorical substitute for "in love".

Gendiadis (from the Greek hen dia dyoin - one through two), in which complex adjectives divided into the original constituent parts: "longing road, iron" (A. Blok, "On the railroad"). Here the word "railway" underwent splitting, as a result of which three words entered into interaction - and the verse acquired an additional meaning. EG Etkind, referring to the question of the semantics of the epithets "iron", "iron" in the poetry dictionary of Blok, noted: "Iron melancholy" - this phrase casts a reflection on something else, on the combination "railroad" two definitions directed towards each other<...>, as if forming one word "railway", and at the same time repelling from this word - it has a completely different meaning. "Iron anguish" is despair caused by the dead, mechanical world of modern - "iron" - civilization. "

Various types of parallelism and inversion are among the figures with unusual mutual arrangement of parts of syntactic constructions.

the waves are playing

the wind whistles

Inverted words can be placed in a phrase in different ways. With a contact inversion, the contiguity of words is preserved ("Like a tragedian in the provinces, a drama to Shakespeare ..." in Pasternak), with a distant inversion, other words are wedged between them ("An old man obedient to Perun alone ..." in Pushkin). In both cases, the unusual position of an individual word affects its intonation. As Tomashevsky noted, "in inverted constructions, words sound more expressive, more weighty."

A simple repetition is applied to different units of the text - both to the word (as in the above examples) and to the phrase ("Evening bells, evening bells!" lexical meaning... The repetition of one word in different case forms while preserving its meaning has been identified since ancient times as a special figure - polyptoton (Greek polyptoton - multiplying): "But a man / He sent a man to the Anchar with an imperious gaze ..." (Pushkin, "Anchar"). On the polyptoton, according to R. Yakobson's observation, Mayakovsky's "The Tale of the Little Red Riding Hood" is built, in which the full paradigm of the case forms of the word "cadet" is presented. An equally ancient figure is antanaklasis (Greek antanaklasis - reflection) - a repetition of a word in its original grammatical form, but with a change in meaning. "The last eagle owl is broken and sawn. / And, with a clerical button, is pinned / To the autumn branch head down, // Hangs and thinks with his head ..." (A. Eremenko, "In dense metallurgical forests ...") - here the word "head "is used in a direct and then metonymic sense.

Erin I cry loudly

The chilly sea is fat

The grasses are fat on the hillside

The grasses in the oak groves are juicy

Juicy moisture in the lakes

Moisture rich source

The source of the tribes is one

One ruler of Temra ...

This subgroup also includes a complex figure formed by a combination of anaphora and an epiphora within the same segment of the text - a symlock (Greek symploce - plexus): "I don't want Falaley, | I hate Falaley, | I spit on Falaley, | I will crush Falaley, |<...>I will rather love Asmodeus, | than Falalea! "(Dostoevsky," The Village of Stepanchikovo and Its Inhabitants ") - this example from the monologue of Foma Opiskin serves as clear evidence that not only repetitive elements are intonationally emphasized: with the symlock, words framed by anaphora and epiphora are highlighted in each column.

The figures of repetition are close to gradation (lat. Gradatio - change in degree), in which words grouped into a number of homogeneous members have a common semantic meaning (feature or action), but their location expresses a consistent change in this meaning. The manifestation of a unifying sign can gradually increase or decrease: "I swear by the sky, it is undoubted that you are beautiful, it is indisputable that you are beautiful, truly,<...>that you are attractive "(" The fruitless efforts of love "by Shakespeare in the translation by Y. Korneev). In this phrase, next to" undoubtedly, undeniably, truly "is the strengthening of one feature, and next to" beautiful, beautiful, attractive "- the weakening of the other. from whether the sign strengthens or weakens, the graduated phrase is pronounced with increasing emphasis (intonation expressiveness): "It sounded over a clear river, / It rang in a faded meadow, / It rolled over a grove mute ..." (Fet, "Evening").

In addition, the group of intonation marking tools includes polysyndeton (Greek polysyndeton - multi-union) and asyndeton (Greek asyndeton - non-union). Like the gradation, which both figures are often accompanied by, they presuppose the emphatic emphasis of the corresponding part of the text in the sounding speech. Polysindeton is essentially not only a multi-union ("life, and tears, and love" in Pushkin), but also a multi-sentence ("about valor, about exploits, about glory" by Blok). Its function is either to mark the logical sequence of actions (Pushkin's "Autumn": "And thoughts in my head are agitated in courage, And light rhymes run towards them, / And fingers ask to pen ...") or to encourage the reader to generalize, to perceive a series details as an integral image ("I erected a monument to myself miraculous ..." Pushkin: a species "And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn, and now the wild / Tungus, and the Kalmyk friend of the steppes" is formed when perceived as a generic "peoples of the Russian Empire"). And with the help of asyndeton, either the simultaneity of actions is emphasized ("The Swede, the Russian stabs, chops, cuts ..." in Pushkin's "Poltava"), or the fragmentation of the phenomena of the depicted world ("Whisper. Timid breathing. / Trills of a nightingale. / Silver and swaying / Sleepy brook "at Fet).

The use of syntactic figures by a writer leaves an imprint of individuality on his writing style. By the middle of the twentieth century, by the time when the concept of "creative individuality" was significantly depreciated, the study of figures ceased to be relevant, which was recorded by A. Kvyatkovsky in his "Dictionary of Poetic Terms" published in 1940: "At present, the names of rhetorical figures have been preserved behind the three most stable phenomena of style, such as: 1) a rhetorical question<..>, 2) rhetorical exclamation<...>, 3) rhetorical appeal ... ". Today, there is a revival of interest in the study of syntactic devices as means of artistic stylistics. The study of poetic syntax has taken on a new direction: modern science is increasingly analyzing phenomena that are at the junction of different sides of a literary text, for example, rhythm and syntax, verse meter and syntax, vocabulary and syntax, etc.

Bibliography