Education in China. Chinese education system Education system in China

Education in China at the moment, on the whole, copies Western models, but has a number of essential features.

As you know, in the world there are two options for the development of education, both school and higher. The first, when they did it well right away and then just developed it, and examples here are the United Kingdom, the United States and Singapore, and the second, when at first everything turned out to be disgusting, that then you have to break and redo everything, as in Russia and China.

Education in China has been difficult. We will not take ancient history and the Middle Ages, but start right away from the 20th century, when universities began to appear in China under the influence of British dominance in the region. With the coming of the communists to power in 1949, China, which was previously, in fact, a British protectorate, changed its course towards cooperation with the Soviet Union, taking over the educational system of an ally - the humanities were pushed aside, and the physics, mathematics and natural sciences were put in priority, as at school and at the level of higher education.

Further, with the beginning of the "Cultural Revolution" in China in 1966, all leading specialists of universities were dispersed by Comrade Mao Zedong on suspicion of counter-revolution, schools and institutes were massively closed, and friendship with the USSR was terminated. The situation of tyranny changed only with the death of the dictator and the coming to power of the main Chinese reformer Deng Xiaoping in 1977, who, by and large, began the formation of the educational system of China in its modern form.

General facts about education and literacy in China

China is far from the first in 2016 in terms of literacy in the Asian region. The percentage of literate people, that is, people who can read and write, is about 83%, which means that about 240 million Chinese will not put two words together in writing. At the same time, China ranks first in the world in terms of the number of educational institutions - about 1 million and the number of students studying abroad. Education in China, in the light of its inaccessibility, is extremely prestigious and expensive. Parents often save money from the very birth of a child for a university, the completion of which guarantees both them and their child a comfortable life and old age.

Preschool and school education in China

Education in China begins for a child at the age of three, when he goes to kindergarten and finishes it at 6. Then school, which is divided into primary - 6 years, secondary - 3 years, and senior - also 3 years. In China, a compulsory 9-year education has been established, after which a student can continue his studies at school and go to university or immediately go to study at a technical college, which are very common in China due to the large shortage and high cost of universities. For all this, he needs to pass gaokao - the Chinese equivalent of the exam.

The compulsory subjects in the Chinese school are similar to those of other developed countries: languages, biology, mathematics, physics, etc. There is a strong emphasis on inviting foreign teachers to teach English. The European appearance of a teacher in China is a guarantee of a decent salary.

School education in China has a minimum fee - there are no fees for the education itself, but there are fees for running costs (transport, food ...).

Universities in China

As noted, a college degree is incredibly prestigious for Chinese families. To save up money and send a child to a university, be it Chinese or foreign, is the goal of life for the vast majority of parents. Yes, higher education in China is paid, and for a family living in a village and growing rice on plantations, the fee is absolutely unaffordable, despite the fact that the Chinese government is trying to develop a system of grants and targeted education, where the state pays for education, and then the graduate must work for a certain period in the specified state institution.

The Chinese system of universities in China has been reformed over the past 40 years - many ineffective institutions have been closed, reorganized or merged with others. Tuition fees rose, and the number of foreign visiting faculty and managers grew exponentially.

The university system of China is borrowed from the West - admission is based on test results, 4 years of bachelor's degree, 2 years of master's degree and about 3 years if you want to become a Ph.D. The priority in China is technical, natural science education in connection with the best guarantees of employment. The humanities and social sciences are of secondary importance.

In 1993, the Chinese government compiled a rating of 100 Chinese universities that can count on state support, and the C9 League of the best Chinese universities was created - Beijing, Shanghai, Harbin Polytechnic, Nanjing and others, similar to the American Ivy League. Subsidizing these universities is approximately 10% of the total budget spent on universities in China. 10% is a lot.

Many point to the high corruption of the higher education sector in China, although the government is trying with all its might (including executions) to fight nepotism and bribery. Since the competition for admission to a Chinese university is on average 200-300 people for a paid place, which is incredible even for Harvard, connections are of enormous importance.

Education Trends in China

China, being a socialist state, actively encourages the opening of private schools and universities, which is associated with attempts, through a private initiative, to close the huge deficit in China's educational institutions and raise the level of literacy. At the moment, there are about 70 thousand NOU (non-profit educational institution) in China, which receive grants and subsidies from the state.

The second point is that China is being Westernized. There are regular reforms to simplify the Chinese language, which should increase literacy and make writing and reading accessible to many, and for the past 20 years, China has been encouraging its applicants and students to study and complete their studies abroad, more often in English-speaking countries.

Used materials from the site economic-development-china.rf; chinahighlights.com; UNESKO World Data on Education; economist.com

The tremendous pace of economic development in the PRC over the past decades has given rise to many discussions among modern society, more and more hypotheses and assumptions about the origins of China's powerful progress appear. Of course, this could not have happened without a reason and serious work of the state and representatives of the economic industry.

The national idea of ​​the Celestial Empire is based on the principle of hard work, which will certainly lead to success. From the very childhood, the Chinese have worked hard and even after reaching the goal they do not stop working on themselves. The Chinese never stop halfway, because the main thing for them is to achieve the set goal. For example, during the Olympics, the Chinese always strive to get exactly gold, because other medals are not the equivalent of victory.

But, of course, the state played an important role in shaping the country's economy.
First, the priorities were correctly identified: most of the state budget today is invested in education. Universities that bring valuable personnel to the country are almost entirely subsidized by the state. Hence the race to improve the quality of the training received. The state also encourages talented students - future invaluable personnel for the country and provides grants. They also work for international students.
Secondly, primary and secondary education was declared compulsory for all. Only by tough measures at the legislative level it was possible to cope with the prevalence of illiteracy.

As you know, in the early 90s in China, only 4% of the population had a higher education, only 12% received a high school diploma and 11% had no education at all. Outstanding researchers could be counted on one hand, while prestigious universities, victories in various Olympiads and competitions were out of the question. Today the situation has changed dramatically.

Benefits of Chinese education

What was the impetus that turned China into the fastest growing country? Today, the Celestial Empire overtakes the United States in the number of space launches, independently produces original and high-quality products, and is also a world center for advanced research and innovative projects. In 1998, the PRC Higher Education Law was signed, which turned the country's universities into world-class universities, with the best professors and unique laboratories, thanks to which China can now rightfully be called an innovative miracle.

At present, every citizen of the PRC understands that the absence of a diploma of higher education means the impossibility of a normal, happy life and self-realization. This understanding has determined the current situation in the country. Currently, obtaining a diploma and a demanded specialization is the goal of every resident of the country. And they begin to achieve it from early childhood. Taking into account the incredible diligence and diligence, schoolchildren, and then students, learn an insane amount and perceive huge layers of information every day.

Features of education in China

The concept is for each student to become a significant person in society and achieve all the best in life. Therefore, from childhood, every citizen of the PRC knows what an intensive study of the material is, is able to steadfastly endure nine lessons every day and spends his free time studying books in the library. And all this is accompanied by an iron discipline: for 12 passes, the student will be expelled, for the use of alcohol within the walls of an educational institution - expulsion with a reprimand and significant difficulties when entering other schools.

Quiet hours exist in schools due to the high workload and iron discipline. After lunch, students have 60-80 minutes to rest and recover. At the same time, before leaving for rest, children study the exact sciences, and after a quiet hour they engage in creativity.

The education system in China

The modern Chinese education system is familiar to any European and differs little from what we are used to.

• From three to six years old, children receive preschool education in kindergartens. At this age, training to strict discipline begins.
• The child spends the next six years in elementary school. There he receives basic knowledge about the world and society and for the first time tries himself as a worker.
• Another three years are spent in secondary school. At this stage, children delve into exact sciences, study politics, computer science and foreign languages. After graduating from high school, students are considered savvy enough not to go to high school, but to get a secondary vocational education and go to work.
• The last three years of school are high school. There, children are being prepared for university.

Preschool education

In China, as in Russia, preschoolers attend kindergartens. They are divided into two main types: private and public. At the same time, they differ in both the method of financing and teaching methods.

In private kindergartens, teaching focuses on an individual approach to the child, develops his creative abilities and introduces science and art. In public preschool institutions, children are taught to work, taught to cope with everyday needs and prepared for primary school.

The famous Chinese discipline is taught to children from kindergarten. Every morning begins with raising the national flag, all games are strictly controlled by educators, and there is simply no free time for idleness. Maybe this is the secret of the exceptional diligence and efficiency of the Chinese.

School education in China

We mentioned the three-level structure of schooling earlier. In general, it resembles the Russian one, except that only the first nine years of study are free. You will have to pay for high school.
Primary and secondary school is a compulsory stage of education. The program includes basic study of the Chinese language, mathematics, natural history, history, geography and music. Knowledge is assessed on a 100-point scale, the test system is working.

In Chinese schools, there is a uniform uniform for all students, the entrance gates are opened twice a day, and the educational process does not stop even during the holidays. After rest, schoolchildren are obliged to hand over their homework to the teachers. It is a common practice to send children abroad. But not for relaxation, but for a more in-depth study of a foreign language. It seems that every free minute in China is spent studying.

Those who want to go to college usually go to high school. Another important point - before the beginning of this stage, students take a profile test and choose a direction - vocational or academic.
In the high school of the academic direction, students are prepared for admission to the university. Schoolchildren are waiting for training in serious and narrow-profile disciplines that they will need at the university.
The Vocational High School aims to train future workers.

Higher education in China

More than two thousand higher educational institutions are located on the territory of China. It should be noted that diplomas of Chinese universities are not only quoted by employers, but also highly valued in the world arena. And this is all thanks to the fundamental approach to higher education in the Middle Kingdom.

To enter university, students take a national uniform exam that determines their chances of admission to university. Not only the state, but also municipalities and private companies in China are interested in increasing the number of young people with higher education. Hence the variety of grants and scholarships for university studies. Student loans are also common.
Studying in the PRC is becoming more accessible, but the competition for budget places is still very large, so even admission to a paid department is a holiday for the whole family. A graduate diploma from a Chinese university is a guarantor of a successful career in the future.

The structure of higher education in China is the same as in Russia or Europe and consists of three stages: bachelor's, master's and postgraduate studies.
Undergraduate studies take four years and are the main stage of higher education. A bachelor's degree allows you to get a job in leading companies in China and around the world.

A master's degree is another two or three years of study and the receipt of the first academic degree. Students who enter the second stage of education will face serious scientific work, the publication of academic materials on the chosen topic and, finally, the writing and defense of a master's thesis.

Obtaining a Ph.D. degree takes another three to four years of postgraduate study. Usually this tuition is paid, but graduate students studying important or contemporary topics can count on the help of the state, which encourages the growth of scientists who benefit the country.

Study in China for foreigners

For foreigners, studying in China looks very different. More than 400,000 students from different countries (Russia, USA, South Korea, Japan, Kazakhstan, etc.) are already studying in China. At the same time, foreign students receive benefits and softer living conditions.

Why? Every year, Chinese educational institutions provide hundreds of programs and grants for foreign students. The more students from other countries, the higher the university's rating. Cooperation of universities with other countries is important for the development of international business, improvement of relations with other countries and the popularization of Chinese culture.

The differences do not end there. Unlike Chinese students, foreign students live in more comfortable conditions. On the campus of any major university, there are separate dormitories for students from other countries. Usually they are newer, equipped with all the necessary equipment, and the rooms in them are designed for fewer people.

But at the same time, do not forget that while studying, foreign students do not have any privileges. Iron discipline and high demands are the same for everyone. Chinese teachers do not give indulgences to lazy students, and the students themselves treat such fellow students with misunderstanding. In addition, for poor performance or absenteeism without a good reason, they can be expelled.
Every year, Chinese universities take leading positions in the world rankings of educational institutions. This is facilitated by state support, and an innovative approach and international experience in the exchange of knowledge of universities in the Middle Kingdom.

China and Russia: Comparing Modern Higher Education

Perhaps, higher education in China today is partially similar to what we were told about Soviet universities. The priority is the unshakable authority of the teacher, the obligatory attendance of all lectures and seminars, exactingness in study and, of course, careful observance of disciplinary norms.

But one should not think that modern education in China is a throwback to the past. Along with the iron discipline and strict standards that were inherent in Russian universities 50 years ago, Chinese universities demonstrate scientific openness, the use of the latest technologies, active implementation of practical classes and cooperation with the best universities from around the world. Most of the universities in China are equipped with innovation laboratories, have extensive libraries and all the conditions for making real scientific discoveries.

In addition, students live on modern campuses, on the territory of which there are cafes, gyms, shops, bank branches and everything you need to live. Oftentimes, students living in dormitories simply do not need to leave the campus. All of this can get closer with the China campus network.

Leading Universities

More than fifty universities in China are ranked among the top 500 universities in the world. The ranking is updated every year and includes the most innovative, modern and influential universities from around the world. Two Chinese universities located in Beijing consistently rank in the top several dozen of the world rankings. This once again shows how highly the education received in China is on the world stage.

The most authoritative institutions of higher education in China have formed into a separate group and have received the name "League C9". This association is comparable to the American Ivy League or the British Russell alliance. In addition to the credibility and high rating, all research and technical development at these universities is funded by the state. The purpose of the league was to pool scientific resources and an agreement to support a high level of national education. Accordingly, any of the nine universities of the group can offer the best conditions for studying in China.

League C9 includes Peking University, Shanghai University of Transport, Fudan University, Harbin Polytechnic University, Nanjing University, Tsinghua University, China Science and Technology University, Zhejiang University and Xi'an Transport University.

There are hundreds of universities for applicants wishing to obtain a higher education or a scientific degree in China. They all have different specializations and can provide different opportunities. But at the same time, it will be of the same quality both in large cities and federal universities, and in small budgetary universities located in the provinces.

We have all heard about the success of the Chinese economy. China is considered a very promising country. In recent years, a sense of pride in their country has rapidly developed in China.

Interestingly, before 1949, 80 percent (!) Of China's 500 million people were illiterate.

The problem was solved by opening a large number of schools. For them, in turn, pedagogical universities were created. Of course, such a mass character could not have a positive effect on quality. And yet, the work in this area has been simply titanic. To date, 91 percent of the country's districts are covered by compulsory primary education, 99 percent of school-age children go to school, and the number of children who for one reason or another interrupted their studies is decreasing.

Until now, a huge number of people in the country are rural residents or people from rural areas. These Chinese people, on average, have a lower level of education and culture. As a rule, their children are less educated. Here's an example: most of the villagers are guided by tradition. The bride and groom do not marry for love, but at the behest of their parents. They may have very little in common. It is believed that this often becomes the cause of mutual discontent and violence in families. This is a really serious problem. More than 30% of married Chinese people face the problem of domestic violence, which is the main cause of suicide among women in rural areas.

Tolerance and balance often help Chinese people in their daily lives.

A family

The Chinese family was more often built and is being built on the basis of a peculiar subordination... All conflicts between family members were resolved on the basis of the superiority of the elder over the younger, parents over children, husband over wife. Unity was achieved not by compromise, but only by the one-sided sacrifice of the younger. The indivisible family had to obey the all-powerful father-patriarch in everything.

The lowest level in the Chinese family hierarchy is traditionally occupied by a woman. As a child, she had to obey her father unquestioningly in everything; after marriage - to the husband and mother-in-law, and after the death of the husband - to the son.

The Chinese are very fond of children. No wonder in ancient China it was considered a terrible insult to wish a person childlessness. To have many children, a large family has been prescribed by the teachings of Confucius since time immemorial.

According to the existing legislation, the Chinese family has the right to have only one child(an exception is allowed for national minorities).

The only child becomes the object of universal adoration of parents and relatives. Such children are now called in China "Little emperor"("Xiao huangdi"). Naturally, a lot of problems arise with the upbringing and health of an only child. He has every chance of growing up to be capricious, spoiled and overweight because he is “fed”. Overfed, fat boys and girls can often be found in public places. At the same time, the usual Chinese upbringing is very strict, children grow up well-mannered, obedient and achieve high results.

In China, it is customary to give a child to grandparents for upbringing for a couple of years, while he is little. This tradition is primarily due to the fact that adult Chinese have no time to sit with children - they have to work hard.

School

Today, more than 90% of regions in China are enrolled in compulsory primary education, almost 100% of children go to school, and the number of students with incomplete education is constantly decreasing. For Chinese citizens, education is free and educational programs are controlled by the state. As the Chinese saying goes, “Finding a good teacher is not easy; finding a good student is a hundred times more difficult. " Every Chinese student tries to become the best. Children begin to go to school from the age of 6, and before entering it, children pass the first of numerous tests. The entire school system in China is focused on competition and achieving the best possible result, so the workload in Chinese schools is enormous. Usually, teaching sessions are not limited to school lessons, but continue at home with tutors. Even in elementary school, kids are taught with tutors in several subjects.

Duration of schooling: 9 years. A Chinese student has 6-7 lessons every day.

As for disciplines, then in Chinese schools it is tough: if you miss 12 lessons without a good reason, and you are expelled. Yes, and here's another important difference from the educational process: each class has its own audience - it is not the students who go from office to office, but teachers. After the end of the 7th grade, Chinese students take exams - this is a kind of transitional stage to secondary education and university admission. If a student does not pass these exams, he is not admitted to a higher school, and it becomes impossible for him to enter a university and a high-paying job.

China has a system unified state examination, it is taken throughout the country, and the best are enrolled in universities. Given the huge number of schools with an uneven level of education in cities and villages, the exam is more or less appropriate. Russia borrowed this technology from its Chinese counterparts.

Universities

The number of higher educational institutions in China is quite large - over a hundred. Every year, the number of Chinese graduates who are trying to enter (and in most cases successfully) to universities in Europe, the USA, and Russia is growing. A student from China compares favorably with his fellow students: he is disciplined, diligent, responsible.

Many universities in China represent huge complexes- small towns (much larger than Moscow State University), which have everything you need for life. Such an arrangement of student campuses is highly advisable, if, again, we take into account the overpopulation of China.

Each student pays $ 300-700 annually, which is a lot for a Chinese peasant, so they take loans from the state... But if at the end of the course you go to the village as an agronomist, you do not need to repay the loan. And if you want to go into commerce and be rich, pay back the loan.

Sport

The Chinese are a morning nation, they get up early, at 5-6 o'clock, and do different exercises in really large groups on the street. This morning I ran to the sea, saw people practicing qigong, tai chi, Chinese badminton (version with two rackets and version with legs, a special shuttlecock), working with a sword, woo shu and just swimming (although the sea is still cold).

Nobody is doing yoga, or I didn’t notice.

Chinese breakfast at about 7 am, lunch from 11 to 12, dinner no later than 5 pm. At 10 pm most of the Chinese are asleep ... Hmmm. By the way, the oldest Chinese people get up before five o'clock, at four o'clock - and arrange morning walks. Very good for your health.

Indeed, why don't people live in the morning? In the morning it is already light, always quiet and transparent. The brightest and most beautiful thoughts come in the morning, the feeling of the beginning of life is the morning feeling.

Buses in Dalian start running at 5 am, finish their work early - some numbers are already at 19.00, some still run until 21.30. And that's all. After only a taxi (by the way, very cheap).

I still do not really understand how loose or sporty it is: a lot of Chinese people wave their arms widely while walking. It looks like looseness, but in other cases it is quite obvious that they are doing exercises when they are walking: they make special swings with their hands, raise their legs, sing or moo ...

At the bus stop, they can put their foot on the handrail and stretch.

Walking with my wife, we came to the conclusion: overweight men still sometimes meet, women - no. Applause!

The nation has a future - the nation is created by women, and here, in China, I saw more women running in a sports version than men. Mom walks next to her son, raises her legs high on the move, makes swings, the son repeats it after her ... In our country, they often pull back: "Go calmly!" and scold on the go. And the son repeats it after his mother ...

There are no women who smoke in China, otherwise such a woman has practically no chance of getting married. And this despite the fact that girls are more likely to be in short supply here, more boys are born and women can choose which of the worthy men to marry.

The Chinese have been living in this way for many centuries, and possibly for several thousand years ...

Chinese upbringing

The entire education system in China is aimed at achieving the highest result.

Chinese School Prepares Tigers for Western Universities

Children study at school for 12 years. In order to enter there, six-year-olds take their first exam in the form of testing.

The teaching load in the school is very high. In addition to school, children do a lot at home. Parents often hire tutors for two or three subjects, even in elementary school.

Thousands of specialists apply for jobs, and the one with the best education wins. Competition in universities is simply frantic, 200 - 300 people per place. Naturally, applicants try to have a brilliant school education.

More and more Chinese students are studying abroad. In Europe, the United States, and even in Russia, they stand out favorably against the background of local loose-hearted youth: the Chinese are much better prepared in specialized disciplines, have a responsible attitude to their studies, do not violate the university routine, etc.

In recent years, there has been a popular joke in US universities: "American University is a place where Russian teachers teach Chinese students."

Inside view

Liu Gao Jie (in Russian Nastya), teacher of the Chinese language, translator, has been living in Moscow for 3 years:

“Everything this woman wrote is true. This is very common in modern China. Everyone wants their child to be a winner. Therefore, parents force their children to learn. Chinese children have almost no free time.

There are a lot of people in China, a lot of competition. And terrible unemployment. It takes a lot of effort to get through. Therefore, such a tough upbringing is accepted in big cities. It's different in small towns. There, children are pampered, not punished and not forced to be the first in everything. After all, there is only one child in the family, all the attention to him. It was exactly like this in my family: I was loved and raised gently. "

Get an education in China

Irina Sledieva, AcademConsult educational agency

• Education at a public university in China is inexpensive (up to $ 3,000 per year).
• The cost of living in a student hostel is from $ 600 per year.
• There are branches of universities in England in China, where you can get a British diploma at a lower price (for example, Sino-British College offers preparatory programs in Shanghai, after which students can either continue their studies in China or go to universities in the UK).
• In China, you can also study in English at international universities such as the American Hult Business School or the Istituto Marangoni Design and Fashion Institute.

For admission to most Chinese universities, a Russian certificate of secondary education is sufficient. You can also learn Chinese on the spot. Language courses for foreign students last from 1 month to 2 years.

Documents for a Chinese university are drawn up in February-March, but before that time you need to have time to send letters there and get an answer. It is better to apply for admission to the program in January.

List of documents for admission to a Chinese university:

• statement
• extract of grades from the grade book or from the school
• copy of diploma (if any) or certificate
• two letters of recommendation (from any teacher or employer)
• medical certificate
• photocopy of passport
• a photocopy of the payment order for payment of the registration fee (~ $ 50)

Work while studying

Most foreign students in China earn extra money, although, with rare exceptions, the work is temporary or "one-off". As a rule, students earn money by translating, taking private lessons in a foreign language or, which is typical for China, by participating in the filming of various commercials and television series. Monthly earnings in such cases are limited to a few hundred dollars.

China is a modern, promising country, which in recent years has taken a leading position not only in the world market, but also in the field of culture and science. From our article you will learn how the system evolved from antiquity to the present day. We will also tell you about the most important universities in the country and how foreigners can enroll in them.

Education in ancient China

Since ancient times, the Chinese have been sensitive to everything related to knowledge and study. Teachers, scientists, philosophers and poets were respected people, often holding high positions in the state system. The children received their initial knowledge in the family - they were taught to respect their elders and follow the norms of behavior in society. In prosperous families, kids from the age of three were taught counting and writing. From the age of six, boys went to school, where they learned the art of using weapons, horse riding, music and writing hieroglyphs. In big cities, schoolchildren could go through two stages of education - primary and higher. Usually children of the nobility and wealthy townspeople studied here, since the cost of classes was quite high. In rural schools, students sat reading books all day, they did not know holidays and fun games. It was not uncommon - instead of flowers, the children carried a bamboo stick to the teacher, however, in a beautiful package. However, the knowledge that they received within the walls of the school was rather scarce. The students were taught that China is the whole world and the children had a vague idea of ​​what was happening in neighboring countries. I would like to note that the girls were not allowed to go to school, as they were being prepared for the role of wife and mother of the family. But in noble families, girls learned to read and write, dance, play musical instruments and even wield some types of weapons. With the popularization of the teachings of Confucius, the history of China's education moved to a new level. For the first time, students began to be treated with respect, taught to ask questions and find answers to them. The new approach fostered respect for the academic sciences and made education an integral part of public policy.

The education system in China

Today, the government of this great country is doing everything so that its citizens can learn. This is despite the fact that in the middle of the last century, 80% of the population was illiterate. Through government programs, schools, technical colleges and higher education institutions are actively opening across the country. However, the problem persists in rural areas, where people still live according to ancient traditions. The main feature of education in China is that education at all levels can be obtained free of charge. The system itself is very similar to the Russian one. That is, from the age of three, kids go to kindergarten, from the age of six to school, and after graduation to an institute or vocational school. Let's consider all the steps in more detail.

in China

As you know, most families in this country raise one child each. That is why parents are glad that kids can be brought up in a children's team. Kindergartens in China are divided into public and private. In the first, much attention is paid to preparing for school, and in the second, to the development of creative abilities. Additional activities such as dancing and music are usually paid separately. Much of the knowledge that children receive in kindergarten can be applied in practice. For example, they learn to plant and care for plants. Together with the teacher, they prepare food and learn how to repair clothes. We can see an original approach to education in the Junin network of private kindergartens. A whole team of teachers under the leadership of Chairman Wang Huning has developed a unified educational program for children.

School in China

Before entering the first grade, children undergo a series of tests, and then they are involved in serious work. Even the smallest students are not given indulgences here, and parents often have to hire tutors. School education in China is structured in such a way that children constantly have to compete with each other for the title of the best. Therefore, it is not surprising that the workloads in all classes are simply enormous. At the end of the seventh grade, all students take an exam that will determine if the child is ready for high school. If not, then the road to further education, and subsequently to a prestigious job, will be closed for him. Before entering a university, schoolchildren pass a unified state exam, which is held throughout the country at the same time (By the way, it was this idea that was borrowed and successfully implemented in Russia). Every year, more and more Chinese people successfully pass exams to prestigious universities around the world. They are accepted with pleasure, because these students are very diligent, collected and take their studies very seriously.

Like other educational institutions in China, schools are not only public but also private. Foreigners can enter any of them by passing the required exams. To enter, as a rule, it is much easier, and training is often conducted in two languages ​​(one of them is English). There is a school in China where they teach in Russian and Chinese, and it is located in the city of Yining.

Secondary education

As in Russia, there are vocational schools here that train students in their chosen profession. The main areas of secondary education in China are agriculture, medicine, law, pharmaceuticals, and so on. In three or four years, young people receive a profession and can start working. Foreigners who entered such educational institutions master the language for the first year, and devote the rest of their time to study.

Higher education

There are many state universities operating in the country, which admit students based on the results of school exams. Tuition is paid here, but the prices are relatively low. However, residents of rural areas often seem to pay even such a high fee, and they are forced to take out loans for education. If a young specialist agrees to return to the provinces after graduation, then he will not have to return the money. If he is ambitious and plans to start his own business in the city, the debt will have to be repaid in full. Any foreign student who has passed a language test can obtain higher education in China. Moreover, he can choose a program in English, learn Chinese in parallel. To facilitate the adaptation of such students, preparatory language training courses are often opened for them. After a year or two of intensive training, the student can proceed to study in the specialty.

Universities

Consider the most popular and prestigious universities in the country:

• Peking University is the oldest educational institution in the country located in the Haidan District, one of the most beautiful places in the world. The amazing gardens that used to belong to the imperial dynasty make a lasting impression on tourists. The campus itself consists of educational buildings, hostels, cafes, restaurants, shops and leisure centers. The local library is the largest in Asia.
• Fudan University is one of the oldest in the country. Known for being the first to replace the semester system with "levels" and prove that this approach is most effective. In addition, the teachers of this university set a goal to unleash the potential of students in order to direct young talents to serve their country.
• Tsinghua is one of the best technical universities in China, which is also one of the hundred. Among his students there are many famous scientists, politicians and public figures.

Conclusion

As you can see, the path of education in China is very similar to that of students in Russia. We hope that the information we have collected will be useful to you if you decide to become a student of one of the country's educational institutions.

Upbringing and education in the Chinese primitive and slave society (3000-770 BC)

China - a country of ancient civilization - has a long developed culture and educational system. The first shoots of schooling in ancient China date back to about the third millennium BC.

According to historical evidence in ancient China, there were special places "Xiang" where children and adolescents were brought up. The emergence of these first kind of schools dates back to about 3000 BC.

In the Shang era (1766-1122 BC), a fairly developed hieroglyphic writing existed in China, as evidenced by the inscriptions that have come down to us on oracle bones and turtle shells, which date back to the XIV-XII centuries. BC. They contain about 3,000 different hieroglyphs.

In the oldest literary monument of Ancient China, "The Book of Poems and Songs" (Shijing), dating back to the XI-VII centuries. BC, there is a description of educational institutions during the Shang dynasty. In the same era, the first higher educational institution appeared in China - a kind of Da Xue University. Apparently, "Da Xue" is one of the earliest institutions of higher education in the world.

During the heyday of the Chinese slave society (1122-771 BC), there was an intensive development of education. Educational institutions were divided into two main types: some were created in the capital under government control, others were controlled by local authorities.

Metropolitan educational institutions were subdivided into two levels: primary and higher schools. The ancient classical book Li Ji (Book of Rites and Etiquette) contains a description of these schools. Children from noble families at the age of 13 enrolled in Xiao Xue Elementary Schools and studied there for 7 years. At the age of 20, they could continue their education at Da Xue High Schools for a 9-year period of study.

The main content of education and training during the period of slave society was the study of etiquette and norms of behavior, counting, writing, as well as mastering various skills and abilities. It was during this period that the term "Liu Yi" (six arts) became widespread. The Six Arts is a list of subjects: morality and ethics, ceremonies and rituals; music; counting (arithmetic); reading and writing; archery; horse and war chariot control.

During this Zhou period, the educational process was characterized by a combination of civilian and military training, which was dictated by the needs of society in the conditions of the beginning of the transition from a slave-owning system to a feudal one.

The transition from slavery to feudalism in China began in 771-249. BC. The period of early feudal society is characterized by the emergence of a number of philosophical schools and trends, the flourishing of philosophical thought. During the Eastern Zhou period, there was Confucius (551-479 BC).

The feudal system existed for more than two thousand years before the outbreak of the Opium Wars (1840), as a result of which foreign capital began to penetrate into China. It was this circumstance that marked the beginning of the disintegration of feudalism. Education in China developed in accordance with these processes.

The history of the formation of the era of feudalism is divided into three periods: early, middle and late.

During the period of early feudalism, the socio-economic changes that took place in society associated with the emergence of private land ownership and competition between landowners caused changes in the field of ideology, culture and education. The slave owners' monopoly on culture and education was broken. Various schools of thought and trends began to appear, and a period of rapid development of education began. This period in the history of China is called the period of development of "Hundred Schools and Hundred Flowers", private schools "Si Xue" appeared. The wealthy strata needed literate and talented people who could be in their service, help in management, and conduct political affairs. This led to the formation of the learned class ("Shi"). From this class, teachers began to emerge, who created their own independent (author's) schools.

At that time, pedagogical thought existed and developed within the framework of various philosophical schools and trends:

1. Taoist school (Taojia), the ancestor of which is considered to be Lao-tzu (born about 590 BC).

2. Confucian school (Zhujia), founded by Kun-tzu (Confucius) (551-479 BC).

3. School of Moists (Mojia), the founder of which was the scientist and philosopher Mo-tzu (Modi) (479-381 BC).

A little later, the school of legists (legalists) (Fazia) appeared, which was founded by the philosopher Han Fei (280-230 BC).

The most influential are considered to be the Confucian and Moist schools, which opposed each other. The Confucian School held leading positions in the field of culture and education. In many ways, she determined the path of education in China during that period and subsequent centuries. Confucius created an ethical and political doctrine that had a huge impact on the entire Chinese society. His pedagogical ideas formed the basis of the entire feudal education system in China.

On the basis of his own pedagogical practice and generalization of previous experience in the field of education, Confucius expressed many valuable ideas that were widespread in China for a long period of time and formed the basis of the Chinese traditional system of classical education.

Confucius believed that human development depends on education, and therefore everyone should strive to improve and raise the educational level. He considered the main goal of education to be the upbringing of a morally comprehensively developed person ("Junzi"). He believed that all people should be trained and educated and was opposed to education being the lot and pleasure of the noble (aristocrats). Each person in society should occupy his own position in relation to the ruler, parents, brothers, friends, subordinates. The correctness of relationships between people in society depends on their upbringing, which should cultivate humanity ("Ren") and virtue. A well-mannered person is distinguished by courtesy and respect for people. Confucius opposed the wars that were often waged under him between the principalities and caused many hardships to the common people. He was against corruption, opposed the appointment of people to the service of patronage, condemned favoritism. In his opinion, appointment to the service should be determined not by nobility, but by the degree of talent.

According to Confucius, education should be based on moral and ethical education. The mastery of knowledge should be subordinated to the tasks of moral education in order to educate a highly moral person in the spirit of humanity and virtue. This will ensure peace and tranquility in the community. Confucius believed that moral education should include the following points: civic education, norms of human behavior, loyalty and devotion, trust. The content of moral education is: etiquette, ceremonies and rituals, poetry, music.

Confucius advocated the comprehensive nature of education, while keeping in mind, first of all, the comprehensive and moral education of a person.

An important principle of moral education in Confucius was the principle of compromise, carried out by coordinating the various relations of people in society. This principle meant harmony in society. To do this, everyone must have their own goals in life and strive to achieve them, which requires serious and persistent study in order to improve. At the same time, mistakes should be corrected and continued learning and improvement.

The Confucius learning process should be related to reflection. In the process of education, it contributes not only to the achievement of high ideals and moral qualities, moderation, but also to the expansion of knowledge.

Confucius believed that every person should constantly, without fatigue and with joy learn, be a good example, which, first of all, should relate to the teacher.

Confucius's pedagogical ideas are undoubtedly of great value and are still the spiritual wealth of the Chinese people. The vulnerable side of Confucius's teachings was the idea of ​​innate knowledge and human qualities, in connection with which he divided people into two categories: wise and foolish from birth. This idea is contained in the book "Chu-nyun" (The Doctrine of the Middle). In addition, Confucius ignored natural science and industrial-practical knowledge, and also despised physical labor.

Supporters of the philosophical school of Moists, in contrast to the Confucians, promoted practical knowledge and mastery of crafts, i.e. advocated for education to be practical, close to real life. However, their views were not further spread and the Confucian approach to education took a dominant position.

In the IV and III centuries. BC. in China there were numerous wars between different kingdoms and principalities. The Qin kingdom became the victor in these wars, which destroyed the complete independence of other kingdoms and in 221 BC. united the country. So, for the first time in Chinese history, the first centralized feudal state was created, which included a huge territory from southern Manchuria to Sichuan and Guangdong.

The Qin administration promoted the idea of ​​a return to ancient forms of government. In 213, Emperor Qin Shi-Huang decided to take extreme measures: on his order, Confucian books were burned, and many Confucian scholars were executed.

The educational policy under Qin Shih-Huang was based on the principles of the school of legists (legalists). These principles were reduced mainly to two provisions: "the law is the basis of education," and the teacher must be an official.

For the development of education in China during the Qin reign, the reform of the hieroglyphic writing was of great importance. In the process of this reform, the characters were simplified and then unified.

The Qin Dynasty fell as a result of the victory of the Western Han Dynasty. The economic policy of the new dynasty (easing taxes, developing agriculture, solving social issues) created the material prerequisites for the development of education, which was supposed to contribute to strengthening public administration.

In 124 BC. a program was put forward to expand the network of schools and other educational institutions, Confucianism was recognized as the official (orthodox) ideology of the state. Since then, Confucianism in China has become not only the official ideology, but also formed the basis of the entire Chinese traditional system of education and training up to the beginning of the 20th century.

By order of the Emperor Wu Di (156-87 BC) in the capital of the Changan Empire, the Imperial High School "Taixue" was founded, which was one of the oldest in China and throughout the world, the prototype of the state university. Only the sons of aristocrats and officials could study here.

The Taixue School initiated the creation of a new education system in the Chinese feudal society based on the principles of the Confucian official ideology. Under her, a kind of academy "Boshiguan" was established, which was a council of scientists who were to be responsible for work in the field of education. This educational institution mainly studied the Confucian classical books that make up the Confucian Pentateuch "Wu Jing": I Ching (Book of Changes), Shu Jing (Book of History), Shi Jing (Book of Poems and Songs), Chun Qiu (Spring and Autumn) and Li Ji (Book of Etiquette, Ceremonies and Rites). The study of these books was calculated for 10 years, after which the academic degree of "Doctor of Five Classics" was awarded.

The Taixue High School was the pinnacle of the educational system in Han China. She was not only an educational, but also a research center.

The Han Dynasty's education system consisted of public and private educational institutions. State educational institutions were divided into central and local. The central educational institutions included: the imperial high school "Taixue", as well as a number of special (professional) schools. Among the special schools, the literary school "Hongdu Menxue" stood out, in which the children of officials and aristocrats were mainly trained; people from "noble" families.

The local educational institutions included primary and secondary schools. Primary schools existed in villages and towns, secondary schools in the centers of principalities and the main cities of the provinces.

During the Han dynasty, private schools re-established their positions and further developed. Famous Confucian scholars taught there.

After the Han Dynasty, Chinese society entered the middle period of feudalism, which spans over seven centuries of Chinese history (220-960). During this period, the Chinese feudal system developed along the same lines as during the Han dynasty. Thus, the system of central state educational institutions continues to be strengthened: in 278 AD. was created an aristocratic educational institution - "Guo tzu xue" (School for the sons of the state). The system of examinations for obtaining a scientific degree was also further developed.

During the reign of the Sui dynasty (581-618), the imperial system of examinations was established (606), which was greatly developed during the reign of the Tang dynasty (618-907).

During the Tang dynasty, a great unitary and civilized empire was created in China, a powerful state in the then world, in which education, science and production were greatly developed. Thanks to the relative social stability, the relief of the peasantry, and the growth of state wealth, the school system reached a higher level of development than before, as it had during the Han dynasty. The Tang educational system consisted of public and private educational institutions. The state was divided into central and local.

The most prestigious educational institution was the Imperial Academy, access to which was open only to the sons of aristocrats and high officials. Children of middle officials could enter the Imperial Taixue High School. The higher school was formally open to talented and capable representatives from the common people, but in fact, the children of wealthy landowners studied there. The representatives of the common people were unable to send their sons to study at the central educational institutions. During the Tang Dynasty, a large number of young people from neighboring countries, primarily from Japan, came to study in China.

The system of local government educational institutions included educational institutions of lower rank, which were located in the provinces, regions and counties. A system of management of educational institutions was created, in which the Imperial Higher University played the role of the Ministry of Education, as it were. This function of the imperial college continued in subsequent times. There were no special educational authorities at the local level during the Tang Dynasty; their functions were performed by officials from local government bodies.

During the Tang Dynasty, a system was created that regulated the relationship between teachers and teachers, on the one hand, and students, on the other, and also defined such concepts as the academic year with its structure, which established the time of study, examinations and vacations.

During the Tang Dynasty, the imperial system of examinations was greatly improved. It continued to exist for 1300 years, was associated with the entire educational system and served the purpose of selecting talented people and using them in public service. Unlike the previous period, it was more democratic and less strict. If before the exams were dominated by the spirit of moral prestige and nobility, then under the Tang Dynasty, scholarship and talent began to be more appreciated. Those who passed the field exams were sent to the capital for exams. Formally, any person, regardless of social background, could take exams. As a result, the imperial system of examinations contributed to the development of the school system, it broke the monopoly of the aristocracy, officials and landlords on education. However, in order to successfully pass the exams, it was necessary to study long and hard, which was not for everyone. The first and main condition for passing the exams was a good knowledge of the ancient Confucian canonical books. In addition, knowledge of arithmetic, history, geography and law was required, as well as the ability to master the art of calligraphy, i.e. write hieroglyphs correctly and beautifully, be able to answer questions, write essays and poems in rhymed order.

The closer to passing the metropolitan exams, the more difficult it was to pass them. The most prestigious and highest was the degree "Jinishi" (doctor), which was awarded at the metropolitan exams to a small circle of people. Earning this degree led to a brilliant bureaucratic career.

In subsequent times, the Chinese imperial examination system influenced the development and formation of the civil examination system in many countries of Asia, North Africa, and even in Europe and America.

During the Tang Dynasty, there were many famous scholars, writers, poets and artists, as well as educators and educators. These include, first of all, Han Yu (763-824) - a publicist, statesman and teacher, author of the famous treatise "On Man", which examines the relationship between nature and man. He worked at the Imperial University, which served as the ministry of education in China and paid great attention to education and training. Han Yu is the author of the treatises How to Become a Teacher and How to Succeed in Graduation.

During the life of Han Yu, Buddhism became widespread in China. Han Yu opposed Buddhism and led the movement for the return of "antiquity", was a supporter of Confucianism and Confucian morality. The main goal of education, in his opinion, should be the ancient (Confucian) morality, the basis of which is "humanity" (virtue). “Humanity” should be manifested in everything: in laws, etiquette, politics, punishment, even in music. The study of ancient classical books was seen by him as a return to the teachings of ancient rulers, as a defense of traditional moral principles.

Han Yu noted the great role that teachers play in society. It is the duty of the teacher to promote Confucian teaching and morality. He noted that in ancient times, scientists were always teachers. The teacher embodies wisdom and imparts knowledge, solves problems and dispels doubts. A teacher is knowledge, if there is no knowledge, then there is no teacher. A qualified teacher can be one who performs three tasks: promotes Confucian doctrine; transfers knowledge; dispels doubts and solves problems.

The teacher, Han Yu emphasized, should play a leading (leading) role in the learning process. He not only transfers the accumulated knowledge and experience, but also teaches students how to solve difficult questions and problems themselves, develops their intelligence.

The learning process will be effective if the teacher and student are somewhat similar to each other, if they spend a lot of time together. The student must be diligent in his studies, be able to achieve success in his life, learn to think and reflect on various problems. It is good to acquire knowledge, but not enough - it is necessary to understand ^ what is the main thing in this knowledge. This requires a comprehensive study of the phenomenon or subject. If a person is passive and lazy, leads an idle lifestyle, does not feel the desire to learn, then she cannot have high moral qualities. Han Yu believed that learning is achieved by diligence in teaching, correct thinking, and can be ruined by idleness or accidental negligence.

Han Yu contributed to strengthening the position of Confucian doctrine in Chinese feudal society in general and in the field of education in particular.

In 907, the Tang dynasty fell under the blows of peasant uprisings. A period of troubles began in China, which ended in 960 with the accession of the Song dynasty (960-1279). During this period, Chinese society entered the late period of feudalism. The formation of the Song dynasty was accompanied by the strengthening of the state, centralization of government, stabilization of the monetary and financial system, economic growth and the development of agriculture.

During the Song dynasty, major scientific discoveries were made in China; it was the golden age of literature and art, the development of science, education and culture. The government encouraged painting, a special painting academy was created, in which famous artists worked. The Sung period can be compared with the Renaissance in Europe in the XIV-XVI centuries. In Song China, mining, ceramics, book printing, and textile production developed greatly, gunpowder, compass and ink were invented. Trade with foreigners began to develop in a number of ports in the south of the country.

The Song Dynasty's educational policy was aimed at promoting education and culture, as well as the development of scientific and creative thought. In the educational sphere, special attention was paid to morality and ethics, which is associated with the emergence and spread of neo-Confucianism, which took a dominant position in the ideological sphere. During the Song Dynasty, the imperial system of examinations continued to develop, which contributed to an increase in the number of students.

The educational system included central state educational institutions, which included the Guo Tzu Jian Imperial Academy, higher educational institutions, and specialized higher schools for the study of law, mathematics, medicine, canonical Confucian books, military affairs, and painting. The Imperial Academy performed the general functions of guiding education. Another part of the education system was local public schools. The government paid great attention to the development of local schools. For the first time in the Song Dynasty, local education authorities were established in China, and contacts were established between central and local state educational institutions. The latter circumstance facilitated the influx of scientists to work in local schools.

Private schools were especially developed during the Song dynasty. In elementary schools, they taught literacy (reading and writing) and gave elementary knowledge of arithmetic, literature, history and geography. These schools were established in villages and small towns and were supported by the communities. There were family-run private schools that were run by wealthy people. After graduating from primary schools, older students received classical education at a higher level in academy schools.

Each academy trained from 37 to 173 students. Well-known scientists, founders of the neo-Confucian doctrine prevailed in them. They are also known as teachers, creators of unique educational institutions that had a large book fund and provide a high level of teaching. The academies have fostered cultural and scientific exchange between China and other countries. They had a great influence on the development of education in Japan, Korea and Vietnam. Among the academies of classical education there were a number of well-known author's educational institutions, for example, "Bailudong" and "Sunyan". Thus, the Academy "Bailudun" (White Doe Cave) was the personification of the philosophical neo-Confucian school of the largest Chinese philosopher and teacher Zhu Xi (1130-1200).

The development of the system of schools-academies of classical education during the reign of the Song dynasty is closely connected with the spread of the philosophical trend of neo-Confucianism. This teaching formed the basis of the content of upbringing and education in this type of educational institution. Academies of classical education were considered very prestigious educational institutions. The best minds of China of that period and the most prominent representatives of Confucianism taught here. Various teaching aids and materials were widely used in them. Academies of classical education favorably differed from official state educational institutions and had a number of advantages. These educational institutions pursued an “open door” policy, i.e. accepted for training young people from all places.

Various forms and methods of teaching were practiced in them, teaching could be collective and individual, the content of education was free, free discussions were practiced on a variety of problems. To this it should be added that in these educational institutions there was a favorable climate, the relationship between teachers and students was distinguished by mutual respect and love. Most of the academies of classical education brought up students in a spirit that contradicted the guidelines of the imperial examination system, although they were influenced by this system. Some academies then lost their advantages and followed the general line of official educational policy, which made all educational institutions dependent on the imperial system of examinations.

As already noted, the famous neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi was a prominent Chinese teacher. He created his own educational institution - the Academy of Classical Education "Bailudun", - was the author of a number of books, the main of which are "Commentaries on the Confucian Quadruple" and "Ideas of the Bailudun Academy".

Zhu Xi was a harsh critic of the official state education system and the imperial system of examinations. The subordination of the education system to the examination system does not allow the establishment of honest human relations, is contrary to morality, and does not contribute to the attentive and kind attitude of teachers to students. Zhu Xi considered the creation of schools for the education of the people and the dissemination of knowledge as the main business. Subordinating the school system to the examination system contradicts this idea.

The goal of Zhu Xi education is to create honest human relationships, i.e. the relationship between father and son, ruler and subject, husband and wife, brothers and friends. These relationships constitute the moral foundation of society. Zhu Xi in his book "Ideas of the Bailudong Academy" develops the Confucian thesis about the importance of moral education, which should be taken as the basis of all moral education.

Moral (moral) education should contain three main provisions: the ruler should rule over his subjects, the father should rule over the son, and the husband should rule over the wife; as well as the assimilation of the five permanent virtues (merits) of the individual: charity, truthfulness, wisdom, property, nobility.

In the process of moral education, an organic combination of the following components is necessary: ​​knowledge, feeling, willpower, preaching. Moral education aims to develop the necessary line of behavior for the individual. The core of Zhu Xi's pedagogical teaching is the position that teaching is a means of moral education. He viewed reading literature as an important method of moral education. In the teaching process, content, principles and methods, a combination of enlightenment and instruction, a combination of teaching and reflection are important. Expanding the circle of knowledge and their accumulation ultimately leads to a revision of old knowledge and the acquisition of new ones. Zhu Xi called for more reading of various books, assessment and generalization of the acquired knowledge. It is necessary to study with soul and heart, constantly moving forward step by step and delving deeper into what is being studied.

Zhu Xi's neo-Confucian pedagogical ideas had a very large impact on the subsequent development of Chinese feudal society. Neo-Confucianism became the ideology of government in China during the late period of feudalism. The teachings of Zhu Xi were adopted by the ruling class, adapted to the goals of preserving the feudal system, and thus played a negative role, slowing down the progress of the Chinese nation for many centuries. These centuries fell on the late period of feudal society in China, when a tendency towards stagnation and decline began to appear and intensify in the system of official (state) educational institutions.

In 1279, the Mongol Yuan dynasty came to power in China. In the process of the conquest of China and the spread of Mongol power to the south of the country, the state education system underwent significant changes. The Mongol emperor Khubilai (grandson of Genghis Khan), although he was a Buddhist, retained the cult of Confucius. Under Khubilai, an imperial academy was opened for the Mongol aristocracy. Other educational institutions were also established for the children of Mongolian dignitaries and schools for the study of the Mongolian language.

The Mongol emperors revived the Chinese imperial system of state examinations, began to attract Chinese scholars and teachers to the service.

In 1368-1644. China was ruled by the Ming dynasty. The Minsk administration revived the activities of the imperial academy, and also established the Zongxue High School specifically for teaching children from the imperial family. In the imperial academy, about 30 different courses were offered for study, which were based on the Confucian four-book "I Sushu" and the commentaries of Zhu Xi ts to him. There were courses on the technique of writing examination essays and calligraphy. The "Five Classical Books" ("Wujiang") and "Thirteen Classics" were also added here. During the Ming dynasty, a significant change was made to the system of imperial state examinations in 1487. It consisted in the fact that when writing examination essays, a special style of "Bagu" was introduced, which means "eight parts" or "template". Thus, an indispensable condition for writing an examination essay was the use of the eight-member style "baguwen", which involved writing an essay in eight parts according to a strict template with a certain number of hieroglyphs based on the use of the technique: thesis - antithesis. The themes of the essays were of a purely abstract (scholastic) character were taken from the four-book "I hear" and were discussed on the basis of commentaries on the Confucian four-books written by Zhu Xi. The introduction of this style suppressed creative thought, any manifestation of initiative and independence on the part of students. This kind of innovation was directed against the interests of the people. With the introduction of the eight-term style, when writing examination essays, there was no need to study specific sciences (arithmetic, astronomy, history, geography), to acquire knowledge useful in practical life. Moreover, the need to study some of the classic books has disappeared. The educational system of China has finally turned into an appendage of the system of state examinations, more precisely, into an appendage of the baguwen style, the style of scholasticism and stagnation. The baguwen style dominated not only the exam system, but the entire educational system for 400 years (1487-1898).

During the reign of the Manchu Qing dynasty (1644-1911), the situation in the field of education in China remained approximately the same as during the reign of the Ming dynasty. The Manchus have retained the state imperial examination system with its baguwen style and the old school system. For representatives of the Manchurian nobility, "eight-banner" schools were created. The term "Batsi" (eight banners) was the symbol of the Manchu army. The Manchus kept the educational system in its former form, which eventually led to its complete stagnation. This negatively affected the development of Chinese society, contributed to the conservation of feudal relations and was one of the reasons for China's lag behind Western Europe and America in the 19th century.

After the defeat inflicted by the British in the Opium War in 1840, monarchist China was forced to sign a series of unequal treaties with England, and then with other countries, as a result of which the country weakened its position as an independent state and began to turn into a semi-colony. The intervention of the imperialist powers and the corruption of the monarchist government gave rise to the anti-imperialist and anti-feudal struggle of the Chinese people. This struggle was expressed in the Taiping Revolution, the greatest peasant uprising in Chinese history, and in the Yihetuan (Boxer Uprising) movement.

The Yihetuan movement in North China in 1900 was an anti-imperialist armed struggle between peasants and artisans. It dealt a strong blow to the imperialists and the feudal rule of the Qing dynasty. Some educators and patriotic intellectuals were deeply concerned about the corruption and incompetence of the Pinsk government. They recognized that Chinese society was continually heading towards a national crisis, saw the helplessness of the feudal system, tended to implement a more progressive capitalist system, and advocated reforms in society. Famous representatives of this circle of persons, such as Gong Jizen (1792-1841), Lin Zeskoy (1785-1850), Wei Yuan (1794-1857), were among the first intellectuals who advocated the study of the experience of Western countries, for politics, which would help transform China into a rich country with a strong army. They criticized the Chinese traditional (ancient) feudal education system, the scholastic neo-Confucian doctrine, advocated the study and use of applied sciences, the achievements of science and technology of Western countries, criticized the system of imperial examinations for selecting talented people using the Bagu style when writing eight-term essays, and demanded to provide conditions for the selection of truly talented people to run the country.

These figures greatly influenced the subsequent development of China along the path of reforms.

In view of the danger of China losing its national independence as a result of its defeat in the Second Opium War, some politicians representing the interests of landlords and officials spoke in favor of the westernization of China while maintaining the rule of the Qing dynasty.

The goal was to study Western sciences and the experience of modern Western education, thanks to which it would be possible to train specialists for work in the field of foreign affairs. Several educational institutions of a new type have been created in China. For example, in 1862, an educational institution of a linguistic type called "Tongwenguan" (School of General Languages) was founded in Beijing. Then a number of technical and industrial educational institutions of a new type were created: the ship school in Fujian province, the Shanghai mechanical school. To enhance military training, two naval academies were established in Tianjin and Canton (Guangdong province). A group of Westerners advocated studying the experience of education abroad as part of the program of the modern education movement. They believed that it was necessary to practice the selection of talented young people and send them to study abroad. In 1872, Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang asked the Qing government to select a group of young talented people to send them to the United States to study advanced science and technology, highlighting politics, military affairs, and shipbuilding.

One of the first to be sent to study in the United States was Zhang Tianyu (1861-1919), a famous Chinese railway engineer.

A group of Westerners created a number of educational institutions of a new type, the first shoots of modern education, which made a hole in the traditional feudal education system.

In the middle of the XIX century. In connection with the emergence of bourgeois relations in China, intellectuals appeared who came up with a number of proposals for reforming feudal society and developing capitalism. The bourgeois reformists did not want to break the feudal traditional culture and therefore were in favor of preserving the Confucian classics and canons. A number of reformers created a massive political movement called "One Hundred Days of Reform" (1898).

They believed that one of the reasons for China's poverty and weakness was poor education and backward technology. They advocated the creation of schools for talented people, as well as bodies for the promotion of reforms, scientific societies, new armed forces, for the translation and publication of books published in Western countries, for the introduction of advanced Western sciences into the education system.

The creation of new schools was one of the important aspects of the reform leaders' activities. The renowned Chinese reformer Yuwei (1858-1927) founded the Wanypu Xuetan (Universal Technical School) educational institution, and Liang Qichao opened the Shiu Xuetan (Modern Affairs School) educational institution. In these educational institutions, both reform leaders personally taught Chinese and Western sciences: on the one hand, they studied Confucian philosophy and everything related to it, and on the other, politics, law and philosophy of Western capitalist countries. Kang Yu-wei was not only a thinker, but also a teacher, he used some of the latest teaching methods of Western countries. He was loved and respected by many students. He emphasized that education should be effective, develop and enhance the potential of the nation and the mood of the people. He believed that the more educated and capable people there are, the more powerful the country will be. The example of the rapid development of Japan and other countries demonstrates the need to reform the system of imperial examinations. Kang Yu-wei emphasized that the system of imperial examinations had become useless and empty and that eight-part compositions should be abolished. People should spend their energy studying useful scientific knowledge and political theories in order to develop their abilities to better govern the country. Kang Yu-wei advocated the transformation of some of the academies of classical education and temples into new schools, encouraging people in the possession to invest in the construction of schools. He was a supporter of the selection of young people for their education in foreign countries, he suggested organizing the translations of scientific books published in the West.

All of Kang Yu-wei's initiatives were directed against the feudal education system.

Another leader of the One Hundred Days of Reform movement, Kang Yu-wei's beloved disciple Liang Qichao, agreed with his teacher that education should be effective, should raise the cultural level of the entire nation, and foster talent. The goal of education, in his opinion, is to educate talents with useful knowledge, new morality and a new ideology, essentially bourgeois. Students should be armed with new morality, ideology, spirit and personality traits such as public morality, national ideology, rights and responsibilities, freedom, autonomy, progress, self-respect, and social activity.

Paying great attention to the upbringing and education of his children and youth in general, Liang Qichao highly appreciated some aspects of the content, organizational forms and methods of teaching youth in Western countries. He attached particular importance to the idea of ​​universal compulsory education; advocated the punishment of those parents whose children do not go to school after reaching the appropriate age.

Liang Qichao was a champion of women's education, which should influence the moral character of the entire younger generation, now and in the future. He criticized feudal ideology, for example, its attitude towards women, advocated the equality of men and women.

Supporters of education reforms were patronized by the Qing Dynasty Emperor Guang Xue. He issued a decree, the content of which dealt with various aspects of reforms, such as economics, politics, military affairs, as well as culture and education. He spoke in favor of creating a wide network of schools, spreading Western teachings. He agreed to cancel the eight-term essays in the talent selection exams, was in favor of reforming the system of imperial examinations, for sending capable individuals to study abroad to study the sciences and advanced technologies of Western countries. However, this imperial decree was met with hostility from the reactionary feudal nobility, headed by Queen Tsi Xi. As a result, the imperial decree turned into a simple piece of paper. Some of the leaders of the 1898 reform movement were executed. Yu-wei and Liang Qichao fled to Japan. The reform movement of 1898 ended in failure, however, it was of great importance for subsequent reforms.

In the context of growing contradictions in Chinese society at the very beginning of the XX century. The Qing monarchy was forced to issue a decree, which officially announced plans for some reforms, including in the field of education. In 1902, the government signed a decree on the creation of a new type of schools, modeled on Western countries. These measures are usually seen as the creation of a new school system in 1902-1903. with its structure, curricula and management system. This school system was published as a government decree and implemented throughout the country. It consisted of three successive stages. The first stage is primary school, which consisted of 5-year lower and 4-year higher primary schools. Children aged 7 years were admitted to primary school. It was preceded by kindergartens for children aged 4-6 years.

The second stage is secondary education, represented by a secondary general education school with a duration of 5 years of study.

The third stage is higher education, represented by institutes of higher education and preparatory educational institutions with a 3-year period of study. Institutes of higher education were represented by colleges and institutes of vocational education with a training period of 3-4 years; University in Beijing with a 5-year study period. The university studied neo-Confucianism along with other academic subjects.

On the basis of the lower primary school (at the level of the higher primary school), schools of further education in the field of industry, commerce, as well as elementary agricultural, industrial and commercial schools, and vocational schools functioned.

Elementary pedagogical schools, as well as secondary agricultural, industrial and commercial schools operated on the basis of a higher primary school (at the level of a secondary general education school).

On the basis of a secondary general education school (at the level of higher educational institutions), the following were created: a higher pedagogical institute, an institute for training teachers for teaching industry and commerce, institutes of agriculture, industry and commerce.

The goal of education in this school system was for all schools and educational institutions to instill in students a sense of loyalty and loyalty to the authorities through the study of Chinese classical Confucian canons and history books.

This outwardly new school system was like a dust jacket of capitalism, but in fact it was dominated by feudal ideology.

In this system, there was some influence of the Japanese school system. However, it was clearly semi-colonial and semi-feudal. At the same time, it laid the foundations for the creation of a Sino-Japanese model of a new type of school system.

Under pressure from the advanced public, the Qing government was forced to abolish in 1905 the imperial system of examinations, which had existed for more than 1,300 years since its official introduction in 606 under the Sui dynasty. This circumstance had significant consequences, for it freed the school from the old fetters and contributed to the expansion of the network of new schools.

Thus, in the early years of the XX century. When China entered the transition from feudalism to capitalism, the foundation stone was laid for the modern Chinese educational system. A new stage has opened in the history of China's education.

In the late XIX - early XX centuries. two political forces have developed in China. One political force, the Democrats, came to the conclusion that the reform movement had failed and that it was necessary to fight to overthrow the corrupt Qing dynasty. Representatives of another political force in the person of the supporters of imperialism advocated the main development of the Chinese economy.

The first political force was represented by Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925), who was a consistent supporter of the revolutionary overthrow of the Qing dynasty using military force. An attempt by the supporters of this line to organize an anti-government uprising was defeated.

Realizing the importance of social and cultural education and education of the masses in the preparation of the revolutionary movement, they founded newspapers to propagate revolutionary ideas. For the same purpose, Sun Yat-sen and his associates organized scientific and educational societies and educational institutions in various regions of the country. Thus, the "Chinese Educational Society", "Patriotic Society", "Patriotic Women's Society" were created. In Shaoxing City, Sun Yat-sen's supporters founded the Dadao Teachers' Training School, which was headed by a woman, Qiu Jin. This school became one of the centers for training revolutionaries.

A number of schools and societies were established ("School for the Study of Natural Sciences", "Society for the Education of the People" - Jun Xue She, the "Richzhi" society, etc.), whose members were involved in the secret propaganda of the revolution and organizational work at their posts. The Rizhi Society was the center that organized the uprising in the city of Wuchang and contributed greatly to the success of the 1911 revolution. This revolution ended the 267-year rule of the Manchu Qing dynasty in China and brought to power the provisional government of the Republic of China, headed by Sun Yat. -senom. This government drew attention to the importance of education and took a number of significant measures to reform the previous education system, introduced a number of innovations in its content.

For the first time, the Provisional Government of the Republic of China issued a series of educational decrees aimed at eliminating the influence of the feudal education system. It abolished the former monarchist department of education, issued a decree abolishing the goals of education formulated by the government of the Qing dynasty, namely, the education of loyalty to the imperial power.

The new school system was built taking into account the age characteristics of the physical and mental development of children, and this made it possible to create a flexible teaching and educational system of primary education. The practice of choosing academic subjects was introduced into the system of higher and secondary education, which made it possible to resolve the issues of transition from secondary school to higher education. In accordance with this school system, the duration of general education was shortened. Primary education has been reduced from 7 to 6 years. The term of study in secondary school became 6 years. However, the duration of schooling could be changed in accordance with local conditions. At the same time, with the adoption of the new education system, an emphasis was placed on vocational training as an independent type of training.

During the adoption of this new education system, the renowned American educator John Dewey visited China. His pedagogical theory became widespread in China, and as a result, there was a tendency to increase the influence of the experience of American pedagogy and school.

In 1927, Chiang Kai-shek carried out a counter-revolutionary coup d'etat and established an autocratic national government in Nanjing. This government expressed dissatisfaction with the school reforms of 1922. It declared that the results of these reforms did not meet the interests of the government and the Kuomintang party, as they led to anarchy and excessive freedom. In 1929, the Nanking government and the Kuomintang formally formulated educational goals based on Sun Yat-sen's Three People's Principles. In this regard, the Nanking government in 1927-1949. launched an active legislative activity in the field of education, the purpose of which was to strengthen its position in ideological terms.

The Nanjing government and the Kuomintang have passed over 1,200 different restrictive statutes. In addition to this, local authorities, following in the wake of the center's policies, began to adopt numerous regulations in the same spirit.

These statutes, decrees, and prescriptions first of all established that the leaders of the main (key) educational institutions and educational administration bodies should be exclusively members of the Kuomintang party. The Kuomintang Ministry of Education established a special ideological commission on textbooks and teaching aids. The ideological guidelines of the Kuomintang began to be strictly observed at the entrance exams. This system was extended to educational institutions of all levels. To meet these requirements, a series of relevant directives and instructions have been issued. It was emphasized that those responsible for the moral and ideological education of students must be members of the Kuomintang without fail. The institution of lecturers from the Kuomintang party was also introduced, whose duty was to promote feudal and fascist views among students, as well as the ideology of the Kuomintang party. Thus, the students' mindset was tightly controlled.

The period after the establishment of the Republic of China was the work of the famous Chinese scientist and teacher Cai Yuancei (1868-1940). He was one of those educators who expressed the interests of the progressive and democratic forces in China. Cai Yuanzei established the China Pedagogical Society and actively participated in its work. He was a participant in the 1911 revolution, and in 1912 he became the first minister of education of the Republic of China. In 1917 he became the rector of Peking University. Cai Yuanzei actively supported the anti-feudal, anti-imperialist movement of May Fourth, 1919, as well as the Chinese Communist Party.

Cai Yuanzei opposed the policy of Chiang Kai-shek, who actually capitulated to the Japanese aggressors and proposed uniting the efforts of the Kuomintang and the CPC in the struggle against the Japanese imperialists.

Cai Yuancei's educational policy was built on the basis of an organic combination of principles formulated during his tenure as the Minister of Education of China: teaching based on pragmatism; public moral education; aesthetic art education; a worldwide approach to education problems. These principles, in his opinion, should form the basis for the formation of a perfect personality. He advocated that education should not depend on the policy of the state, but become the lot of teachers and outside the influence of any political parties and groups, as well as religious organizations.

Guided by the principles of freedom of thought, Cai Yuanzei carried out bold reforms at the Peking University. He reformed the system of training students in various specialties and created the corresponding departments in the structure of the university. Cai Yuancei also changed the structure of the academic year, the system of credits and the choice of study subjects. He reformed the university management system in a democratic spirit, created scientific societies at the university, encouraged scientific research, in particular the development of school administration issues.

Cai Yuancei stood up as a champion of women's rights. He admitted a group of women to Peking University for the first time in China, and also began to promote a new morality, which was designed to protect the equality of women. Cai Yuanzei transformed Peking University from a former university with a strict feudal mentality into a research center, into a model for a new modern Chinese university. Cai Yuancei's pedagogical views contributed to the formation of a new education system, which was characterized by intellectual and physical development of personality and respect for nature.

The growth of the national liberation movement, the creation in 1921 of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) contributed to the spread of the ideas of Marxism-Leninism and, accordingly, the provisions of Marxist pedagogy and the experience of the Soviet school. The theory and practice of socialist education in China was put into practice in the so-called revolutionary support areas, which were created from 1927 to 1949 under the leadership of the CPC.

In the field of education and upbringing in the revolutionary support areas, the policy of local authorities was aimed at fulfilling the following tasks: ensuring the right of workers to education, developing education in accordance with the goals of military-political and economic construction. The Central Democratic Workers 'and Peasants' Government, established in 1931 in Ruijing City (Jiangxi Province), declared that education must correspond to the tasks of the revolutionary struggle. The local councils, which expressed the interests of the working people and eliminated the influence of the Kuomintang school system, exercised concrete leadership in education.

Mao Zedong, who became chairman of the Central People's Government in 1949, put forward the basic principles of culture and education in the basic revolutionary bases: to spread the ideas of communism, to raise the cultural level of the working people, to put culture and education at the service of the demands of revolutionary war and class struggle. He considered the central tasks in the field of education to be the implementation of universal compulsory education, the development of a broad program of social education, the fastest teaching of the working people to read and write, the training of cadres to guide the struggle of the people.

The educational system in the revolutionary support bases consisted of two parts: the training of the necessary personnel and the training of youth and adults.

Education and training of personnel was carried out in higher educational institutions, secondary schools and colleges, as well as in special classes. The training time in them ranged from several months to one year. The content of education consisted of politics as well as vocational training in accordance with the specific requirements of the revolutionary war.

All young people were to be embraced by political education and teaching elementary literacy. In all revolutionary support bases, a wide network of various educational institutions, schools and classes was created, which was characterized by the following features: a) rapid training of the necessary personnel for party organizations and government bodies;

b) a shortened training program based on the combination of theory with practice;

c) satisfaction of practical and production needs in times of war and a difficult financial situation, austerity regime with the participation of teachers and students;

d) emphasis on political and ideological upbringing and education;

e) establishing friendly relations between teachers and students, fostering initiative, collectivism, openness, vigilance and resilience.

The network of educational institutions in the support revolutionary bases was highly effective in those conditions, and the training was massive. The main task of mass education was to spread the influence of the Communist Party among the workers and peasants and to eliminate illiteracy. The bulk of the students were peasants. A variety of teaching methods were used. The training was mainly carried out after work in the fields and farms in various evening schools, as well as in schools in which part of the time was devoted to work and part to study; in literacy groups and schools.

In addition, the creation of seasonal winter schools was practiced. These schools mainly carried out: literacy training, political and ideological education, as well as classes to explain the revolutionary situation.

The specificity of school education in the old liberated regions was as follows: education served the tasks of the revolutionary war; it developed with the active participation of the popular masses and was built according to the system: part of the time for work, part for study.

For each school, a team of teachers was created, which had to comply with the principle of being “both red and specialist”. And all the educational work was carried out under the leadership of the Communist Party.

The experience of revolutionary support areas in the field of education was further developed after the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949.

The founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC) on October 1, 1949 marked the end of the history of imperialist and colonial enslavement of the Chinese people and a change in the nature of Chinese society, its transition to socialist construction. The content and form of education in China changed accordingly.

Over the past 40-odd years, the Chinese people have accumulated rich experience and made significant strides in their search for the correct course in the development of socialist education. Simultaneously with the changes in politics and economics in New China after 1949, education went through four major historical stages.

Within 7 years after the founding of the PRC, the country completed socialist transformations in the sphere of ownership of the means of production and, step by step, made the transition to a socialist society. The transformations covered all spheres of public life, including the education system. In December 1949, the Ministry of Education established in Beijing the First National Education Congress, at which general principles for the development of the national education system were formulated on the basis of the provisions of the General Program of the People's Political Consultative Council of China (CPPCC) of September 29, 1949.

This program contained the following main provisions:

Education in the PRC aims to raise the educational level of the people, train qualified personnel for nation-building, serve the people, overcoming the remnants of feudal, comprador and fascist ideology; it is based on the principle of connection between theory and practice; education is designed to serve the interests of workers, peasants, soldiers and employees.

In the process of educational reforms and accumulation of positive experience, one should strive to achieve an effective result; the new education system in the PRC should develop on the basis of recognition of the experience in the field of education accumulated in the old liberated and supporting revolutionary regions, as well as on the basis of the use of everything positive in the previous education system. Particular attention should be paid to the best practices of the Soviet Union in the field of education.

These general principles of the development of the educational system of the PRC corresponded to the tasks of social development of the country at that time.

From the first days after the formation of the PRC, large-scale work began to realize the goals of the revolution, develop the national economy, train personnel, and carry out socialist transformations along the lines of creating a planned economy.

The main guiding principle of the development of education during that period was serving the tasks of industrialization and socialist transformations in various fields. Given the lack of experience in socialist construction and the imperialist blockade of new China, the Chinese government at the initial stage of development called on the nation to study the experience of the Soviet Union. The theory and practice of the USSR in the field of education at that time were seen as a model for creating a new educational system in China.

After examining the educational situation, the CCP began to reorganize the old school system in areas that were formerly under the control of the Kuomintang. All regular full-day schools were nationalized and private schools brought under government control.

At the end of 1956, socialist transformations in the field of means of production were basically completed in most parts of the country, as a result of which a socialist social system was established in China, within which a national capitalist economy and a collective cooperative economy functioned.

As a result of the establishment of a new socio-economic system, private schools were liquidated. In the process of reforming the former school, the CCP used the teacher contingent of the former schools. Although most of the former teachers consisted of patriotic intellectuals, there were nevertheless people among them who, politically and ideologically, did not correspond to the new tasks. Work began to unite, educate and reeducate the intelligentsia.

Since 1950, in the course of the movements "resistance to US aggression and aid to Korea", "land reform" and "suppression of counterrevolution", a lot of work has been done to educate patriotism, proletarian internationalism, study Marxism-Leninism and the ideas of Mao Zedong in order to help the intelligentsia voluntarily re-educate and imbued with the proletarian worldview.

After the establishment of the PRC, the people's government temporarily used the old structure of the school system and began its transformation. But the previous school system, similar to the American one, did not comply with the guiding principle "education should serve nation-building, schools should be opened for workers and peasants." In October 1951, the State Administrative Council (SAS) of the PRC issued a decree on the reform of the school system, which prescribed, firstly, to transform various types of temporary schools, courses for the eradication of illiteracy, accelerated schools for workers and peasants, a system of regular interconnected educational institutions. This must be done in order for education to be accessible to workers and peasants and to become an organic part of the general education system in the country, in order to prepare intellectuals from among the workers and peasants.

Secondly, it was about streamlining the system of higher educational institutions, which were to become available to graduates of educational institutions of the corresponding level without age restrictions, as well as creating conditions for workers and peasants to receive higher education. Third, it was planned to replace the 6-year (4 + 2) primary school with a 5-year one.

The aim of these activities was to bridge the gap between urban and rural areas and to enable all workers to receive an equal education. The new school system mainly met the needs of nation-building for the training of technical personnel.

With the introduction of the new education system, the opportunities for workers, peasants, office workers and their children to receive various types of education have expanded. By 1954, more than 10 million workers and peasants had become literate, tens of thousands of workers and peasants entered regular schools, and the best of them went to universities and institutes.

However, replacing a 6-year (4 + 2) primary school with a 5-year one turned out to be ineffective. For this reason, in November 1953, a directive was issued on the improvement and improvement of the quality of primary education, which was not disseminated, since there was no appropriate preparation for it, and there were no teaching materials and manuals.

In the first years after the formation of the PRC, the main task of the reform of the educational content was to change those courses and teaching materials that did not meet the needs of the revolution and the construction of a new China. The reform of curricula in primary and secondary education was focused on the introduction of a course of patriotic and ideological education; reduction in the total number of training courses; reducing the academic workload of students; introduction of unified national curricula and programs, teaching materials and textbooks; introduction of labor training.

The reform of higher education included the following points: the introduction of a course on the study of Marxism-Leninism and the ideas of Mao Zedong; translation into Chinese of curricula, programs, materials and textbooks of higher educational institutions of the USSR; introduction of unified national curricula and programs; the combination of educational work with practical exercises, including industrial practice, excursions and visits to enterprises as an important link in the general educational system.

In the first years after the formation of the PRC, impressive successes were achieved in reforming upbringing and education, which made it possible to train qualified personnel and human resources for socialist construction. However, there were some problems due to the lack of experience, as well as the significant academic overload of students.

Before the formation of the PRC, the structure of higher education in general, institutes and departments in particular, was chaotic, and the higher educational institutions themselves were unevenly located in the country.

Under these conditions, higher educational institutions could not meet the needs of nation-building for specialists. In 1951, the Ministry of Education began to carry out a planned restructuring of institutes and departments throughout the country. At the same time, the main attention was paid to the development of specialized institutions, especially engineering and technical ones, to the improvement of university education. After carrying out perestroika measures in 1952-1953. in China, a system of training highly qualified specialists in the field of mechanics, electrical engineering, engineering and chemical production was created. This was a great achievement against the background of the virtual absence of engineering and technical personnel in old China. Thus, in the new China, the foundation of the higher education system