Business trip "Sufferer". When he asks for something, he constructs phrases in such a way as to evoke a feeling of guilt in the interlocutor, hoping that he will understand how much he has to sacrifice and give what he needs. Then the "sufferer" will not have to ask directly for something. It is difficult for him

Business woman Modern life, when a woman can earn and provide for herself, has created this stereotype of a woman. They do not hope for help and provision of a man, as representatives of some other stereotypes of female behavior. These women stood "in the ring" and

Business economic game "Let's go to Goa" Explanatory note Participants of the business economic game are invited to organize travel agencies to attract tourists to the island of Goa. During the game activity, the participants get acquainted with the history, culture

Business game "Shipwrecked" Explanatory note Business game "Shipwrecked"

Directly emotional communication (D. B. Elkonin, M. I. Lisina) is gradually moving into the channel of "business cooperation" associated with solving the simplest problems - playing with a rattle together, pushing a ball to a partner, etc. (Fig. 5.5).

The infant begins to feel the need to evaluate his participation in the "common cause." Of course, he is waiting for a positive assessment, but it must be given for the specific deed he has done.

Rice. 5.5. Situational business communication(6 months - 2 years)

Situation. Mom and her son Zhenya (7 months old) used to emotionally communicate with the help of smiles, stroking, affectionate words, and now he began to resist, not respond to smiles, grab everything that

What happened to the boy?

Solution. Zhenya, having matured, already ready to switch to a new situational-business form of communication with an adult, in connection with which he began to show the need for business cooperation. The adult has become interesting not by itself, but because he has different objects and he knows how to do something with them.

Situation. An adult expands the range of objects with which the child can perform more and more new actions. Here he, for example, shows the child a typewriter. Having played with it with pleasure, the child remembers the ringlet (although it is not as bright as a new toy), with which he previously played with an adult.

What can the memory of a nondescript ring be connected with?

Solution. An adult should remember how some time ago he entertained the baby with this very ring and under what emotional accompaniment (affectionate conversation, gentle stroking on the head, etc.) this happened. The adult must understand that, remembering the old toy, the child seeks to return the event that was accompanied by such a wonderful fellowship. For a baby, the ring embodies his own vivid emotional memory of communication with an adult.

Question. How should an adult meet an infant's need for communication? How can he develop the child's ability to communicate about objects?

Answer. At correct methods upbringing, direct communication, characteristic of the beginning of infancy, soon gives way to communication about objects, toys, which then develops into a joint activity of an adult and a child.

The adult introduces the child into the world, draws his attention to objects, clearly demonstrates all kinds of ways of acting with them, often directly helps the child to perform actions, directing his movements. He teaches the kid the rules of behavior and handling things, each time voicing his actions.

Up to 3 years for a situational-business form of communication characterized by the need for cooperation, business motives and substantively effective means of communication.

In this form of communication:

• the child masters object-related actions, learns to use household items (spoon, comb, etc.), play with toys, dress, wash, etc .;
• the child shows activity and independence, becomes an independent subject of his activity and an independent partner in communication;
• the child begins to pronounce the first words, and in order to get the desired object, he needs to name it, that is, pronounce the word. The child himself will not begin to speak without prompting from an adult. An adult offers to name a particular object, and the baby says a new word after him. communication;

Table 5.1
Development of speech in infancy

The child reacts early to the speech of an adult: he calms down, listens when they talk to him (Table 5.1).

Situation. At first, humming is observed even in deaf children. They babble like children with good hearing. Therefore, such an organic vice of a child long time can go unnoticed. But later, many of the children with deafness stop making any sounds.

What can such phenomena be associated with?

Solution. Deaf children simply lose interest in the pronunciation of sounds, since they cannot hear either their own voice or the sounds that others make.

Question. Do all children go through the babbling stage? How long does the babbling stage last? What does it depend on?

Answer. All children go through the babbling stage, because it is necessary for the development of their speech. Therefore, it is not a matter of the duration of the babbling period, but of its qualitative change. From the moment of independent use of the first words, babbling usually ends, that is, by about 1 year. However, in the event of a sharp change in living conditions, for example, admission to kindergarten, hospitalization, etc., the child's return to babbling is often noted.

Situation. Crying and babbling babies make the same sounds regardless of which language they become native.

What plays the main role in the assimilation of the child native language?

Solution. The main role should be played by the social and cultural environment of the child. Imitating the speech of people from their socio-cultural environment, children repeat many sounds during the game over and over again, even if they do not understand their meaning. This repetition, reminiscent of the echo of what children hear, is what scientists call echolalia.

The complication stage of babbling continues until babies start using their first words on their own, which usually happens by the end of their first year. By this time, they master the sounds of the language and can reproduce them at their own discretion. Only then can we say that the basis of the language has been laid and its assimilation begins.

Situation. Shouting and babbling are the most important preliminary exercises in the language. In their process, a wide variety of combinations of sounds are used.

What is the role of these exercises in the development of the child?

Solution. The child prepares for mastering speech, developing his speech motor apparatus, establishes associations between consonant moods and complexes of sounds.

Often facial expressions and gestures (mimic language) replace the child's still absent sound speech. The use of facial expressions by a person talking with a child contributes to the understanding of many words that the child does not understand. In addition, gestures play an important role in communication between a child and an adult (Table 5.2).

Table 5.2 Sign language in infancy

Situation. Misha (1 year 3 months) still finds it difficult to give words, and he often resorts to gestures. The mother, having figured out what he wants, immediately fulfills his desire.

Does the quick satisfaction of the child's needs affect the development of his speech?

Solution. The rapid satisfaction of the need to be understood without uttering words can inhibit the development of a child's speech.

The adult should encourage the child to call his desires in words, so that the child will correctly form his own active speech.

Situation. It happens that up to 10 months, children already master one or several meaningful words.

Should I be alarmed if a child at 1.5 years old is explained solely by gestures?

Solution. Although gestures are often very expressive and sufficient for understanding, it is still better for a child to use speech means in order to be correctly understood.

After 6 months of life, the attention of an adult is no longer enough for a child. The baby begins to be attracted to various objects.

The means of communication at this stage are enriched. The child moves in space, manipulates objects, takes various poses. Children actively use gestures, expressive movements.

Situation. Kolya is surrounded by many interesting toys, but he pays no attention to them and gets bored.

Why it happens?

Solution. The toy becomes interesting and necessary after an adult picks it up and shows what you can do with it: how you can move the car, how a bunny can jump, etc. This happens because the adult is the center of preferences, due to which he gives attractiveness to the objects he touches. It is important for an adult to show the child how to play with these toys (how you can build a tower out of blocks, how to put a doll to sleep, etc.). The objects (toys) themselves will never tell you how to use them or how to play with them.

If a child does not know what can be done with objects, then he does not reach for them. Only after the adult offers the child an example of their use, the game becomes for little man meaningful and meaningful.

Question. How should an adult show certain actions with an object?

Answer. An adult, showing actions with an object, must address the child, talk to him, look him in the eyes, support and encourage his correct, independent actions... Such joint games with objects represent business communication or cooperation between a child and an adult.

Situational-business form of communication with peers occurs at 4-6 years old and is the most typical for preschool childhood.

The need for communication with a peer becomes much more intense, coming to the fore. So, there is And Arkin gives an example when a 5-year-old boy, when asked by his grandmother to play with her, replied: \ "I need children \" This is due to the fact that communication with a peer is a prerequisite for organizing a role-playing game, which has a collective character.

The main content of children's need to communicate with peers is the desire to establish business cooperation, to coordinate their actions with a partner in their activities.Cooperation differs from complicity in a more solid interaction of children, the cooperative nature of their activities.Children's cooperation is predominantly playful in nature and is focused not on the result of activities, but on her processes.

The desire to act together is so strongly expressed that children compromise, yielding to each other with toys, an attractive role in the game, etc.

\ "Okay, you will be the captain, and I am your assistant, \" agrees Roman M (5 g 10 months) 5 rubles. 10 ms.).

\ "You take the bear, and I'll take a hare, \" - Tanya declares

\ "Sasha, first you will give me a ride, and then I will give you, \" Dmitry D (6 g 11 months) offers 6 rubles. 11 ms.).

The first joint game actions appear. The game on the same plot unites multidirectional, poorly coordinated actions. For example, in the plot drawing, \ "Family \" \ "mom \" goes to work, and \ "father \" prepares \ "child \" to sleep \ " Mom \ "fed \" child \ "at home, and \" educator \ "- gives her breakfast again. Interest in the actions of the partner arises, their comparison with their own, speaking in questions, mocking remarks, assessments of the actions of others deafening remarks, assessments of the dey іnshogo.

For example, Lena S (4 g 7 months) prepares a bed to put her "daughter" (doll) to sleep. Diana R (5 g) watches Lena's actions from a distance. ran up

Diana: And your doll will freeze. Is such a blanket needed?

Lena: And now I have summer.

Diana: So what! ...

Olenka: Here's the best one for your doll, but mine likes this one.

As MI Lisina, AG Ruzsky, OO Smirnova note, children are characterized by a special demeanor in which a tendency to competition and competition is clearly manifested.This indicates that, in terms of the need for communication with a peer, in second place after the desire for joint there is such a component as the desire for respect and recognition. Children demand to recognize their own achievements, and the actions of their comrades are evaluated with enthusiasm, emphasizing their own qualities more clearly.

Children use such means of communication as expressive, pictorial, iconic Children talk a lot and enthusiastically with each other, but broadcasting remains situational OOSmirnova carried out a content analysis of statements in situations of free interaction of children 3-7 years old, having discovered the following main topics: I-statements about myself , You are statements about another child, the world is statements about objects and phenomena that go beyond the hedgehog situation; play is the expression of children during their play.

Situational-business communication with peers contributes to the development of the foundations of personality and self-awareness, as well as - curiosity, courage, optimism, activity, creative and distinctive core of the personality. When this form of communication with peers lags behind in the development of this form of communication with peers, children experience passivity, isolation, ill will.

23 non-situational - business form of communication of preschoolers

A non-situational-business form of communication with peers begins to manifest itself in some children 6-7 years old, while a tendency towards its appearance, elements of this form of communication are in the majority of older preschoolers.

The number of out-of-situational contacts increases to 50% of all peer interactions Communication with peers significantly goes beyond the general objective activity.Significant changes occur in development from a role-playing game, its conventionality grows, the schematism of the complexity in the construction of the game imposes requirements on its preliminary planning.

The content of the communicative need lies in the desire for cooperation and co-creation with a peer. The game has a truly general character with uniform rules, requirements, coordination of actions, taking into account the interior of the partners' co-workers. the role of each child in them.

A clear image of a peer is formed, relations with him become more stable (such a phenomenon as friendship is observed), sympathy arises A subjective attitude towards other children is formed, that is, the ability to see them as an equal person, to take into account their interests, willingness to help.

Along with cognition of a peer, children develop an understanding of the self-image, especially their practical actions.

The main means of communication is speech. Features of communication with peers are clearly manifested in the topics of conversation, which are becoming more and more extra situational. Typical discussions of various broad topics regarding the past and future, native nature and distant countries are scarce.

The contribution of non-situational-business communication to development lies in the formation of the child's ability to understand another person as an intrinsically valuable person, in awakening interest in his inner world, the motive to expand his understanding of himself.

Conclusion on the development of forms of communication between a preschooler and a peer:

A team of researchers led by AGRuzkoi identifies three ontogenetically consistent forms of communication with peers in preschool age; i;

The age dynamics of communication and joint activity of preschoolers consists in the growth of content, selectivity, stability of relationships, the need for communication and cooperation, their intensity and the interests of peers focused on the level of awareness - in a child, from birth to 7 p, such forms of his communication with peers are consistently changing: practical (infant - early age) situational business (4-6 g), n situational business (6-7 g).

Situational personal communication [lat. situatio - position] - the first form of communication between a child and adults (synonym: direct-emotional communication) that appears in ontogenesis. It begins to take shape in the second month of life as the revitalization complex develops. It has the following characteristics: satisfies the child's need for the attention and kindness of an adult; motivated by personal motives; it is realized with the help of expressive-mimic means (components of the revitalization complex); its content is exchange positive emotions between a child and an adult.

In the first half of the life of S.-l. O. is the leading activity, having a decisive influence on the development of all aspects of the child's psyche. The main products that develop within the framework of S.-l. Thus, there are affective-personal connections (genetically the first type of relationship between a child and an adult) and the infant's self-image. With the emergence of subsequent forms of communication, S.-l. O. yields to them the dominant position, but does not disappear, but continues to play its role in the further development of the child, being realized mainly in contacts with close people. The lack of formation of S.-l. O. in the first half of life leads to a distortion of the child's further mental development, and its deficiency affects personality disorders even in adults. The level of development of S.-l. O. - the most important criterion for the successful mental development of a child in the first half of life. The main indicators of the level of its development are the signs of the severity of the revitalization complex: the latent period, the completeness of the composition, duration, variability, intensity of the components, initiative.

V psychological theory communication activity is considered as one of its types. It has the same structure as any other activity: it arises on the basis of a corresponding need and is prompted by a motive that responds to it, includes actions aimed at having a semantic relationship to the motive of the goal. In each age period communication has its specific features determined by the development of the need-motivational sphere.

The first years of a person's life are filled with communication with close adults. Having been born, a child cannot satisfy any of his needs on his own - he is fed, bathed, covered, shifted, transferred, he is shown bright toys. Growing up and becoming more and more independent, he continues to depend on an adult who teaches him to walk and hold a spoon, pronounce words correctly and build towers from blocks, answers all his "why?"

The need for communication in a child appears early, at about 1-2 months, after the neonatal crisis. He begins to smile at his mother and rejoice violently when she appears. Mom (or other close person caregiver) should satisfy this new need as fully as possible. Direct emotional communication with an adult creates a joyful mood in the child and increases his activity, which becomes a necessary basis for the development of his movements, perception, thinking, speech.

What happens if the need for communication is not satisfied or is not satisfied enough? Children who find themselves in a hospital or orphanage, lag behind in mental development. Until 9-10 months, they retain a meaningless, indifferent gaze directed upward, move little, feel their body or clothes and do not seek to grab toys that have caught their eyes. They are lethargic, apathetic, have no interest in their surroundings. They will have a speech very late. Moreover, even with good hygienic care, children lag behind in their physical development. These dire consequences of the lack of communication in infancy are called hospitalism.

Thus, in the first year of life, full communication with an adult is vital. Insufficient or inadequate communication has a negative effect on development and later, and the manifestation of this negative impact at different age stages has its own specifics. Each age, bringing new opportunities and new needs, requires special forms of communication.

M.I. Lisina studied how the communication between a child and an adult changes throughout childhood. She identified four forms of communication (Table 1.1).

This form of communication appears second in ontogenesis and exists in children aged 6 months. up to 3 years. But it is very different from the first genetic form of communication.

To begin with, it no longer takes the place of the leading activity - the object-manipulative activity of children is now being promoted to this place. Communication with adults is woven into new leading activities, helping and serving her. The main reasons for contacts of children with adults are now associated with their common cause - practical cooperation, and therefore business motive. The child is extraordinarily interested in what and how an adult does with things, and the elders now reveal themselves to children precisely from this side - as amazing craftsmen and artisans who are able to work true miracles with objects.

We put a one-year-old baby at a table and played a tiny and completely unassuming performance in front of him: a toy dog ​​gallops along the path (board), finds a plate with a "bone" (a piece of foam rubber), gnaws at it, and then, satisfied and full, goes to bed. The child watched the performance with bated breath. When it ended, he shook off his numbness, looked at the adult with a smile and impatiently reached for the toys. As a rule, he did not manage to repeat the actions he liked so much with them, and after tinkering a little, he began persistently to push the dog into the experimenter's hands, begging him to repeat the performance. In the meantime, other pupils of the group gathered around the table (it was in the manger) and watched everything that happened with enthusiasm.

What kind of need was objectified in the described business motives? We came to the conclusion that, in terms of content, it was the child's communicative need for cooperation with an adult. The old desire of children for benevolent attention was fully preserved. (Looking ahead, we will say that in all subsequent cases, the earlier content of the need for communication is always preserved, and the content that is new for a given age stage is built on top of it and takes a leading position. In Table 1.3, we tried to depict our idea of ​​how this is happening.) Children, as before and even more insistently demanded the presence of an adult, protested against his departure; they constantly settled down with their little things and toys next to an adult, often even leaned against his feet, leaned on his knees. But in sharp contrast to babies (that is, those who are younger than 6 months), starting from the second half of the year, children no longer agreed to simply exchange affection with him. If an adult took the child in his arms, he immediately either started a game (hid, jokingly turned away to the side, and then "frightened" the adult, suddenly bringing his face closer to him), or included in the previous - "pure", not mediated by anything - or objects: he pointed his finger at the window, at another child, invited him to admire his button or some other trifle.

When contacts with an adult were included in the case and the approval of the elders meant praise for some achievement of the baby (climbed onto the sofa, climbed the steps, made a "cake"), it turned out that the described changes did not mean that children now value adults less or not they value their attention: no, the importance of adults in their life is fully preserved, even increases, but qualitatively changes in character. The child now needs an adult to cooperate with him in business, organizing it, helping in difficult times, encouraging in case of failure, praising for achievements.

In our experiments (MI Lisina // Development of communication…, 1974), we compared the behavior of 10–15-month-old children under conditions of various interactions with an adult. In the first series of experiments, the adult organized the so-called reversed display. He unfolded in front of the child a performance with the participation of toys, such as the "play" with a dog, which is described above. During the reverse demonstration, the experimenter constantly addressed the child by name, often looked at him, and smiled back at him. When the child himself acted with the toy, the adult with facial expressions and words encouraged each attempt of the child to repeat the shown manipulations. In episode II - with the so-called non-addressed display - everything remained the same, with the exception of one detail: the adult no longer spoke personally to the child. In series III, the child was simply given a toy, nothing was shown to him, and he was given the full opportunity to deal with it at his own discretion (series without showing).

Comparison of the behavior of children in three series of experiments showed that they manipulated least of all and poorest of all in the series without showing, where they quickly lost all interest in objects. The showing of an adult stimulated the child, caused him a burst of energy. In experiments with a non-inverted display, the child's activity had the character of random excitement: the children repeated the same primitive action many times (they waved, knocked the toy against the wall, table, carried it around the table), made noise, shouted. In experiments with reverse display, the increased activity of children was aimed at trying to repeat the actions of an adult, and the manipulations here turned out to be much richer and qualitatively higher.

The established facts indicate a high sensitivity of children to personal communication, but subject to their inclusion in joint business contacts with an adult.

So, in situational business communication, children need the presence of an adult and his benevolent attention, but this is not enough - he needs the adult to be related to what the child is doing and to participate in this process.

In Chapter 2 we have already talked about the communicative operations of the subject-action category. Therefore, here we will restrict ourselves to emphasizing their leading position in situational-business communication. It is precisely because of the role of these means of communication at the second level of development of communicative activity that we called for some time the second form of communication “subject-effective”. However, later it was decided to base the name of forms of communication not on means, but on motives as a more essential aspect of activity, and also to mention the degree of situationality of contacts. In the second form, contacts between children and adults are confined to a given place and time, they are highly situational. And this is despite the fact that in the middle of the 2nd year of life, many children begin to speak. They even manage to subordinate speech to situations and in many cases construct statements in such a way that they can be understood only taking into account the momentary circumstances.

Just as situational-personal communication determines the infant's adaptation to the circumstances of his life and, ultimately, his survival, so situational-business communication is of paramount importance in the life of young children. In close interaction with an adult who is of a practical nature and at the same time warmed by the warmth of mutual personal spiritual contact between “big and small”, the child has a rare opportunity to comprehend the socio-historical content inherent in objects and master it, using these objects for their intended purpose and in accordance with that function for which they were created. Attachment to an adult gives the child a natural desire to follow in his actions the behavior of his elders as a model. Thanks to personal contact, the remarks of an adult - his praises and reproaches - become of great importance for children in assimilating the necessary, correct actions with objects. In other words, the existence of situational-business communication is the time during which children pass from nonspecific primitive manipulations with objects to more and more specific ones, and then to culturally fixed actions with them (R. Ya. Lekhtman-Abramovich, F. I Fradkin, 1949). The process of transformation of objective actions was repeatedly traced by Soviet psychologists (A. V. Zaporozhets, D. B. Elkonin // Psychology of children ..., 1964; Psychology of personality., 1965). The decisive role of communication in their transformation is shown in a number of works (V.V. Vetrova, 1975; M.G. Elagina, 1977; T.M. Sorokina, 1978; D. B. Elkonin, 1978).