Presentation on the theme "kant immanuel". Presentation - Immanuel Kant and his concepts Text of this presentation

I. KANT'S PHILOSOPHY Prepared by: BD Davitbekov student gr. LD 17-

Genus. April 22, 1724 in Königsberg Studies at the University of Königberg (1740-1746) "Pre-critical period": assistant professor at the University of Königberg (1755-1770) "Critical period": professor of logic and metaphysics at the University of Königberg (1770-1801) Mind ... February 12, 1804 in Königsberg Königsberg. Biography

General Natural History and Theory of Heaven (1755) Critique of Pure Reason (1781/1787) Prolegomena to any future metaphysics ... (1783) Fundamentals of Metaphysics of Morality (1785) Critique of Practical Reason (1788) Major Works

TRANSCENDENTAL AESTHETICS AND ANALYTICS Possibility of a priori synthetic judgments Transcendental aesthetics A priori synthetic judgments in mathematics Synthetic work of contemplation Space and time as a priori forms of sensual contemplation Transcendental analytics Transcendental unity of apperception Idealism of pure reasoning concepts Transcendental unity of apperception Idealism of pure reasoning concepts Berkeley and Kant's transcendental idealism Rationalist nativism and Kant's apriorism Hume's agnosticism and Kant's critical idealism

THE POSSIBILITY OF A PRIORIAL SYNTHETIC JUDGMENTS ANALYTICAL AND SYNTHETIC JUDGMENTS An analytical judgment is a judgment in which the content of a logical predicate (predicate) is contained in the content of a logical subject (subject). A synthetic judgment is a judgment in which the content of a logical predicate (predicate) is not contained in the content of a logical subject (subject).

The relationship between the content of the subject and the predicate of analytical judgment The relationship between the content of the subject and the predicate of synthetic judgment S S P P

POSSIBILITY OF A PRIORIAL SYNTHETIC JUDGMENTS ANALYTICAL AND SYNTHETIC JUDGMENTS All bodies are extended. Some bodies are heavy. The capital is the seat of the government. Canberra is the capital of Australia. Examples of analytical judgments Examples of synthetic judgments The whole is greater than its part. The Moonlight Sonata consists of three movements.

THE POSSIBILITY OF A PRIORI SYNTHETIC JUDGMENTS A PRIORI AND APOSTERIARY JUDGMENTS An a priori judgment is a judgment, the truth of which is established independently of experience. A posteriori judgment is a judgment the truth of which is attested by experience.

THE POSSIBILITY OF A PRIORIAL SYNTHETIC JUDGMENTS A PRIORI AND APOSTERIARY JUDGMENTS Assertive (judgments of reality) Apodictic (unconditional, necessary) Modality Particular or singular. General (universal) Number A posteriori (experimental) judgments. A priori (pre-experienced) judgments

THE POSSIBILITY OF A PRIORIAL SYNTHETIC JUDGMENTS A PRIORIAL AND APOSTERIARY JUDGMENTS Sciences are based on experience, but they cannot be based solely on experience, since their laws have the form of general apodictic judgments.

TRANSCENDENTAL AESTHETICS A priori synthetic judgments in mathematics 7 + 5 12 = 7 + 5 12 3 x 4 = 12 7 + 5 x

TRANSCENDENTAL AESTHETICS A PRIORI SYNTHETIC JUDGMENTS IN MATHEMATICS A straight shortest line between two points. there is a form of magnitude. do not eat

TRANSCENDENTAL AESTHETICS SPACE AS A PRIORI FORM OF CONCEPTION Because our mind contains not only a "time scale", but also a certain model of space.

TRANSCENDENTAL AESTHETICS TIME AND SPACE AS A PRIORI FORMS OF SENSUAL CONCEPTION A priori basis of geometry. A priori basis of arithmetic Isotropic. Unidirectionally 3D. One-Dimensional Infinite Form of external contemplation. The form of inner contemplation Space. Time

TRANSCENDENTAL AESTHETICS GENERAL CONCLUSION The object of perception is not given to our sensibility, but is constructed by it from the material of sensations. These sensations are combined into a holistic image (synthesized) in accordance with the a priori forms of sensuality itself.

TRANSCENDENTAL ANALYTICS TRANSCENDENTAL UNITY OF APPERCEPTION Apperception (lat. Ad, к, percepcio, perception) - reflective consciousness (as opposed to unconscious perceptions - perceptions); self-awareness. The transcendental (lat. Transcendentalis, going beyond) - in Kantian philosophy, that which makes possible experiential knowledge (as opposed to the transcendent - going beyond the experience). The transcendental unity of apperception is the unity and identity of self-awareness as a prerequisite for cognitive synthesis.

I. Kant. "Critique of Pure Reason". TRANSCENDENTAL ANALYTICS TRANSCENDENTAL UNITY OF APPERCEPTION Multiple representations given in a certain contemplation would not be all together my representations, if they did not belong all together to one self-consciousness.

I. Kant. "Critique of Pure Reason". TRANSCENDENTAL ANALYTICS TRANSCENDENTAL UNITY OF APPERCEPTION Only because I can comprehend the manifold [content] of representations in one consciousness, I call them all my representations; otherwise, I would have just as variegated and varied I as I have conceived of ideas.

I. Kant. "Critique of Pure Reason". TRANSCENDENTAL ANALYTICS TRANSCENDENTAL UNITY OF APPERCEPT to bring the diverse [content] of these representations under the unity of apperception.

TRANSCENDENTAL ANALYTICS DEDUCTION OF PURE CONCEPTUAL CONCEPTS Judgments by quality in relation to modality by quantity General Particular Singular Affirmative Negative Infinite Categorical Hypothetical Separating Problematic Assertorical Apodictic

TRANSCENDENTAL ANALYTICS OF THE FOUNDATION OF PURE REASONING Groups of foundations Anticipations of perception Analogies of experience Postulates of empirical thinking. The axioms of contemplation Everything is divisible to infinity Emptiness does not exist The law of conservation of substance The law of causality The law of interaction Formal possibility Material reality General necessity

I. Kant. "Prolegomena". TRANSCENDENTAL ANALYTICS GENERAL CONCLUSION Reason is the source of the general order of nature, since it brings all phenomena under its own laws and only this a priori realizes experience (in its form), due to which everything that is learned through experience is necessarily subject to the laws of reason.

I. Kant. "Prolegomena". TRANSCENDENTAL ANALYTICS GENERAL CONCLUSION We are not dealing with the nature of things in themselves, which is independent of both the conditions of our sensibility and the conditions of reason, but with nature as an object of possible experience; and here it also depends on reason, which makes this experience possible, that the sensuously perceived world is not any object of experience or that it is nature.

TRANSCENDENTAL IDEALISM HUM AND KANT Agnosticism of Hume Critical idealism of Kant Reliable knowledge is impossible, therefore there are no universally valid truths. Things in themselves are unknowable, but phenomena are subordinate to the generally valid forms of our sensibility and reason, which allows us to give our knowledge a scientific form.

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Introduction

Immanuel Kant is one of the outstanding thinkers of the 18th century. The influence of his scientific and philosophical ideas went far beyond the era in which he lived.

Kant's philosophy begins in Germany a movement known as classical German idealism. This trend played a great role in the development of world philosophical thought.

Purpose of the work: to consider the pre-critical and critical periods of the work of I. Kant, also to consider the socio-political views and determine the historical significance of his philosophy.

1.Biography

The founder of German classical idealism is Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804) - German (Prussian) philosopher, professor at the University of Königsber. Born into a poor family of a saddle-maker. The boy was named after Saint Emmanuel; in translation, this Hebrew name means "God with us." Under the care of the doctor of theology Franz Albert Schulz, who noticed a talent in Immanuel, Kant graduated from the prestigious Friedrichs Collegium gymnasium, and then entered the University of Königsberg. Due to the death of his father, he fails to complete his studies, and in order to feed his family, Kant becomes a home teacher for 10 years. It was at this time, in 1747-1755, that he developed and published his cosmogonic hypothesis of the origin of the solar system from the original nebula, which has not lost its relevance to this day.

In 1755, Kant defended his dissertation and received his doctorate, which finally gave him the right to teach at the university. Forty years of teaching began. Natural science and philosophical research of Kant is complemented by "political" opuses: in his treatise "Towards Eternal Peace", he for the first time prescribed the cultural and philosophical foundations of the future unification of Europe into a family of enlightened peoples, arguing that "enlightenment is the courage to use one's own mind."

In 1770, at the age of 46, he was appointed professor of logic and metaphysics at the University of Koenigsberg, where until 1797 he taught an extensive cycle of disciplines - philosophical, mathematical, and physical.

Being in poor health, Kant subordinated his life to a harsh regime, which allowed him to outlive all his friends. His accuracy in following the routine has become the talk of the town, even among punctual Germans, and has given rise to many sayings and anecdotes. He was not married, they say that when he wanted to have a wife, he could not support her, and when he could, he did not want to ...

Kant was buried at the eastern corner of the north side of the Königsberg Cathedral in the professorial crypt, and a chapel was erected over his grave. In 1924, on the occasion of the 200th anniversary of Kant, the chapel was replaced with a new structure in the form of an open columnar hall, strikingly different in style from the cathedral itself.

All creativity of I. Kant can be divided into two large periods:

Precritical (until the early 70s of the 18th century);

Critical (early 1870s and up to 1804).

During the pre-critical period, the philosophical interest of I. Kant was directed to the problems of natural science and nature.

"Critique of Pure Reason";

"Criticism of Practical Reason";

"Criticism of the ability to judge."

2. Subcritical period

The most important problems of Kant's philosophical research pre-critical period were problems of being, nature, natural science. Kant's innovation in the study of these problems lies in the fact that he was one of the first philosophers who, considering these problems, paid great attention to development problem.

Philosophical conclusions of Kant were revolutionary for his era:

The solar system arose from a large initial cloud of particles of matter rarefied in space as a result of the rotation of this cloud, which became possible due to the movement and interaction (attraction, repulsion, collision) of its constituent particles.

Nature has its own history in time (beginning and end), and is not eternal and unchanging;

Nature is in constant change and development;

Movement and rest are relative;

All life on earth, including man, is the result of natural biological evolution.

At the same time, Kant's ideas bear the imprint of the worldview of that time:

Mechanical laws are not originally embedded in matter, but have their own external cause;

This external cause (origin) is God. Despite this, Kant's contemporaries believed that his discoveries (especially about the origin of the solar system and the biological evolution of man) were commensurate in significance with the discovery of Copernicus (the rotation of the earth around the sun).

3. Critical period

At the heart of Kant's philosophical research critical period(the beginning of the 70s of the XVIII century and until 1804) lies the problem of cognition.

3.1. Criticism of Pure Reason

V his book "Critique of Pure Reason" Kant defends the idea agnosticism- the impossibility of knowing the surrounding reality.

Most philosophers before Kant saw as the main reason for the difficulties of cognition precisely the object of cognitive activity - being, the surrounding world, which contains many unsolved mysteries over thousands of years. Kant, on the other hand, puts forward a hypothesis according to which the cause of difficulties in cognition is not the surrounding reality - an object, but the subject of cognitive activity - a person, or rather, his mind.

The cognitive capabilities (abilities) of the human mind are limited (that is, the mind cannot do everything). As soon as the human mind with its arsenal of cognitive means tries to go beyond its own framework (possibilities) of cognition, it encounters insoluble contradictions. These insoluble contradictions, of which Kant discovered four, Kant called antinomies.

The first antinomy is the LIMITATION OF SPACE
The world has its origin in time and is limited in space	The world has no beginning in time and is unlimited.
The second antinomy - SIMPLE AND COMPLEX
There are only simple elements and that which consists of simple ones.	There is nothing simple in the world.
Third Antinomy - FREEDOM AND CAUSALITY
There is not only causality according to the laws of nature, but also freedom.	There is no freedom. Everything in the world is accomplished by virtue of strict causality according to the laws of nature.
The fourth antinomy - THE PRESENCE OF GOD
There is God - an absolutely necessary being, the cause of all that exists.	There is no god. There is no absolutely necessary being - the cause of everything

With the help of reason, it is possible to logically prove simultaneously both opposite positions of the antinomies - the reason comes to a dead end. The presence of antinomies, according to Kant, is proof of the existence of the boundaries of the cognitive abilities of the mind.

Also in "Critique of Pure Reason" I. Kant classifies knowledge itself as a result of cognitive activity and highlights three concepts that characterize knowledge:

A posteriori knowledge;

A priori knowledge;

"Thing in itself".

A posteriori knowledge- the knowledge that a person receives as a result of experience. This knowledge can only be conjectural, but not reliable, since every statement taken from a given type of knowledge must be verified in practice, and such knowledge is not always true. For example, a person knows from experience that all metals melt, but theoretically there may be metals that are not subject to melting; or “all swans are white,” but sometimes black ones can be found in nature, therefore, experimental (empirical, a posteriori) knowledge can misfire, does not have complete reliability and cannot pretend to universality.

A priori knowledge- pre-experienced, that is, that which exists in the mind initially and does not require any empirical proof. For example: "All bodies are extended", "Human life flows through time", "All bodies have mass." Any of these provisions is obvious and absolutely reliable, both with and without experimental verification. It is impossible, for example, to meet a body that does not have dimensions or without mass, the life of a living person, flowing outside of time. Only a priori (pre-experienced) knowledge is absolutely reliable and reliable, has the qualities of universality and necessity.

It should be noted: Kant's theory of a priori (initially true) knowledge was completely logical in the era of Kant, but discovered by A. Einstein in the middle of the twentieth century. the theory of relativity challenged her.

"Thing in itself"- one of the central concepts of the entire philosophy of Kant. “Thing-in-itself” is the inner essence of a thing, which will never be cognized by the mind.

3.2. Scheme of the cognitive process

Kant singles out the scheme of the cognitive process, according to which:

The outside world initially exerts an impact ("Affection") on the human sense organs;

The human senses receive the affected images of the external world in the form of sensations;

Human consciousness brings the scattered images and sensations received by the sense organs into a system, as a result of which an integral picture of the surrounding world appears in the human mind;

A holistic picture of the surrounding world, arising in the mind on the basis of sensations, is just an image of the external world visible to the mind and feelings, which has nothing to do with the real world;

The real world, the images of which are perceived by the mind and feelings, is "Thing in itself"- a substance that absolutely cannot be understood by reason;

The human mind can only cognize the images of a huge variety of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world - "things in themselves", but not their inner essence.

Thus, for cognition, the mind encounters two impenetrable boundaries:

Own (internal to the mind) boundaries, beyond which

insoluble contradictions arise - antinomies;

External boundaries are the inner essence of things in themselves.

Human consciousness itself (pure reason), which receives signals - images from unknowable "things in themselves" - the surrounding world, also, according to Kant, has its own structure, which includes:

Forms of sensuality;

The forms of reason;

The forms of the mind.

Sensuality- the first level of consciousness. Forms of sensuality - space and time. Thanks to sensuality, consciousness initially systematizes sensations, placing them in space and time.

Reason- the next level of consciousness. The forms of reason - categories- extremely general concepts, with the help of which there is a further understanding and systematization of the initial sensations located in the "coordinate system" of space and time. (Examples of categories are quantity, quality, opportunity, impossibility, necessity, etc.)

Intelligence- the highest level of consciousness. The forms of mind are final higher ideas, for example: the idea of God; the idea of the soul; the idea of the essence of the world, etc.

Philosophy, according to Kant, is the science of given (higher) ideas.

3.3. Teaching about categories

Kant's great service to philosophy is that he put forward teaching about categories(translated from Greek - sayings) - extremely general concepts with which you can describe and to which you can reduce everything that exists. (That is, there are no such things or phenomena of the surrounding world that would not have the features characterized by these categories.) Kant identifies twelve such categories and divides them into four classes, three in each.

Data classes are:

Quantity;

Quality;

Attitude;

Modality.

(That is, everything in the world has quantity, quality, relationships, modality.)

Quantities - unity, plurality, wholeness;

Qualities - reality, denial, limitation;

Relationships - substantiality (inherentness) and accidence (independence); cause and investigation; interaction;

Modality is possibility and impossibility, existence and non-existence, necessity and chance.

the first two categories of each of the four classes are opposite characteristics of the properties of the class, the third are their synthesis. For example, the extreme opposite characteristics of quantity are unity and plurality, their synthesis is wholeness; qualities - reality and denial (unreality), their synthesis - limitation, etc.

According to Kant, with the help of categories - the extremely general characteristics of everything that exists - the mind carries out its activity: it places the chaos of initial sensations on the “shelves of the mind”, due to which an ordered mental activity is possible.

3.4. Criticism of practical reason

Along with "pure reason" - the consciousness that carries out mental activity and cognition, Kant distinguishes "Practical reason" by which he understands morality and also criticizes it in his other key work - "Critique of Practical Reason."

The main questions Critics of Practical Reason:

What should be the moral?

What is the moral (moral) behavior of a person? Comprehending these questions, Kant comes to the following conclusions:

pure morality- recognized by everyone as a virtuous social consciousness, which the individual perceives as his own;

There is a strong contradiction between pure morality and real life (actions, motives, interests of people);

Morality, human behavior must be independent of any external conditions and must obey only moral law.

I. Kant formulated as follows moral law, which has a supreme and unconditional character, and called it a categorical imperative:"Do so that the maxim of your deed can be the principle of universal legislation."

At present, the moral law (categorical imperative) formulated by Kant is understood as follows:

A person must act in such a way that his actions are a model for everyone;

A person should treat another person (like he is a thinking creature and a unique personality) only as a goal, and not as a means.

3.5. Criticism of judgment

In his third book of the critical period - "Criticism of the ability to judge"- Kant advances the idea of universal expediency:

Expediency in aesthetics (a person is endowed with abilities that must be used as successfully as possible in various spheres of life and culture);

Expediency in nature (everything in nature has its own meaning - in the organization of living nature, the organization of inanimate nature, the structure of organisms, reproduction, development);

The expediency of the spirit (the presence of God).

4. Socio-political views

Socio-political views of I. Kant:

The philosopher believed that man is endowed with an inherently evil nature;

I saw the salvation of a person in moral education and strict adherence to the moral law (categorical imperative);

He was a supporter of the spread of democracy and the rule of law - firstly, in each individual society; secondly, in relations between states and peoples;

He condemned wars as the most serious delusion and crime of mankind;

He believed that in the future a "higher peace" would inevitably come - wars would either be prohibited by law or would become economically unprofitable.

5. The historical significance of Kant's philosophy

The historical significance of Kant's philosophy is that he was:

An explanation of the origin of the solar system (from a rotating nebula of elements discharged in space) based on science (Newtonian mechanics) is given;

The idea of the presence of the boundaries of the cognitive ability of the human mind (antinomy, "thing-in-itself") was put forward;

Derived twelve categories - extremely general concepts that make up the framework of thinking;

The idea of democracy and legal order was put forward, both in each individual society and in international relations;

Wars were condemned, and "eternal peace" was predicted in the future, based on the economic disadvantages of wars and their legal prohibition.

I. Kant, with his works on philosophy, carried out a kind of revolution in philosophy. Calling his philosophy transcendental, he emphasizes the need, first of all, to undertake a critical analysis of our cognitive abilities in order to find out their nature and possibilities.

In this work, the philosophy of I. Kant was considered.

The most important problems of I. Kant's philosophical research in the pre-critical period were the problems of being, nature, and natural science.

During the critical period, I. Kant wrote fundamental philosophical works that brought the scientist the reputation of one of the outstanding thinkers of the 18th century and had a huge impact on the further development of world philosophical thought:

· "Critique of Pure Reason" (1781) - epistemology (epistemology)

· "Critique of practical reason" (1788) - ethics

· "Critique of the ability to judge" (1790) - aesthetics

1. P.P. Gaidenko Kant's problem of time: time as an a priori form of sensuality and the timelessness of things in themselves. Philosophy questions. 2003

2. Gulyga A. Kant. Ser. The life of wonderful people. M., 2003

3. Cassirer E. Life and teachings of Kant. SPb, ed. "University Book", 2005

Slide 2

Biography Kant was brought up in an environment where the ideas of pietism, a radical renovationist movement in Lutheranism, had a particular influence. After studying at the Pietistic school, where he discovered excellent talent for the Latin language, in which all four of his dissertations were subsequently written, in 1740 Kant entered the Albertino University of Königsberg.

Slide 3

Completing his studies at the university, he defended his master's thesis "On Fire". Then, during the year, he defended two more dissertations, which gave him the right to lecture as an assistant professor and professor. However, Kant did not become a professor at this time and worked as an extraordinary (that is, receiving money only from students, and not by state) assistant professor until 1770, when he was appointed to the post of ordinary professor at the Department of Logic and Metaphysics at the University of Konigsberg.

Slide 4

During his teaching career, Kant lectured on a wide range of subjects, from mathematics to anthropology. In 1796 he stopped lecturing, and in 1801 he left the university. Kant's health gradually waned, but he continued to work until 1803.

Slide 5

Kant's lifestyle and many of his habits are famous. Every day, at five o'clock in the morning, Kant was woken up by his servant, a retired soldier Martin Lampé, Kant got up, drank a couple of cups of tea and smoked a pipe, then proceeding to prepare for the lectures. Soon after the lectures, it was time for dinner, which was usually attended by several guests. The dinner lasted several hours and was accompanied by various conversations. After lunch, Kant made the then legendary daily walk around the city.

Slide 6

Being in poor health, Kant subordinated his life to a harsh regime, which allowed him to outlive all his friends. His accuracy in following a routine has become the talk of the town, even among punctual Germans. He was not married. However, he was not a misogynist, he willingly talked with them, was a pleasant socialite. In old age, he was looked after by one of the sisters. Despite his philosophy, he could sometimes display ethnic prejudices, in particular, Judeophobia. Kant Museum

Slide 7

Slide 8

Philosophy In his philosophical views, Kant was influenced by H. Wolf, A. G. Baumgarten, J. J. Rousseau, D. Hume. Kant lectured on metaphysics based on Baumgarten's Wolffian textbook. About Rousseau, he said that the writings of the latter weaned him from arrogance. Hume "awakened" Kant "from a dogmatic dream." In the work of Kant, two periods are distinguished: "subcritical" (until about 1771) and "critical".

Slide 9

In the "pre-critical" period, Kant took the position of natural-scientific materialism. In the center of his interests were the problems of cosmology, mechanics, anthropology and physical geography. In natural science, Kant considered himself the successor of Newton's ideas and works, sharing his concept of space and time as objectively existing, but "empty" containers of matter.

Slide 10

The dividing line between these periods is 1770, because it was in this year that 46-year-old Kant wrote his professorial dissertation: "On the form and principles of the sensible and intelligible worlds." Kant goes over to the position of subjective idealism. Space and time are now treated by Kant as a priori, that is, pre-experienced forms of contemplation inherent in consciousness. Kant considered this position to be the most important in his entire philosophy. He even said this: whoever refutes this my position will refute my whole philosophy.

Slide 11

Kant now calls his philosophical doctrine critical. The philosopher called his main works, in which this doctrine is presented, as follows: "Critique of Pure Reason" (1781), "Critique of Practical Reason" (1788), "Critique of Judgment" (1789). Kant's goal is to investigate three "abilities of the soul" - the ability to cognize, the ability to desire (will, moral consciousness) and the ability to feel pleasure (aesthetic ability of a person), to establish the relationship between them.

Slide 12

Theory of cognition The process of cognition goes through three stages: Sensory cognition Reason Reason

Slide 13

The subject of empirical visual representation is a phenomenon, there are two sides to it: Its matter, or content, which is given in the experience. Form that brings these sensations into a certain order. Form is a priori, does not depend on experience, that is, it is in our soul before and independently of any experience.

Slide 14

There are two such pure forms of sensory visual representation: space and time. According to Kant, space and time are only subjective forms of contemplation, imposed by our consciousness on external objects. Such superposition is a necessary condition for cognition: we cannot cognize anything outside space and time. But it is precisely for this reason that there is an impenetrable abyss between things-in-themselves and phenomena: we can only know phenomena and we cannot know anything about things-in-themselves.

Slide 15

In the individual consciousness of a person, inherited, drawn from social experience, assimilated and disobjectified in the process of communication are such forms of consciousness that have been developed historically by “all”, but by no one in isolation. This can be explained by the example of language: no one "invented" it on purpose, but it exists and children learn it from adults. A priori (in relation to individual experience) are not only the forms of sensory cognition, but also the forms of work of the mind - categories.

Slide 16

Reason is the second stage of knowledge. (The first is sensuality). Through sensibility, Kant believes, the object is given to us. But it is thought through the mind. Cognition is possible only as a result of their synthesis. Tools, an instrument of rational cognition - categories. They are inherent in the mind from the very beginning.

Slide 17

Reason is the third, highest stage of the cognitive process. The mind no longer has a direct, immediate connection with sensuality, but is connected with it indirectly - through the mind. Reason is the highest level of cognition, although in many respects it "loses" to reason. Reason, having left the solid ground of experience, cannot give an unambiguous answer - "yes" or "no" - not to one of the questions of the worldview level.

Slide 18

But why, in spite of this, is it recognized as the highest step, the highest instance of cognition - not reason, which stands firmly on its feet, but a contradictory reason that misleads us? Precisely because the pure ideas of the mind perform the highest regulatory role in cognition: they indicate the direction in which the mind should move.

Slide 19

In the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant concludes that philosophy can be a science not about the highest values of the world, but only a science about the boundaries of knowledge. Higher essences are God, soul and freedom, they are not given to us in any experience, rational science about them is impossible. However, the theoretical mind, being unable to prove their existence, is unable to prove the opposite. A person is given the opportunity to choose - between faith and unbelief. And he must choose faith, as this is required of him by the voice of conscience, the voice of morality.

Slide 20

Ethics In ethics, Kant tries to find a priori, superempirical foundations of morality. It should be a general principle. The universal law of morality is possible and necessary because, Kant insists, that there is something in the world, the existence of which contains both the highest goal and the highest value.

Slide 21

Kant revealed the timeless nature of morality. Morality, according to Kant, is the very basis of human existence, what makes a person a person. Morality, according to Kant, is not deducible from anywhere, is not substantiated by anything, but, on the contrary, is the only justification for the rational structure of the world. The world is arranged rationally, since there is moral evidence. Conscience, for example, possesses such moral evidence, which cannot be further decomposed. It acts in a person, prompting certain actions. The same can be said for debt. Many things Kant liked to repeat, they are capable of arousing surprise, admiration, but only a person who has not betrayed his sense of what is due, the person for whom the impossible exists, evokes genuine respect.

Slide 22

Kant rejects religious morality: morality should not depend on religion. On the contrary, religion should be determined by the requirements of morality. A person is not moral because he believes in God, but because he believes in God, which follows as a consequence of his morality. Moral will, faith, desire are a special ability of the human soul that exists along with the ability to know. Reason leads us to nature, reason - introduces us to the timeless, transcendental world of freedom.

Slide 23

Aesthetics The originality of Kant's understanding of the beautiful lies in the fact that the philosopher associates the beautiful with "disinterested," disinterested, pure contemplation: the feeling of beauty is free from the desire for possession, from any thoughts of desire, and therefore it is higher than all other feelings.

Slide 24

The sensation of the sublime is born from a complex dialectic of feelings: consciousness and will are first suppressed by greatness - the infinity and power of nature. But this feeling is replaced by the opposite: a person feels, realizes not his "smallness", but his superiority over the blind, soulless element - the superiority of spirit over matter. The embodiment of the aesthetic spirit - the artist - creates his world freely. The highest creations of artistic genius are endless, inexhaustible in content, in the depth of the ideas contained in them.

Slide 25

Aphorisms live longest when they least care about prolonging life. Punishments given in a fit of anger do not work. Children in this case look at them as consequences, and at themselves as victims of the irritation of the one who punishes.

Slide 26

Have the courage to use your own mind. Education is an art, the application of which must be improved by many generations. Reason cannot contemplate anything, and senses cannot think anything. Knowledge can arise only from their union.

Slide 27

Character is the ability to act according to principles. The ability to ask reasonable questions is already an important and necessary sign of intelligence and discernment. Morality is not a teaching about how we should make ourselves happy, but about how we should become worthy of happiness.

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Slide Description:

The founder of German classical idealism is considered
Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804) -
German (Prussian) philosopher, professor at the University of Königsberg.
All creativity of I. Kant can be divided into two large periods:
subcritical (until the beginning of the 1870s);
critical (early 1870s and up to 1804).

Slide Description:

The most important problems of Kant's philosophical research in the pre-critical period were the problems of being, nature, and natural science. Kant's innovation in the study of these problems lies in the fact that he was one of the first philosophers who, considering these problems, paid great attention to the problem of development.
Kant's philosophical conclusions were revolutionary for his era:
The solar system arose from a large initial cloud of particles of matter rarefied in space as a result of the rotation of this cloud, which became possible due to the movement and interaction (attraction, repulsion, collision) of its constituent particles.
nature has its own history in time (beginning and end), and is not eternal and unchanging;
nature is in constant change and development;
movement and rest are relative;
all life on earth, including man, is the result of natural biological evolution.
At the same time, Kant's ideas bear the imprint of the worldview of that time:
mechanical laws are not originally embedded in matter, but have their own external cause;
this external cause (origin) is God. Despite this, Kant's contemporaries believed that his discoveries (especially about the origin of the solar system and the biological evolution of man) were commensurate in significance with the discovery of Copernicus (the rotation of the earth around the sun).

Slide Description:

In a later, critical period, Kant's interest shifted to questions of the activity of reason, cognition, the mechanism of cognition, the boundaries of cognition, logic, ethics, and social philosophy. The critical period received its name in connection with the title of the three fundamental philosophical works of Kant that were published at that time:
Critique of Pure Reason (1781);
Critique of Practical Reason (1786);
"Critique of the ability to judge" (1790).

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Topic: Ethics of Kant. Criticism of the practical mind

Student

Araztaganova A.M.

Checked

Associate Professor Boyko V.K.

Introduction

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

"Critique of Practical Reason" is Kant's second work after "Critique of Pure Reason", which sets out his doctrine of morality - critical ethics or metaphysics of morals.

The originality of Kant's second "Criticism" from the very beginning was determined by the fact that "practical action" was categorically and uncompromisingly opposed in it to prudent practical action (for the sake of success, happiness, survival, empirical expediency) and was illustrated precisely by examples of avoiding an unworthy deed. Accordingly, the intellectual ability on which the "pure practical action" is based turned out to be deeply different from the intellectual tool that the "practitioner" uses. If the latter relies on "theoretical reason" as a means of calculating expediency or success, then the subject of "practical action" proceeds from the evidence of reason, which directly sees the absolute impossibility of certain decisions and events following from them.

From this followed an important conclusion about the independence of the structure of a genuine human act from the state of a person's ability to cognize. A person would remain faithful to his duty (his consciousness of the unconditional impossibility of performing - or not performing - certain actions), even if he could not know anything at all about the objective prospects for the development of his life situation.

Behind the realm of uncertainties and alternatives, into which Critique of Pure Reason introduced, opened up the realm of clarity and simplicity - the self-contained world of personal conviction. "Critical philosophy" required an awareness of the limitations of human knowledge (and it is limited by scientifically reliable knowledge) in order to make room for a purely moral orientation, for trust in unconditional moral evidence.

Kant himself, however, formulated the main content of his philosophy somewhat differently. "I had to eliminate knowledge," he wrote, "in order to get a place for faith."

Chapter I. Ethics and "Critique of Practical Reason"

In the understanding of ethics as a unique and even - in a certain sense - the highest "epistemology" was the embryo of a really new, and, moreover, significant, thought. Kant introduces the idea of the primacy of "practical" reason over "theoretical".

“Any interest,” Kant asserts, “is ultimately practical, and even the interest of speculative reason is conditioned and acquires full meaning only in practical application” 1. Fichte developed this proposition following Kant. Thus, German classical idealism moved from considering reality only as an object of contemplative cognition to considering what is brought into it and into its cognition by the cognizing subject himself.

The first systematic presentation of ethics was undertaken by Kant in the book "Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals", which was published in 1785. Why did Kant not call his work "criticism" by analogy with the "Critique of Pure Reason"? He explained this by the fact that in ethics the situation is simpler than in epistemology, here such a number of dialectical traps are not prepared for reason as in the field of theory, here even the most ordinary reason can easily achieve a high degree of correctness without any special criticism. On the other hand, such criticism, according to Kant, will be completed only when it becomes possible to show the unity of practical and theoretical reason (that is, morality and science), and in 1785 Kant believed that he was not yet able to solve such a problem. As soon as she was on his shoulder, he sat down at the "Critique of Practical Reason." The book was published in 1788. The content of these two ethical works partially repeats, partially complements each other.

In these works, only the beginnings of the Kantian doctrine of morality are outlined; it will appear in its final form in later works. The construction of this work reveals features parallel to the construction of the Critique of Pure Reason, not to mention the epistemological basis common to both Critics. Finally, drawing on what was developed in both of these treatises justification ethics, Kant sets out - in the "Metaphysics of Morality" - already a system of his ethical views.

Kant nurtured the theory of knowledge for many years, as a result, it arose as a whole, was presented rigorously, harmoniously, systematically. With the theory of morality, the matter seemed simpler, but it turned out to be more complicated: only in old age did Kant create a work where everything was thought out to the end - "The Metaphysics of Morals."

Continuing the tradition of European free-thinking, Kant broke with the religious foundation of morality: it is not the commandments of God, but the duty to humanity that makes us behave morally. However, everything that Kant overthrew in the "Critique of Pure Reason" as absolutely unprovable - the immortality of the soul, free will, the existence of God - is restored in the "Critique of Practical Reason" as postulates that, although they do not expand our knowledge, but in general "give reason has the right to such concepts, to justify even the possibility of which it otherwise could not afford. " 3

In his theory of ethics, Kant asserts the primacy of practical reason over the theoretical itself, the primacy of activity over cognition. In the broadest sense of the word, in the practical sphere of his teaching, he relates ethics, the doctrine of state and law, the philosophy of history and religion. But in the narrow sense of the term practicalintelligence in Kant it means law-making reason, which means that it creates the principles and rules of moral behavior.

Kant's philosophical system is characterized by a compromise between materialism and idealism. Materialistic tendencies in Kant's philosophy are reflected in the fact that he recognizes the existence of objective reality, things outside of us. Kant teaches that there are “things in themselves” that do not depend on the cognizing subject. If Kant had consistently followed this view, he would have come to materialism. But in contradiction with this materialistic tendency, he argued that "things-in-themselves" are unknowable. In other words, he came out as a proponent of agnosticism. Agnosticism leads him to idealism.

Kant's idealism appears in the form of a priori, the doctrine that the basic provisions of all knowledge are pre-experienced, a priori forms of reason.

Space and time, according to Kant, are not objective forms of the existence of matter, but only forms of human consciousness, a priori forms of sensory contemplation. Kant raised the question of the nature of the basic concepts, categories with the help of which people learn about nature, but he also solved this question from the standpoint of a priori. So, he considered causality not as an objective connection, a regularity of nature, but as an a priori form of human reason.

Idealistically, Kant also presented the subject of knowledge. According to the teachings of Kant, the subject of knowledge is constructed by human consciousness from sensory material with the help of a priori forms of reason.

Kant calls this object, constructed by consciousness, nature. Formally, Kant recognizes that cognition has nature as its object, but in essence he opposes nature to the objective world.

Kant's idealistic philosophy also contains valuable examples of dialectics. Kant's merit in the theory of knowledge lies in the fact that he established the insufficiency of the analytical method for science and raised the question of the cognitive role of synthesis in scientific research.

Kant rejected the view, widespread among metaphysicians, that the scientific method is reduced exclusively to analysis. The eminent German philosopher defended the fruitful idea of the fundamental importance of synthesis as a method of scientific knowledge.

Kant's criticism of rational thought had a dialectical character. Kant distinguished between reason and reason; he believed that rational knowledge is superior and dialectical in nature. In this respect, his teaching on the contradictions ("antinomies") of reason is of particular interest. According to Kant, the mind, deciding the question of the finiteness or infinity of the world, its simplicity or complexity, etc., falls into contradictions. Thus, the source of contradictions in all antinomies is, according to Kant, not the contradictory nature of the very subject under discussion, but exclusively subjective errors of our mind.4

Dialectics, according to Kant, has a negative negative meaning: it can be argued with equal conviction that the world is finite in time and space (thesis) and that it is infinite in time and space (antithesis). As an agnostic, Kant mistakenly believed that such antinomies were insoluble. Nevertheless, his doctrine of the antinomies of reason was directed against metaphysics and the very posing of the question of contradictions contributed to the development of a dialectical view of the world.

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In the Critique of Practical Reason, Kant outlined an independent ethics of duty, which underlies such thinking: reason cognizes nature and its phenomena through experience; it cannot be limited by the framework of purely a priori knowledge. But reason can determine the will of a person and his practical behavior. Man is not free from the laws of nature, but thanks to his "knowing" character (man as an individual) he is free and follows within the limits of theoretical reason. The moral law to which he must obey is the categorical imperative. It does not give a person the right to a reward for his morality, but he gives confidence in God as the guarantor of morality.

In his book Critique of Pure Reason, Kant seeks to refute all purely rational evidence for the existence of God. He clearly shows that he has other reasons for believing in God. They were later expounded by him in the Critique of Practical Reason (1786). But now his goal is completely negative.

There are, he says, only three proofs of the existence of God through pure reason. It is ontological proof, cosmological proof and physico-theological proof.

Ontological proof, as he puts it, defines God as ens realissimum, the most real being, that is, the subject of all predicates that belong absolutely to being. Those who believe in the correctness of the proof are argued that since "existence" is such a predicate, this subject must have a predicate of "existence", that is, must exist. Kant objects to this that existence is not a predicate. A hundred thalers, which I can only imagine, can have all the same predicates as a hundred real thalers.

The cosmological proof is that if something exists, then an absolutely necessary Being must exist; now I know that I exist, therefore, an absolutely necessary Being exists, and it must be ens realissimum. Kant argues that the last step in this proof is again ontological proof, and this is therefore refuted by what has already been said.

Physico-theological proof is the usual proof by contradiction, but in metaphysical dress. It claims that the universe is discovering an order that is evidence of the existence of a goal. This reasoning is investigated by Kant with great attention, but he points out that at best it only proves the Architect, not the Creator and, therefore, cannot give a correct concept of God. He concludes that "the only theology of reason that is possible is one that is based on the laws of morality or seeks guarantees in them."

God, freedom and immortality, he says, are the three "ideas of the mind." But, although pure reason leads us to form these ideas, it cannot prove their reality on its own. The meaning of these ideas is practical, that is, associated with morality. The purely intellectual application of reason leads to difficulties. The only correct use is for moral purposes.

The practical application of reason is discussed briefly at the end of the Critique of Pure Reason and more fully in the Critique of Practical Reason. The argument is that moral law requires justice, that is, happiness proportional to virtue. Providence alone can provide it, and it is obvious that it does not provide it in this life. Therefore, there is God and a future life and there must be freedom, because otherwise there can be no such thing as virtue.

In his "Critique of Practical Reason" Kant showed the difference between ideas about what should be, about values and norms, on the one hand, and ideas about things, the world of things, about what is, on the other hand. The world of the ought, as it were, completes the world of the existing, and, therefore, the reliable to the integrity and system, therefore, action, according to Kant, is impossible without including it in the structure of the ought.

Religion in Kant is not the cause of morality, but its consequence. Morality distinguishes man from animal, but where it came from remains for Kant the greatest mystery of the universe. As well as the universe itself. "Two things fill the soul with ever new and growing surprise and awe, the more often, the longer we think about them - the starry sky above me and the moral law in me."

This is one of the concluding paragraphs of the Critique of Practical Reason. (Also famous for the fact that a bronze plaque with this text not far from the grave belonged to the memorial of the philosopher.) But, Kant continues, surprise and awe, although they may inspire research, still cannot replace them. What is required for research? First of all, the scientific method. It is just as necessary for the study of the external universe, as well as for the study of the internal universe. Philosophy should always remain the guardian and mentor of science. The deep conviction of the usefulness of the field of knowledge to which he devoted himself never left Kant.

Chapter II. Brief biography of I. Kant

Immanuel Kant was born on April 22, 1724 into a poor family of a saddle-maker. The boy was named after Saint Emmanuel; in translation, this Hebrew name means "God with us." Under the care of the doctor of theology Franz Albert Schulz, who noticed a talent in Immanuel, Kant graduated from the prestigious Friedrichs Collegium gymnasium, and then entered the University of Königsberg. Due to the death of his father, he fails to complete his studies, and in order to feed his family, Kant becomes a home teacher for 10 years. It was at this time, in 1747-1755, that he developed and published his cosmogonic hypothesis of the origin of the solar system from the original nebula, which has not lost its relevance to this day.

Since 1770, it is customary to count the "critical" period in the work of Kant. This year, at the age of 46, he was appointed professor of logic and metaphysics at the University of Koenigsberg, where until 1797 he taught an extensive cycle of disciplines - philosophical, mathematical, physical.

By this time, a fundamentally important recognition of Kant about the goals of his work had matured: “The long-conceived plan for how to process the field of pure philosophy consisted in solving three problems:

* 1) what can I know? (metaphysics);

* 2) what should i do? (morality);

* 3) what dare I hope for? (religion);

* finally, this was to be followed by a fourth task - what is a man? (anthropology, which I have lectured on for over twenty years). "

During this period, Kant wrote fundamental philosophical works that brought the scientist a reputation as one of the outstanding thinkers of the 18th century and had a huge impact on the further development of world philosophical thought:

* "Critique of Pure Reason" (1781) - epistemology (epistemology)

* "Critique of Practical Reason" (1788) - ethics

* "Critique of the ability to judge" (1790) - aesthetics

Being in poor health, Kant subordinated his life to a harsh regime, which allowed him to outlive all his friends. His accuracy in following the routine became the talk of the town, even among punctual Germans, and gave rise to many sayings and anecdotes. He was not married. They say that when he wanted to have a wife, he could not support her, and when he could, he did not want to. However, he was not a misogynist, he willingly talked with them, was a pleasant socialite. In old age, he was looked after by one of the sisters. Despite his philosophy, he could sometimes display ethnic prejudices, in particular, Judeophobia.

He died on February 12, 1804. Kant was buried at the eastern corner of the north side of the Königsberg Cathedral in the professorial crypt, and a chapel was erected over his grave. In 1924, on the occasion of the 200th anniversary of Kant, the chapel was replaced with a new structure in the form of an open columnar hall, strikingly different in style from the cathedral itself. 5

Conclusion

"Critique of Practical Reason" is Kant's main work, devoted not to the issues of cognitive abilities of reason, but to its practical application, that is, identifying the grounds for determining the will.

The main goal pursued by Kant is to criticize the claims of empirically determined reason for the exclusive determination of will, that is, the target necessity of human behavior, and to prove that practical reason has the ability to formulate a moral law based on the autonomy of human will.

The entire work is divided by Kant into the doctrine of principles (including analytics and dialectics, that is, analysis and reproduction of a holistic view of the functioning of practical reason) and the doctrine of method (treating issues of moral education and exercise).

Kant shows that moral behavior can be based only on the autonomy of the will, that is, on its quality to be good will, acting without any pressure and coercion from its own grounds. In this regard, its justification through references to religion, the will of God, the natural inclinations of a person for pleasure and the pursuit of happiness turns out to be unacceptable, undermining the ability of reason for free self-determination, purity and disinterestedness of moral behavior.

He proclaims the categorical imperative of practical reason - "always act so that the maxim of your will can become the principle of universal legislation", emphasizing the autonomous, free, and at the same time objective, universal and necessary character of the moral requirement.

The central concept of his teaching is duty, which he opposes to action according to inclination, interest, desire for happiness, inherent in man. Moral behavior is not intended to make a person happy, but only to become worthy of happiness. The realization of this possibility, which a person cannot but hope for, Kant transfers to the distant future, thereby making the belief in the immortality of the soul and the existence of God a consequence of his ability to be a moral being.

Nevertheless, Kant, having revealed from different sides the specifics of the moral self-legislation of practical reason, is unable to say anything about its very ability and its origins - how practical reason can formulate goals worthy of a rational being, and on what the obligatory moral law is based.

In conclusion of his work, Kant admits that he is experiencing a feeling of reverence for the greatness of the “starry sky above him and the moral law in it,” which affirms in a person the value of a human person, but the comprehension and explanation of which is still impossible.

Bibliography

Asmus, V.F., Philosophy of I. Kant: scientific literature / V.F. Asmus, M., "Science", 1973 - 531 p.

Gulyga, A.V., Kant: scientific literature / A.V. Gulyga, M., "Young Guard", 1977 - 301 p.

Kant, I., Works in six volumes / scientific literature / I. Kant, M., 1963 - 1966.

Narnsky, I.S., Kant: scientific literature / I.S. Narnsky, M., "Thought", 1976 - 207 p.