Question for reflection

What is common in Freud and Erixon theories, what are their differences?

74 Part I. Beginning

which they can show every time entering into new relations with other people.

In subsequent chapters, we will return to each of the eight stages described by Erickson. This will make a meaningful analysis of some key problems during each period of life. Positive aspects of this theory, as well as its limitations are discussed in more detail in further chapters in the process of consideration of individual stages. On the this moment The main problem as you probably noticed is that this theory is focused on understanding the development of the personality characteristic of Western and a number of other cultures in which individualidentity is given preference compared to collective.It causes irony, as it is known that Erickson traveled a lot and watched representatives of many cultures. Such a "bias" makes his theory far from universal.

As noted in chapter 1, people all over their history have set experiments. However, true experimentation was not applied to study the development and behavior of a person. end XIX. century, when a scientific atmosphere was formed, the dominant position in which, at least in the United States, took strict (traditional) behavior.Representatives of early behaviorism (or behaviorism by the type "Stimulus-reaction", or simply "S-R")it is believed that scientific study deserves only what is directly observation. (Stimulus -this is any event of the environment that the body is able to perceive, such as light or sound; reaction- This is any behavior demonstrated by animals.) Thinking, feelings, knowledge, etc. - These are species invisible behaviorwhich are not measurable to instrumental methods. The initial position of the first bicheaviorism researchers is that it is necessary to limit the study obvious behaviori.e. behavior that can be observed and measured objectively. In their opinion, this is the only way that can turn the psychology into true science. In turn, they believe that the laws of behavior openly apply to the individual throughout its life path. We will begin to consider in detail this direction from the description of the works of two scientists who rank themselves to traditional behaviors. Then we will follow the evolution of biheviorism, which led him to modern stateAnd we will emphasize the role of the "theory of learning" all the time.

Pavlov: Classical Conditioning

Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936) At the beginning of his outstanding scientific career was engaged in the study of digestive processes in animals, for which the Nobel Prize was awarded in 1904. In preparation for its early research, experimental dogs were subjected to tracheotomy.In the throat of each dog, a small tube was introduced surgical path. Containing the dog of the hungry, Pavlov and his assistants could accurately measure the amount of saliva, released when placing food in the mouth of the dog.

However, in the exercise of their experiments, Pavlova attracted the observation made by him that the process of salivation in dogs already taking

Chapter 2. Approaches to Understanding Man's Development 75

Pavlov's experiments aimed at studying salivation in dogs, laid the beginning of the discovery of a phenomenon, known now as a classical conditioning

participation in the experiment began beforewhat food fell to them in the mouth, including then, when Pauls simply approached them or his staff. Study of the consequences of this observation determined the rest of the scientist's career. Pavlov was extremely interested in this phenomenon called them initially the term mental secretionimplied the presence of a hidden mental process. Later he and his numerous followers who studied the phenomenon who had known as Pavlovsky, or classic conditioning(otherwise - the respondent condition; the production of conditioned reflexes), avoided the use of such terms, preferring explanations based exclusively to the incentive observation of incentives and reactions ( detailed description See Rosenzweig, 1963).

So, with classical conditioning, two or more incentives are presented together, and in the brain of the test they begin to be associated with each other. In the study of Pavlov, the Dogs developed a reflex in the form of the beginning of salivation and other preparations for reception in response to such sounds as the ringing of the bell and the click of the metronome. These sounds were constantly combined with food until only the sound (without presentation of food) did not start calling salivation. After that, the experimenters changed the mode of presentation of two incentives and recorded the consequences of this action, namely how quickly the association is created, as far as it is stable, etc.

It is believed that the classical procedure for Pavlov is the main way through which events ambient There are planned or other influence on our development and behavior, especially during childhood. Therefore, in Chapter 3, we will focus more in more detail on classical conditioning and many types of behavior to which it applies. We also consider a modern "cognitive" approach to the principles of its action and to the types of behavior to which it applies and not applicable.

Lecture 6. Sociogenetic development theories

The origins of the socionetic approach go from the Tabula RASA theory arising in the Middle Ages, formulated John Lokke(1632-1704), according to which the human psyche at the moment of birth is a "clean board", but under the influence of external conditions, as well as education, all mental qualities characteristic of him are gradually arising. Locke put forward a number of ideas about the organization of teaching children on the principles of associations, repetition, approval and punishment.

The French philosopher XVIII century was the representative of this direction. Claude Adrian Gelving(1715-1771), which believed that all people are born the same in their natural data and the inequality between them in the field of mental abilities and moral qualities is due only to different external conditions of the medium and various educational impacts.

Sociology ideas were consonant with the ideology prevailing in the USSR until the mid-80s. According to this theory, with the help of targeted education and education, you can form any qualities in a child and behavioral properties. In order to study the child, you need to study the structure of its environment.

The sociogenetic approach is associated with a behavioristic direction in psychology, according to which man is what makes his surroundings from him, Wednesday. The main thought of biheviorism: identifying development with learning, with the acquisition by a child's new experience. American researchers were taken by the idea of \u200b\u200bI.P. Pavlova that adaptive activity is characteristic of all living things. The phenomenon of the conditional reflex was perceived as a kind of elementary behavioral phenomenon. The idea of \u200b\u200ba combination of incentive and reaction, conditional and unconditioned incentives was performed on the fore, the temporal parameter of this connection was allocated. The main theories of biheviorism can be attributed to:

1. The theory of classical and instrumental determination by I.P. Pavlova

2. Associanistic concept of learning D. Watson and E. Gazry.

3. The theory of operant detergent E. Torndayka.

4. Theory B. Skinner. Using reinforcement, you can form any type of behavior.

The idea of \u200b\u200bholding a strict scientific experiment, created by I. P. Pavlov, has entered American psychology, and also to study the digestive system. The first description of I. P. Pavlov was such an experiment in 1897, and the first publication of J. Watson-in 1913. Already in the first experiments, I. P. Pavlova with the extended salivary iron was implemented by the idea of \u200b\u200bcommunicating dependent and independent variables, which It passes through all American studies of behavior and its origin not only in animals, but also in humans. This experiment is inherent in all the advantages of the present natural scientific study, which is so highly appreciated so far in American psychology: objectivity, accuracy (control of all conditions), accessibility for measurement. It is known that I. P. Pavlov persistently rejected any attempts to explain the results of experiments with conventional reflexes of references to the subjective state of the animal.

American scientists perceived the phenomenon of conditional reflex as a kind of elementary phenomenon available to the analysis, something like a building unit, from the set of which a complex system of our behavior can be built. The genius of I. P. Pavlova, according to American colleagues, was that he managed to show how simple elements can be isolated, subjected to analysis and are monitored in laboratory conditions. Development of ideas I. P. Pavlova in American psychology took several decades, and each time the researchers performed one of the aspects of this simple, but at the same time not yet exhausted in American psychology, the phenomenon of the conditional reflex.

In the earliest studies of learning to the fore, the idea of \u200b\u200bcombining incentive and reaction, conditional and unconditioned incentives: the temporal parameter of this connection was allocated. Thus arose an associanistant concept of learning (J. Watson, E. Gazry). J. Watson began "his" scientific revolution, having put forward the slogan: "Enough to learn what a person thinks; let's study what a person does!"

1. Beheviorism

Watson John Brodz

(1878 - 1958). American psychologist, founder of biheviorism (from English. Behavior - behavior), one of the most common theories in the western psychology of the 20th century.

In 1913 His article was published "Psychology from the point of view of a behaviorist", assessed as a manifesto of a new direction. Following this, his books "Behavior: Introduction to Comparative Psychology" (1914), Biheviorism (1925), in which for the first time in the history of psychology, was strongly refuted by the postulate that the subject of this science is consciousness (its content, processes, Functions, etc.).

Being under the influence of the philosophy of positivism, Watson argued as if it was actually actually what could be seen directly. He argued that the behavior should be explained from the relationship between the directly observed impacts of physical stimuli on the body and its directly observed responses (reactions). Hence the main Watson formula, perceived by behaviorism: "Stimulus reaction" (S-R). It has emerged that the processes between the stimulus and the reaction - be it physiological (nervous) or mental - psychology should eliminate from its hypotheses and explanations.

Biheviorism methodologists proceeded from the provision on the most violence of the formation of basic mental processes. Lipsitt and Kay (Lipsitt, Kaye, 1964) conducted experiments to work out conditional reflexes in 20 three-day babies. Ten babies were attributed to the experimental group, and for them 20 times the combination of unconditional (nipped) and conditional stimuli (pure tone) were repeated. Researchers wanted to obtain a sucking reaction on a sound tone, which in vivo causes a nipple. After twenty combinations of stimuli, the infants from the experimental group began to give sucking movements in response to the sound, while children from the control group that were not exposed to combinations of stimuli, did not demonstrate such a reaction. This study shows that learning occurs from the very first days of life. It also suggests that a behavior approach can help in understanding the essence of development and that, using the method of developing conditional reflexes, researchers can explore the ability of infants to handle sensory information long before they collate to speech.

D. Watson The ideas of classical conditioning were proved in its experiments on the formation of emotions. He experimentally demonstrated that it was possible to form a reaction of fear for a neutral incentive. In his experiments, the child was shown the rabbit, which he took in his hands and wanted to stroke, but at that moment he received the discharge of an electric current. Naturally, the child frightened rabbit frightened and starting crying. However, the next time he came again to the animal and received a blow to the current. At the third or fourth time most children, the appearance of a rabbit even in distance caused fear. After this negative emotion was fixed, Watson tried to change the emotional attitude of children once again, forming interest and love for the rabbit. In this case, the child began to show it during tasty food. The presence of this important primary stimulus was an indispensable condition for the formation of a new reaction. At the first moment, the child stopped there and began to cry, but since the rabbit did not approach him, remaining in the distance, at the end of the room, and the delicious food (for example, chocolate or ice cream) was near, the child quickly calmed down and continued. After the child ceased to respond to the appearance at the end of the rabbit room, the experimenter gradually moved the rabbit closer and closer to the child, at the same time adding delicious things to the plate. Gradually, the child stopped paying attention to rabbit and reacted calmly at the end, even when he was located near his plate, he took a rabbit in his arms and tried to feed something tasty. Thus, we argue Watson, our emotions are the result of our habits and can drastically change depending on the circumstances.

Watson's observations showed that if the formed reaction of fear of the rabbit was not reworked into a positive, in the future the similar sense of fear arose in children with the form of other objects covered with fur. Based on this, he sought to prove that people on the basis of conventional reflexes can be formed by a given program resistant affective complexes. Moreover, he believed that the facts open to them prove the possibility of forming a certain, strictly specified behavior model in all people. He wrote: "Give me a hundred children of one age, and after a certain time I will form absolutely identical people from them, with the same tastes and behavior."

The principle of behavior management received in American psychology after Watson works wide popularity. His merit is that he expanded the scope of mental, including injuries of animals and humans. But this innovation, he achieved an expensive price, rejecting as the subject of science. Huge psyche wealth, incorporated to externally observed behavior.

Edwin Ray Gazari

(1886 - 1959). He was a professor at psychology at the University of Washington since 1914 until his resignation in 1956, the main work was the "psychology of learning", published in 1935 and reissued in a new edition in 1952

He suggested the only law of learning, the law of adjacency, which he formulated as follows: "The combination of incentives, which accompanies movement, with its re-appearance tend to cause the same movement. Notice that nothing is said here about the "confirmation waves", or reinforcement, or a state of satisfaction. " In another way, the law of adjacency can be determined as follows: if you have done something in this situation, then the next time you find yourself in the same situation, you will seek to repeat your actions.

E. Gazry explained why, despite the possible truth of the law of arms, the prediction of behavior will always be probably. Although this principle, as soon as it was said, brief and simple, it will not be understood without some explanation. It uses the phrase "tends", because the behavior and any time depends on a large number of various conditions. Contradictory "trends" or incompatible "trends" are always present. The result of the impact of any incentive or pattern of incentives cannot be predicted with absolute accuracy, because there are other incentive patterns. We can express this by saying that the behavior is caused by the entire situation entirely. But, claiming this, we cannot flatter yourself what we did something more than the explanation of the fact that the prediction of the maintenance is impossible. No one has not yet described and no one will ever describe the entire stimulation of the situation entirely or is missing any complete situation in order to talk about it as a "reason" or even as a pretext for delusions a relatively small part of the behavior.

In the last publication, E. Gazry revised his law of adjacentness to clearly: "What is noticeable becomes a signal for what is being done." For Gazari, it was a recognition of the existence of a huge number of incentives faced by the body at any time, and the fact that it is impossible to form associations with all of them. Rather, the body responds selectively only on a small share of encountered incentives, and this is the proportion that is associated with any reaction incentives caused by these incentives. You can pay attention to the similarity between the way of the thoughts of Gazari and the concept of "predominance of elements" Tordayka, who also believed that the organisms react to various manifestations of the environment selectively.

Edward Lee Torndayk

(1874-1949). American psychologist and teacher. President of the American Psychological Association of 1912.

Conducted studies studying the behavior of animals. They were aimed at exit from the "Problem Box". Under this term E. Torndayk meant an experimental device in which experimental animals were placed. If they came out of the box, they received reinforcement of the reflex. The research results were displayed on certain charts, which he called "curves of learning". Thus, the purpose of his research was the study of motor reactions of animals. Thanks to these experiments, E. Torndayk concluded that the animals operate by the method of "samples and errors and random success." These works led it to the theory of confectivism.

E. Torndayk concludes that the behavior of any living being is determined by three components:

1) the situation that includes both external and internal processesaffecting an individual

2) the reaction or internal processes occurring as a result of this impact;

3) a thin bond between the situation and the reaction, i.e. Association. In his experiments, Torndayk showed that intelligence as such and its activity can be studied and without circulation of mind. The emphasis with the establishment of internal relations was transferred to them to establish links between the external situation and movements, which made new trends in associative psychology. Mechanical determinism Torndayk in its theory combined with biological, and then with biopsychic, significantly expanding the region of psychology, previously limited limits of consciousness.

Based on its research, Tordankov brought several laws of learning:

1. The law of exercise. There is a proportional connection between the situation and the reaction to it with the frequency of their repetition).

2. The law of readiness. The condition of the subject (experienced feelings of hunger, thirst) is not indifferent to the development of new reactions. Changing the body's readiness to carry out nerve impulses is associated with exercises.

3. Associative shift law. With a reaction to one particular stimulus of several, acting simultaneously, other stimuli involved in this situation, in the future cause the same reaction. In other words, a neutral incentive associated with the association with meaningful, also begins to cause the necessary behavior. The Torndayk also highlighted the additional conditions for the success of the child's learning - the ease of distinguishing the incentive and reaction and awareness of the relationship between them.

4. The law effect. The last, fourth, the law caused many disputes, since the motivation factor (a factor of a purely psychological orientation). The effect of the effect said that any action that causes pleasure in a certain situation is associated with it and further increases the likelihood of repetition of this action in a similar situation, the displeasure (or discomfort) under action associated with a certain situation leads to a decrease in the probability of committing This act is in a similar situation. This implies that some polar states inside the body are also based on learning. If the actions performed in a certain situation lead to successful results, they can be called satisfying, otherwise they will violate. The concept of successful result Torndayk gives at the level of neurons. With a successful action, the neurons system, which is ready, actually operates, and not inactive.

E. Torndayk, B. Skinner. They identified development with learning.

Burres Frederick Skinner

(1904 - 1990). American psychologist, inventor and writer. There was a huge contribution to the development and propaganda of biheviorism.

Skinner is most known for its theory of operant learning, to a lesser extent, thanks to artistic and journalistic works, in which he promoted the idea of \u200b\u200bwidespread behavior modification techniques developed in behaviorism (for example, programmed learning) to improve society and concept of people as a form of social engineering. Continuing the experiments of D. Watson and E. Torndayka, B. Skiner constructed called the "Skinner Box", which made it possible to accurately measure behavior and automatically submit reinforcement. In the sketch box, reminiscent of a rat or dove cage, there is a metal pedal by clicking on which the animal receives a portion of food into the feeder. With this very simple device, Skinner could conduct systematic observations of animal behavior under various reinforcement conditions. It turned out that the behavior of rats, pigeons, and sometimes people are quite predictable, since they follow certain laws of behavior, at least in this situation. In the experiments of Skinner (as in the ending experiments), the reinforcement usually served food.

The typical Skinner model typically includes the following components: different stimulus, individual reaction and reinforcement.The distinct stimulus usually signals an individual on the occurrence of learning. In the experiments of Skinner, light and sound signals were used as distinct incentives, as well as words. The reaction is the emergence of operant behavior. Skinner called its type of conditioning by the operant conditioning, because the reaction of the individual actuates (operate) the reinforcement mechanism. In completion, the reinforcing stimulus is fed to an adequate reaction. Therefore, reinforcement increases the likelihood of subsequent operant behavior. Opportal behavior can also be taught by causing avoiding when reinforcement is to terminate the impact of an unpleasant incentive. For example, bright light can be turned off, a loud sound is muted, an angry parent is calmed down. Thus, with the operant conditioning, the individual learns the reaction when reinforcement is to stop the impact of an unpleasant incentive.

Skinner has developed a method for generating behavior by consecutive approximations, which constitutes the basis of the operated content. This method is that the whole path from the initial behavior (even before the training) to the final reaction, which the researcher seeks to work out in the animal, is divided into several stages. In the future, it remains only consistently and systematically reinforce each of these stages and thus put the animal to the desired form of behavior. With this method of learning, the animal is rewarded for each action, which brings close to it to the ultimate goal, and it gradually produces a given behavior.

According to Skinner and other behaviorists, this is how most behavioral reactions in humans. From the position of Skinner can be explained very fast learning The child first words (not spread, however, this concept for the development of the language as a whole). At first, when a child is just beginning to pronounce some directed sounds, "me - me" already causes the delight of others, and especially the happy mother, which it seems that the child is calling it. However, soon the enthusiasm of the parents about such sounds cools until the baby does not say "Mo ... Mo". Then these sounds for the newborn stop being reinforced until a relatively self-parting "MO - MO" appears. In turn, this word for the same reasons will soon be changed by the combination of "Moma", and finally, the child will clearly say his first word - "Mom". Nevertheless, the rest of the sounds will be perceived by others only as "children's bowing" in the literal sense of the word, and they will gradually disappear from the "Lexicon" of the newborn. Thus, as a result of selective promotion by family members, the baby discardes the wrong reactions for which it does not receive social reinforcement, and maintains only those that are closest to the expected result.

Opportal reactions in the skinner understanding should be distinguished from automatic, purely reflex reactions associated with unconditional and conditional reflexes. Operant reaction - Action arbitrary and focused. However, Skinner determines the focusing in terms of feedback (that is, the impact on the behavior of its consequences), and not in terms of the objectives, intentions or other internal states - mental or physiological. In his opinion, the use of these "internal variables" in the psychology involves the introduction of dubious assumptions, which do not add anything to empirical laws that bind the observed behavior with the observed effects of the medium. It is these laws that are a real means of prediction and control of human and animal behavior. Skinner emphasized that "the objection against the internal states is not that they do not exist, but that they do not matter for functional analysis." In this analysis, the probability of the operator reaction acts as the function of external influences - both past and real.

In the field of education, Skinner put forward the concept of programmed learning. According to his thoughts, such training can free the student and the teacher from the boring process of simple knowledge transfer: the student will gradually move into the development of a particular topic in its own rhythm and small chains, each of which is supported; From these chambers and consists of a consistent approximation process (Skinner, 1969). However, it was very soon showed that such training quickly reaches its "ceiling", and this is due precisely that only minimal efforts are required from the student and therefore reinforcement soon becomes ineffective. As a result, the student has been rapidly annoying. In addition, to continuously maintain motivation at the student and ordered knowledge of knowledge, apparently, personal contact with the teacher is needed. All this is likely to be explained by the principles underlying social learning, and, in particular, learning through observation.

Unlike previous theories, the source of the child's development is congenital instincts, in the center of the theory of learning is a social environment, the impact of which is formed by a person and are the source of its mental development.

The subject of study of this direction of psychology is not inner world man (not his emotions, experiences or mental actions), and externally observed behavior. Therefore, this direction was the name behaviorism (from the English. Behavior - "Behavior").

The roots of this theory are associated with the name of the Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, which opened the mechanism of conditional reflex. In his famous experiments on Dogs, Pavlov showed that initially neutral incentives for the body (sound, species, odor) acquire physiological importance if they are associated with vital positive or negative reinforcement. For example, the call or the inclusion of a light bulb preceding feeding, through several combinations begin to cause salivation in dogs. If the same signals are combined with negative reinforcement (for example, with a current impact), they will cause a protective reaction.

This mechanism for formation of links between external incentives and reactions (8th) was put by the American scientist J. Watson, the founder of behaviorism, the basis of the formation of human behavior at all and the development of the child in particular. However, this mechanism was significantly expanded and enriched with new concepts.

So, an outstanding American scientist B. Skinner introduced the concept of instrumental (or operant) determine. If there is a link between the stimulus and the reaction in classical conditioning, then with instrumental, certain forms of behavior are associated with subsequent reinforcement. If any sequence of actions causes reinforcement, these actions will be repeated. For example, if the dog every time it becomes on the hind legs and "dancing", give a piece of sugar, it is most likely to repeat this action to get the desired award. This pattern also has a person. When parents award a child for good behavior, this encouragement is considered by behaviorists as a positive reinforcement, which enshrines the desired forms of behavior. Punishment, on the contrary, is a negative reinforcement, which slows down the bad behavior of the child. Thus, the child learns to behave correctly and enshrines socially acceptable forms of behavior.

However, the scheme "Stimulus-reaction" (8th) soon discovered its limitations. As a rule, the stimulus and reaction are in such complex relationshipsIt is impossible to trace the direct connection between them. One of their largest representatives of non-destroyed

E. Tolman introduced a significant amendment into this scheme. He suggested to place between 8 and I am a middle link, or "intermediate variables" (v), as a result of which the scheme acquired the view of the 8th. Under intermediate variables, Tolman understood the internal processes that mediate the action of the incentive, that is, affect external behavior. These include goals, ideas, desires, in a word, the inner mental life of a person. However, these variables themselves are interested in researchers only inspired, as they affect human behavior.

In the 30s of the last century, American scientists N. Miller, J. Dollagor, R. Sira and others made an attempt to translate the most important concepts of psychoanalytic theory into the language of the theory of learning. It was they who introduced the term "social science" into scientific use. On this basis, the concept of social learning is being developed for more than half a century, the central problem of which is the problem of socialization. Transforming Freudovsky ideas, N. Miller and J. Doligin replace the principle of pleasure by the principle of reinforcement. By reinforcement, they call what strengthens the tendency to repeat the reaction. Recognition is the strengthening of the connection between the incentive and the reaction that occurs due to reinforcement. The main forms of social reinforcement are praise, adult attention, their assessment, etc.

The task of parents is to maintain the right, social acceptable behavior of the child and reject unacceptable forms of behavior and thus socialize it. If there is no appropriate reaction in the repertoire of the child, it can be purchased, observing the behavior of the model. Research through imitation in the theory of social learning is the main way to acquire new forms of behavior. A particular emphasis on the role of imitation was made by American psychologist L. Bandura. He believed that the award and punishment was insufficient to teach new behavior. Children acquire new behavior due to the simulation of the model. One of the manifestations of imitation is identification, that is, a process in which a person borrows not only actions, but also the thoughts and feelings of another person acting in the role of the model. Imitation leads to the fact that the child can imagine himself at the place of the model and experience sympathy for this person.

Famous American psychologist R. Sira introduced a diadian principle of study children's DevelopmentAccording to which adaptive behavior and its reinforcements should be studied taking into account the behavior of another partner. The main attention of Siera pays to the influence of the mother on the development of the child. The central moment of learning in his theory is a dependence. Reinforcement always depends on the contacts of the mother, and the child. The latter constantly experiencing addiction from the parent and motivation of dependence (the active requirement of love, attention, affection, etc.) is the most important need to be ignored. At the same time, the development of the child goes along the way to overcome this dependence and changes to its forms. It can be seen that in this approach the theory of social learning is most closely intertwined with psychoanalysis.

The theory of social learning is based on not only the scheme "Styraul-reaction", but also the teaching 3. Freud. They are close in understanding the relationship of the child and society. The child is considered here as a creature, alien society. He enters the society as "rat to a labyrinth", and an adult must hold it on this labyrinth so that as a result he began to look like an adult. The initial antagonism of the child and society unites these two directions and reduces the development of adequate behavioral forms.

The development of a child from the position of biheviorism is a purely quantitative process of learning, that is, the gradual accumulation of skills. This learning does not imply the emergence of qualitatively new mental entities, since it occurs equally at all stages of ontogenesis. Therefore, in behaviorism we are talking not about the mental development of the child, but about his social learning. Estimation, submission, the interests of the child are not subject to research, since they cannot be seen and measure. And for bihevoral psychology, there are only objective methods based on registration and analysis of external observed facts and processes.

This is the strength and weakness of behaviorism. Strong side This direction is that it contributed to psychology clarity, objectivity, "measurement". Thanks to him, psychology turned on the naturally scientific path of development and became an accurate, objective science. The method of measuring behavioral reactions has become one of the main psychology. This explains the vast popularity of behaviorism among psychologists around the world.

The weak side of this concept is to ignore the consciousness of a person, his will and its own activity. According to the theory of behaviorism, classical and operant due to the universal mechanisms for learning, common to humans and animals. At the same time, the learning occurs "automatically": reinforcement leads to "consolidation" in nervous system Successful reactions, regardless of the will and desire of the person himself. From here, the behaviorists draw conclusions that with the help of stimuli and reinforcements you can sculpt any human behavior, since it is rigidly determined by them. In such an understanding, a person is a slave of external circumstances and his past experience.

Unlike the theories considered, in which congenital instincts are considered as a source of child development, the theory of learning comes from the idea that it is the social environment that the impact of which is formed by a person is the main factor of its mental development. The subject of the study of this direction of psychology is not the inner world of man (not its emotion, experience or mental actions), but externally observed behavior. Therefore, this direction got the name behaviorism (from English Words Behavior - Behavior).

The main provisions of this theory are associated with the ideas of the famous Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, which opened the mechanism of conditional reflex. His famous experiments with Dogs Pavlov showed that initially neutral incentives for the body (sound, species, odor) acquire physiological significance if they are associated with vital positive or negative reinforcement. For example, the call or the inclusion of a light bulb preceding feeding, through several combinations begin to cause salivation in dogs. If the same signals are combined with negative reinforcement (for example, with a current impact), they will cause a protective reaction. This mechanism for the formation of links between external incentives and reactions (S - R) was put by the American scientist J. Watson, the founder of behaviorism, the basis of the formation of human behavior in general and the development of the child in particular. However, this formula was significantly supplemented with new factors.

So, an outstanding American scientist B. Skinner introduced the concept of instrumental (or operant) determine. If in a classical understanding, the condition implies the establishment of communication between the incentive and the reaction, then with the instrumental, certain forms of behavior are associated with subsequent reinforcement. If any sequence of actions causes reinforcement, these actions will be repeated. For example, if the dog every time it becomes on the hind legs and "dancing", give a piece of sugar, it is most likely to repeat this action to get the desired award. This pattern is also characteristic of a person. When parents award a child for good behavior, this encouragement is considered by behaviorists as a positive reinforcement, which enshrines the desired forms of behavior. Punishment, on the contrary, is a negative reinforcement, which slows down the bad behavior of the child. Thus, the child learns to behave correctly and the socially acceptable forms of behavior are enshrined.

However, the formula "Stimulus - Reaction" (S - R) soon discovered its limitations. As a rule, the stimulus and reaction are in such complex relations that it is impossible to trace the direct link between them. One of their largest representatives of non-destroyerism E. Tolman supplemented this scheme of the essential component. He proposed to place between S and R average link, or "intermediate variables" (v), as a result of which the formula acquired the following form: S - V - R. Under the intermediate variables, Tolman understood the internal processes that mediate the action of the stimulus, i.e. Influence on external behavior. These include goals, presentations, desires, in a word, the phenomenon of the internal mental life of a person. However, these variables themselves were interested in adherents of biheviorism only inspired, as they influence the behavior of a person.

In the 1930s, American scientists. Miller, J. Dollard, R. Sirs and others made an attempt to translate the most important concepts of psychoanalytic theory into the language of the theory of learning. It was they who introduced into scientific use the concept of "social science". On this basis, the concept of social learning is being developed for more than half a century, the central problem of which is the problem of socialization. Transforming Freudovsky ideas, N. Miller and J. Dolisland replaced the principle of pleasure by the principle of reinforcement. Reinforcement they called what enhances the tendency to repeat the reaction. Recognition is the strengthening of the connection between the incentive and the reaction that occurs due to reinforcement. The main forms of social reinforcement are praise, the attention of adults, their assessment, etc. The task of parents is to maintain the right, socially acceptable behavior of the child, reject unacceptable forms of behavior and thus socialize it. If there is no appropriate reaction in the repertoire of the child, it can be purchased, observing the behavior of the "model". Research through imitation in the theory of social learning is the main way to acquire new forms of behavior. A special emphasis on the role of imitation was made by American psychologist A. Bandura. He believed that the award and punishment was insufficient in order to form a new behavior in a child. Children acquire new behavior due to imitation. One of the manifestations of imitation is identification - the process in which a person borrows not only actions, but also the thoughts and feelings of another person acting as a "model". Imitation leads to the fact that the child can imagine himself at the site of the "model" and experience sympathy for this person.

The well-known American psychologist R. Siers introduced the diady principle of studying children's development to scientific use, according to which adaptive behavior and its reinforcements should be studied taking into account the behavior of another partner. The main attention of Sirs paid the influence of the mother to the development of the child. The main condition for learning in his theory is addicted. Reinforcement always depends on the contacts of the mother and the child. The child is constantly experiencing its dependence on the mother, and the motivation of dependence (the active requirement of love, attention, caress, etc.) is the most important need for a child that cannot be ignored. At the same time, the development of the child goes along the way to overcome this dependence and changes to its forms. It can be seen that in this approach the theory of social learning is most closely intertwined with the ideas of psychoanalysis.

The theory of social learning is based on not only a description of the behavior under the formula "Stimulus - Reaction", but also the provisions of Freud's teachings. Freud and behaviorists coincide not in the problem of sexuality, but against a child and society. The child is considered as a creature, alien society he enters society as a "rat to a labyrinth", and an adult must hold it on this maze so that as a result he has become like an adult. The initial antagonism of the child and society unites these two directions and reduces mental development to teaching acceptable behavioral forms.

The development of a child from the position of biheviorism is a purely quantitative process of learning, i.e. Gradual accumulation of skills. This learning does not imply the emergence of qualitatively new mental entities, since it occurs equally at all stages of ontogenesis. Therefore, in behaviorism it is not about the mental development of the child, but about its social learning. Estimation, submission, the interests of the child are not subject to research, since they cannot be seen and measure. And the adherents of bihevoral psychology considered to use only objective methods based on registration and analysis of external observed facts and processes. This is the strength and weakness of biheviorism ideas. On the one hand, this direction of scientific thought was given psychology of clarity, objectivity, "measurable ™". Thanks to him, psychology turned to the natural science path of development and became an accurate, objective science. The method of measuring behavioral reactions has become one of the main psychology. This explains the vast popularity of behaviorism among psychologists around the world.

On the other hand, behaviorists ignored the meaning of human psyche phenomena (consciousness, his will and their own activity) (this weak side of this direction). According to the theory of behaviorism, classical and operant conditioning are universal learning mechanisms, common to humans and animals. At the same time, learning occurs as it would be automatically: reinforcement leads to "consolidation" in the nervous system of successful reactions, regardless of the will and desire of the person himself. From here, the behaviorists make conclusions that with the help of stimuli and reinforcements, you can "sculpt" any behavior of a person, since it is rigidly determined by them. In such an understanding, a person is a slave of external circumstances and his past experience.

A separate line in the development of behaviorism is a system of views B. Skinner. Berres Frederick Skinner (1904-1990) put forward theory of operant biheviorism.

Based on experimental studies and theoretical analysis of animal behavior, he formulated a provision on three types of behavior: unconditionally reflex, conditional reflex and operant. The last and is the specifics of the teachings of B. Skinner.

The first two types are caused by incentives (s) and are called respondentsresponding. This is the conditional reaction of type S. they constitute a certain part of the repertoire of behavior, but they do not provide adaptation to the real habitat. Really, the device is built on the basis of active samples - the effects of the body on the world. Some of them may randomly lead to a useful result that is consolidated by virtue. A part of such reactions (R), not caused by the stimulus, but the organism allocated ("emitted"), is properly and supported. Their Skinner also called the operant. These are reactions type R.

Opportal behavior suggests that the body actively affects the environment and, depending on the results of these active actions, they are fixed or rejected. According to the skinner, it is these reactions that prevail in the adaptation of an animal: they are a form of arbitrary behavior. Riding on a roller board, a game on piano, learning a letter - these are all examples of the operant actions of a person controlled by their consequences. If the latter is favorable for the body, then the probability of repetition of the operant reaction is enhanced.

After analyzing the behavior, Skinner formulated his theory of learning. The main means of the formation of new behavior is reinforcement. The entire procedure for learning in animals was called "consistent guidance on the desired reaction."

Skinner highlights four reinforcements:

1. Reinforcement mode with a constant relation when the level of positive reinforcement depends on the number of correctly performed actions. (For example, employee paid in proportion to the number of products manufactured, i.e., the more often arises proper reaction The organism, the more reinforcements he gets.)
2. Reinforcement mode with a constant interval when the body receives reinforcement after a strictly fixed time has passed since the previous reinforcement. (For example, an employee pay salary through every month or a student session every four months, while the response rate deteriorates immediately after receiving the reinforcement - after all, the next salary or session will not be soon.)
3. Reinforcement mode with a variable relation. (For example, the reinforcement gain in gambling is unpredictable, is inconsistently, a person does not know when and what the following reinforcement will be, but it hopes for the winnings - this regime significantly affects human behavior.)
4. Reinforcement mode with a variable interval. (After indefinite time intervals, a person receives reinforcements or knowledge of the student controls with the help of "unexpected controls" at random intervals of the time that encourages to observe more high level adjustment and response in contrast to reinforcements with a "permanent interval".)

Skinner highlighted the "primary reinforcement" (food, water, physical comfort, sex) and secondary, or conditional (money, attention, good estimates, affection, etc.). Secondary reinforcements are generalized, unite with many primary: for example, money is a means to obtain a variety of pleasures. An even stronger generalized conditional reinforcement is social approval: for the sake of its receipt by parents surrounding a person seeks to behave well, to abide by social norms, diligently learn, to make a career, look beautiful and so on.

The scientist believed that conditional reinforcing incentives are very important in the control of human behavior, and the perversive (painful or unpleasant) incentives, the punishment is the most general method Control over behavior. Skinner highlighted positive and negative reinforcements, as well as positive and negative punishments (Table 5.2).

Table 5.2.

Skinner fought against using the punishment to control the behavior, because it causes negative emotional and social side effects (fear, anxiety, antisocial actions, lies, loss of self-esteem and confidence). In addition, it only for a while suppresses unwanted behavior, which will again manifest itself if the probability of punishment decreases.

Instead of Aversive Control, Skinner recommends a positive reinforcement as the most effective method To eliminate unwanted and promoting desirable reactions. "The method of successful approximation or formation of behavior" is a positive reinforcement of the actions that are closest to the expected operant behavior. This is approaching step by step: one reaction is fixed, and then replaced by another, closer to preferred (so form speech, labor skills, etc.).

The data obtained in the study of animal behavior, Skinner suffered to the behavior of people, which led to a biology-based interpretation. So, there was a skinner version of programmed learning. Its fundamental limitation is to mention the training for the set of external acts of behavior and reinforcement of the right of them. At the same time, the internal cognitive activity of man is ignored, therefore, there is no teaching as a conscious process. Following the installation of Watson bicheviorism, Skinner eliminates the inner world of a person, his consciousness from behavior and produces a biologicalization of the psyche. Thinking, memory, motifs, and the like mental processes, it describes in terms of reaction and reinforcement, and a person as a reactive being exposed to external circumstances.

The biologicalization of the world of people characteristic of behaviorism as a whole, fundamentally non-conducting differences between man and animal reaches the skinner of its limits. Cultural phenomena turn out to be in his interpretation "intensely invented reinforcements."

To resolve social problems modern society B. Skinner put forward the task of creating technology behaviorwhich is intended to monitor some people over others. Since the intentions, desires, human self-consciousness are not taken into account, the behavior management is not associated with consciousness. Such a means performs control over the reinforcement mode, allowing manipulation by people. For the greatest effectiveness, it is necessary to take into account what reinforcement is most important, significantly, valuable at the moment ( law of subjective reinforcement value), and then provide such a subjectively valuable reinforcement in the case of the proper behavior of a person or threaten its deprivation in case of incorrect behavior. Such a mechanism will allow you to manage behavior.

Skinner formulated the law of the operator condition:

"The behavior of living beings is fully determined by the consequences to which it leads. Depending on whether these consequences will be pleasant, indifferent or unpleasant, living organism will show a tendency to repeat this behavioral act, not to give it any value or avoid repetition in the future. "

Man is able to foresee possible consequences His behavior and avoid those actions and situations that will lead to negative consequences for him. He subjectively assesses the likelihood of their offensive: the more the possibility negative consequences, the stronger it affects human behavior ( law of subjective assessment of the probability of consequences). This subjective assessment may not coincide with the objective probability of consequences, but it affects behavior. Therefore, one of the ways to influence the behavior of a person - "discharge of the situation", "intimidation", "exaggeration of the probability of negative consequences." If a person seems to be the latter, arising from any of his reaction, is insignificant, he is ready to "risk" and resort to this action.