Office of the Russian Empire at the end of the XIX century. The greatest empire in history
8.1 Path selection historical Development Russia at the beginning of the XIXVEK VALEXANDRE I.
8.2 Decembrist movement.
8.3 Conservative Modernization under Nicolae I.
8.4 Public thought of the middle of the XIXVEK: Westerners and Slavophiles.
8.5 Culturerosis in the first half of XIXVEK.
8.1 Choosing the path of the historical development of Russia at the beginning of the XIX century under Alexander I
Alexander I - the eldest son of Paul I, came to power as a result of the palace coup in March 1801, Alexander was dedicated to the conspiracy, and agreed to him, but if the life was saved to his father. The murder of Paul I shocked Alexander, and he vinyl herself in the death of his father until the end of his life.
Characteristic feature of the board Alexandra I. (1801-1825) the struggle of two flows - liberal and conservative and avoiding the emperor between them. In the reign of Alexander I, there are two periods. To the Patriotic War, 1812 lasted the liberal period, after foreign hikes, 1813-1814. - conservative .
Liberal period of board. Alexander was well educated and raised in a liberal spirit. In the manifesto about the eDilance on the throne, Alexander I announced that it would rule "according to the laws and the heart" of his grandmother Catherine Great. They were immediately abolished by Pavel I restrictions on trade with England and annoying regulators in everyday life, clothing, public behavior, etc. The humble diplomas and cities were restored, allowed free entry and leaving the border, the import of foreign books was allowed, an amnesty was carried out by people who were prosecuted under Pavel. Proposals were proclaimed and the right to buy land.
In order to prepare the reform program, Alexander I created Neglass Committee. (1801-1803) - the unofficial body in which his friends entered V.P. Kochubey, N.N. Novosillese, P.A. Stroganov, A.A. Charterian. In this committee there was a discussion of reforms.
In 1802, the colleges were replaced ministries . This measure meted the replacement of the principle of collegiality per union. 8 ministries were established: military, maritime, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, folk enlightenment and justice. A committee of ministers was created to discuss important issues.
In 1802, the Senate was reformed, which became the highest judicial and control body in the public administration system.
In 1803 he was adopted "Decree of free blades". The landowners received the right to let go of his peasants to the will, providing them with the land for redemption. However, the larger practical consequences did not have this decree: for all the reign of Alexander I, there were few more than 47 thousand serfs on the will, that is, less than 0.5% of their total number.
In 1804, Kharkov and Kazan Universities opened, the Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg (from 1819 - University). In 1811, the Tsarskostsky Lyceum was founded. University Charter of 1804 provided universities wide autonomy. Training districts and continuity of 4 education steps (parish school, county school, gymnasium, university) were created. Primary education was proclaimed free and inexpressible. The liberal censorship charter was approved.
In 1808, on behalf of Alexander I, the talented official M.M. Speransky, Ober Prosecutor of the Senate (1808-1811) developed a draft reform. The principle of separation of authorities on the legislative, executive and judicial is based on the principle of separation of authorities. The institution of the State Duma, as the highest legislative authority; The selection of executive authorities. And although the project did not cancel the monarchy and serfdom, in the aristocratic environment, the proposal of the Speransky was considered too radical. The officials and courtiers were dissatisfied with them and achieved the fact that M.M. Speransky was accused of espionage in favor of Napoleon. In 1812, he was resigned and exiled first to Nizhny Novgorod, then in Perm.
Of all the proposals M.M. Speranssky adopted one thing: in 1810, the State Council from the members of the members appointed by the emperor became the highest legislative body of the empire.
The Patriotic War of 1812 interrupted liberal reforms. After the war and foreign hikes, 1813-1814. Alexander's policy is becoming more conservative.
Conservative Board Period. In 1815-1825 in internal politics Alexander I strengthened conservative trends. However, liberal reforms were resumed first.
In 1815, Poland was given a constitution that wearing liberal character and the internal self-government of Poland as part of Russia. In 1816-1819. Fastener law was canceled in the Baltic States. In 1818, in Russia, work began on the preparation of the draft constitution for the entire empire based on the Polish, which was headed by N.N. Novosilleov and the development of secret projects cancellation of serfdom (A.A. Arakcheev). The constitutional monarchy and the establishment of Parliament in Russia was assumed. However, this work was not communicated to the end.
Faced with displeasure of the nobles, Alexander refuses liberal reforms. Fearing to repeat the fate of the Father, the emperor increasingly passes to conservative positions. Period 1816-1825. Call arakhevshchina , those. politics of coarse military discipline. The name of the period received because at this time General A.A. Arakchev actually focused in his hands the leadership of the State Council, the Cabinet of Ministers, was the only speaker Alexander I in most departments. The symbol of the Arakcheevshchina became military settlements, widely introduced since 1816
Military settlements - A special organization of troops in Russia in 1810-1857, in which state peasants enrolled in military settlers combined service with agricultural activities. In fact, the settlers fastened twice - like peasants and as soldiers. Military settlements were introduced in order to reduce the costs of the army and stop recruiting recruitment, since the children of the military settlers became military settlers themselves. The benefit of the idea turned out in the end of mass discontent.
In 1821, the Kazan and St. Petersburg Universities were cleaning. Increased censorship. In the army was restored by sticky discipline. The refusal of the promised liberal reforms led to the radicalization of a part of the noble intelligentsia, the emergence of secret anti-government organizations.
Foreign policy in Alexander I. Patriotic War 1812 The main task of V. foreign Policy During the reign of Alexander I, the containment of French expansion in Europe remained. In politics prevailed two main directions: European and South (Middle Eastern).
In 1801, East Georgia was adopted in Russia, and in 1804 there was an accession to Russia of Western Georgia. The statement of Russia in the Transcaucasus led to war with Iran (1804-1813). Thanks to the successful actions of the Russian army, the main part of Azerbaijan was under the control of Russia. In 1806, a war of Russia began with Turkey, which ended in the signing of a peace treaty in 1812 in Bucharest, according to which the eastern part of Moldova (Earth of Bessarabia) was departed to Russia, and the border with Turkey was established along the river Prut.
In Europe, Russia's task was to prevent French hegemony in the desire. At first, the events were unsuccessful. In 1805, Napoleon defeated the Russian-Austrian troops at Austerlice. In 1807, Alexander I signed a Tilzite peace treaty with France, according to which Russia joined the continental blockade of England and recognized all the conquests of Napoleon. However, the blockade disadvantaged for the Russian economy was not observed, so in 1812 Napoleon decided to start a war with Russia, which even more increased after the victorious Russian-Swedish war (1808-1809) and joining Finland.
Napoleon counted on a quick victory in border battles, and then force to sign a profitable agreement for him. And the Russian troops assumed to take off the Napoleonic Army deep into the country, disrupt its supply and defeat. The French army consisted of more than 600 thousand people, more than 400 thousand participated during the invidence, they included representatives of the conquered peoples of Europe. The Russian army was divided into three parts, located along the borders, with the intention of counter-offset. 1st Army MB Barclay de Tollya numbered about 120 thousand people, 2nd Army P.I. Bagration - about 50 thousand and 3rd Army A.P. Tormassov - about 40 thousand
On June 12, 1812, Napoleon's troops forced the Neman River and entered the Russian territory. The Patriotic War of 1812 began, retreating with battles, Barclay de Tolly and Bagration and Bagration armies were connected under Smolensk, but after stubborn battles, the city was left. Avoiding the general battle, Russian troops continued to retreat. They led the stubborn integriding battles with individual parts of the French, exhausting and depleting the enemy, inflicting significant losses. The guerrilla war unfolded.
Society dissatisfaction with a long-term departure, with whom Barclay de Tolly bought, forced Alexander I to appoint the commander-in-chief of M.I. Kutuzov, experienced commander, student A.V. Suvorov. In the conditions of war acquiring a national character, it was of great importance.
On August 26, 1812, the Borodino battle took place. Both army suffered heavy losses (the French are about 30 thousand, Russians - more than 40 thousand people.). The main goal of Napoleon is the defeat of the Russian army - was not achieved. Russians, without having strength to continue the battle, moved away. After the Military Council in Phils, the commander-in-chief of the Russian army M.I. Kutuzov decided to leave Moscow. By doing the "Tarutinsky maneuver", the Russian army left the persecution of the enemy and was located on vacation and replenishment in the camp under Tarutino, south of Moscow, covering the Tula weapons and southern provisions of Russia.
On September 2, 1812, the French army entered Moscow. However, no one hurried to sign a peace treaty with Napoleon. Soon, the French began difficulties: there was not enough food and ammunition, discipline decomposed. Fires began in Moscow. On October 6, 1812, Napoleon led troops from Moscow. On October 12, Maloyaroslavets, Kutuzov troops met him and after the fierce battle, forced the French to retreat on the ruined Smolensk road.
Moved to the West, losing people from collisions with volatile equestrian squads of Russians, due to diseases and hunger, Napoleon led about 60 thousand people to Smolensk. The Russian army went parallel and threatened to cut off the way to retreat. In the battle on the Berezine River, the French army was crushed. The borders of Russia crossed about 30 thousand Napoleonic troops. December 25, 1812 Alexander I issued a manifesto about the victorious completion of the Patriotic War. The main reason Victory became patriotism and heroism of the people who fought for their homeland.
In 1813-1814. Foreign hikes took place for the Russian army to finally end with French dominion in Europe. In January 1813, she joined the territory of Europe, Prussia, England, Sweden and Austria passed on her side. In the battle near Leipzig (October 1813), the nicknamed "Battle of Peoples", Napoleon was divided. In early 1814, he renounced the throne. In the Parisian peace treaty, France returned to the borders of 1792, the Dynasty of Bourbon was restored, Napoleon was referred to about. Elba in the Mediterranean Sea.
In September 1814, the delegations of winning countries were gathered in Vienna to solve controversial territorial issues. There were serious disagreements between them, but the news of the flight of Napoleon with about. Elbe ("One hundred days") and the seizure of power in France catalyzed the negotiation process. As a result, Saxony moved to Prussia, Finland, Bessarabia and the main part of the Duchy of Warsaw with his capital - to Russia. On June 6, 1815, Napoleon was broken by Waterloo allies and Soslated on about. St. Helena.
In September 1815 was created Sacred Soyuz , which entered Russia, Prussia and Austria. The goals of the Union were to preserve the state borders established by the Vienna Congress, the suppression of revolutionary and national liberation movements in Europe. Russia's conservatism in foreign policy affected the domestic policy, which also increased conservative trends.
Summing up the reign of Alexander I, we can say that Russia is in early XIX. The century could become a relatively free country. The unpretentiousness of society, primarily the highest, to liberal reforms, the personal motives of the emperor led to the fact that the country continued to develop on the basis of the established orders, i.e. conservatively.
We continue to print "the concept of a new educational and methodological complex for domestic history" from the Russian historical society. The fourth section - "The Russian Empire in the XIX-early XX centuries" is focused on the disciples of the ninth grade.
The nineteenth century was the time of social, legal, intellectual, institutional, economic restructuring of the entire European space. The corresponding changes were rapidly occurring in Russia. After the victory in the Patriotic War of 1812, Russia finally became the leading player in the European arena.
Government policy was the most important factor Acceleration of economic development. Gradually, the process of destruction of the personality was happening, the class boundaries were "blurred", including with the assistance of power. However, to full-scale political reform The current government was not fundamentally ready. The preservation of the archaic texture system, the authoritarian model of control slowed down the socio-economic and military-technical development of the country, led to its lag from direct competitors and ended up the cause of defeat in the Crimean War.
Unresolved problems led to the awareness of the power of the need for large-scale reforms (the abolition of serfdom, Zemskaya, urban, judicial, military reforms, education reform). They also provoked the radical circles of the public to develop alternative paths of development of Russia, which implied "dismantling" revolutionary through the historically established system of relations.
It is important to avoid the concentration of attention exclusively on the activities of state power or at the confrontation of it and the "society". The fate of reforms largely depended on the daily interaction of the state with public forces. An example of such interaction and consequence of the incompleteness of the previous transformations became Stolypin reforms.
The main processes of Russia's history unfolded against the background of the social and political struggle, the activity of mass and national movements, sharpened during the crises, including the International (Russian-Japanese war, the first Russian revolution, World War II), in part of the resulting revolutionary shocks of 1917.
In the illumination of the history of Russia XIX-early XX centuries. Special attention is supposed to pay a person, his everyday practices, labor and consumption culture, legal and political culture. It is necessary to illuminate new trends in the culture of various social strata, residents of the city and village, center and various regions of the country. Under the "culture" is understood not only "high" culture (science, literature and art), but also the sphere of everyday life, as well as the "mass culture", the appearance of which was in Russia (as in other countries) is one of the most important aspects Modernization process.
In accordance with the general theoretical foundations of the standard, it is important to show a balanced to the national and confessional policy of the state, avoiding stereotypes (exploitation of the colonies as colonies, on the one hand, and complete harmony of the interests of the center and the outskirts - on the other). Reality left a place and confrontation, and cooperation of national elites.
World of the Russian Empire in the XIX century
Epoch 1812
Alexander I. Liberal Reforms Projects. External and internal factors. MM Speransky. The Patriotic War of 1812 is the most important event of the Russian and world history of the XIX century. Foreign hiking of the Russian army. Increasing the role of Russia in the world after the victory over Napoleon and the Vienna Congress. Liberal and protective trends. Union of salvation, union of prosperity, northern and southern societies: their program and tactics. The first experience of an open public speech: the Decembrist uprising on December 14, 1825. Causes of defeat.
Political regime Under Nicolae I: State Conservatism
Registration of official ideology. Uvrovsky Triad. The problem of the relation "Russian" and European began. State Regulation public Life: Police guard, administrative reforms, codification of laws. Formation of a professional bureaucracy. Enlightened bureaucracy: at the origins of a liberal reformity. Russia and the "Holy Union". Russian-Iranian and Russian-Turkish war. Eastern question. Disintegration of the Vienna system in Europe. Crimean War. Defense of Sevastopol. Paris Congress.
Transformations Alexander II: liberal measures and strong power
Cancellation of serfdom and great reforms of the 1860-1870s: the beginning of the formation of civil society and its structures. Liberal and conservative policy and experience of the West. The main trends of the flame economic development. Railway construction: Strengthening the unity of the Empire. "Dictatorship of the heart": Politics M.T. Loris Melikova.
Multi-vector Empire Policy. Main spheres and directions of geopolitical interests. Russian-Turkish war, the liberation of Bulgaria. Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. Strengthening the status of the Great Power.
Alexander III autocracy
The ideology of the original development of Russia. Reforms and "counter doors". Conservative stabilization policy. Modernization and "catching development". Forced industry development. Financial policy. The increase in the imbalances of economic development.
Local self-government and autocracy: interaction and confrontation. Independence of the court and the royal administration.
Cultural space of the Russian Empire in the XIX century.
National roots of domestic culture and Western influences. The main styles in artistic culture: romanticism, classicism, realism. The golden age of Russian literature. Formation of the Russian music school. Music flowering and theater. Painting: classicism, romanticism, realism. Movements. Architecture: Russian ampir, classicism. Increasing the role of art in public life. Place in world culture XIX century.
Development of science and technology. Geographical expeditions (opening Antarctica). Schools and universities. The rights of universities and the power of the trustees. The formation of national scientific schools and their contribution to world scientific knowledge.
Literature and press. The role of a printed word in the formation of public opinion. Printing and censorship. Structures of everyday life. Folk culture.
Imperial society. Village and city
Rural world - the foundation of the empire
Traditions and innovations in the life of the village. The consequences of the peasant reform of 1861. Community land tenure. Peasant and landowner economy. Cooking "noble nests." Social types of peasants and landowners. Nobleman-entrepreneurs.
City and its inhabitants: Urbanization processes
Moscow and Petersburg: dispute of two capitals. Old and new cities. Industrial, commercial and administrative (provincial and county) centers. The influence of urbanization on traditional cultures of the peoples of the country. The originality of the urban landscape. Typology of citizens. Clauds and new social groups.
Man and Society: Formation of Civil Consciousness
Castly privileges and duty. Overlooking class borders. Western education and an educated minority: the crisis of traditional worldview. Evolution of noble opposition. Formation of generation of enlightened people: from freedom for few to freedom for all.
Main flow of social thought
Western and Slavic movie. "The Ruisers of the Dum" and "New People": the formation of ideology and ethics of the left radicalism. Popolis and Social Democrats. "Reaction" and conservatism: attempts to dress up. Poreless liberalism. Zemskaya "Fron", underground, emigration: forms of political opposition. Intelligentsia and its characteristics. Public movement, civil initiatives and formation of public policy.
Ethnocultural appearance of the Empire
The space of the empire. Peoples of Russia
Expanding government borders in the XIX century. Features of administrative management in the regions. Attachment Finland. Creation of the kingdom of Polish. Polish uprisings (1830-1831, 1863). Accession of Georgia and Transcaucasia. Caucasian war. Accession of Central Asia. Main regions of the country (European North, Volga region, Ural, Siberia and the Far East, Caucasus, Central Asia). The role of national regions in the life of the Empire. The interaction of national cultures and peoples.
National Religious Features
The Russian Empire is a polyethnic and multi-condation state. Orthodox church and major confessions (Islam, Judaism, Buddhism). National policies and fate of the peoples of Russia.
Empire crisis at the beginning of the twentieth century
Dynamics and contradictions of national development
The economic growth. New geography of the economy. Urbanization and appearance of cities. Domestic and foreign capital, its role in the industrialization of the country. Russia is the global exporter of bread. Agrarian question.
Demographics, social stratification. Decomposition of class structures. Formation of new social strata. Bourgeoisie. Workers: Social characteristics and struggle for rights. Medium urban layers. Intelligentsia. Types of rural land tenure and economy. Landowners and peasants. Shifts in the peasant consciousness and psychology.
Imperial Center and National Regions. Ethnic elites and national-cultural movements. National Party and Fractions in the State Duma. Orthodox Church and traditional Religions of Russia in the conditions of a changing society.
Russia in the system of international relations. Politics in the Far East. Russian-Japanese war of 1904-1905.
The first Russian revolution. Start of parliamentarism
The struggle of professional revolutionaries with state structures. Political terrorism. Forms of social protests in Russia late XIX-early XX century.
The beginning of the first Russian revolution. "Bloody Sunday." Performances of workers, peasants, middle urban layers, soldiers and sailors. "Boyloginsky constitution". All-Russian October political strike. Manifesto 17 October 1905.
Formation of a multi-party system. Political parties and mass movements. Governance games in the fight against the revolution. Liberal parties. Left parties and organizations. National Party. Tips and trade unions. December armed uprising.
Electoral law on December 11, 1905. Election campaign In the I State Duma. The main state laws on April 23, 1906. Activities I and II of the State Duma: Results and lessons.
Society and power after the revolution
Revolution Lessons: Political Stabilization and Social Transformations. P.A.Stolapin: System Reform Program, Scale and Results. Nicholas II and his environment. The incompleteness of transformations and increasing social contradictions. III and IV State Duma. Idean-political spectrum. Public and social lift.
« silver Age»Russian Culture
New phenomena B. artistic literature and art. Worldview values \u200b\u200band lifestyle. Poetry of the beginning of the XX century. Painting. "World of Art". Architecture. Sculpture. Drama Theater: Traditions and innovation. Music. "Russian seasons" in Paris. The origin of Russian cinema.
The discovery of Russian scientists. Achievements of humanitarian sciences. Formation of the Russian philosophical school. The contribution of Russia began XX century. to world culture.
Education and science. Education and enlightenment: an attempt to overcome the gap between the educated society and the masses.
Concepts and terms:
Modernization, industrialization, urbanization, autocracy, bureaucracy, Slavophilism, Western, theory of official nationality, population, nihilism, liberalism, conservatism, socialism, radicalism, anarchism, marxism, nationalism, nation, multiparty, constitutionalism, parliamentarism, revolution, classicism, ampir, Romanticism, symbolism.
Personalia:
Emperors: Alexander I, Nikolai I, Alexander II, Alexander III, Nicholas II.
State and military figures: M.M.Stransky, A.A.Arakcheev, M.I. Kutuzov, M.B. Barklay de Tolly, P.I. Bagrition, S.S. Yuvarov, A.K. Benkendorf, P.D. Kiselev, V.A. Kornilov, P.S.Nakhimov, Vel.Kn. Konstantin Nikolaevich, N.A. Milutin, D.A. Miliktutin, M.T.Loris-Melikov, P.A.Valuyev, M.D. Scobel, K.P.Pobedonossev, S.Yu.Vitte, V.K. . Leve, P.A.Stolıpin, S.O. Makarov.
Public figures: P.I. Testor, K.F. Yelelev, N.M.Muraviev, P.Ya. Schadaev, A.S. Leakov, I.S. Sksakov, K.S.Ksakov, I.V. Kireevsky, N. Ya.Danilevsky, A.I.Grenz, P.L. Lavrov, P.N. Tkachev, M.A. Bakunin, S.L.Perovskaya, B.N. Chicherin, K.D. Kowelin, M.N. Katkov, K.N. Leontyev, G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Zasulich, G.A.Gapon, V.M.Purishkevich, V.V. Shulgin, P.N. Mimilyukov, P. B.struv A.I.Guckov, M.V. Urzianko, V.M. Chernov, B.V. Savinkov, Yu.O. Martov, V.I. Lenin.
Cultural figures: G.R. Derzhavin, V.A. Zhukovsky, I.A. Krylov, E.A. Bratsky, A.S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, V.G. Belinsky, N.V.Gogol, I.S.Turgenev, I.A. Throtharov, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M.Dostoevsky, N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A.Nekrasov, F.I. Tyutchev, A.A.Fet, A.P.chekhov, I.A. Bunin, D.S. Melezhkovsky, A.A. Block, O.E.Madelshtam, M.I.TSvetaeva, V.V. Majakovsky, V.S. Solviev, S.N. Bulgakov, N.A. Bardyaev, K.I. SROSI, A.N.Voronichin, K.A.Ton, F. A.Shettel, K.P. Brulylov, I.N. Kramskaya, O.A. Kiprensky, V. A. Tropinin, V.G. Monov, I.E. Pepin, V.M.vasnetsov, V.A. Serov, M.A.Vrubel, M.I. Glinka, A. S. Dargomyzhsky, N.G.Rubinshtein, P.I. Tchaikovsky, M.P. Musorovsky, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, S.V. Rachmaninov, A.N.Skryabin, F.I.Shalyapin, S.P. Dyagilev, M. Veipa, Seraphim Sarovsky, Metropolitan Filaret (Drozdov), Metropolitan Macarium (Bulgakov), Ambrose Optina.
Science figures: N.M. Karamzin, N.I.Lobachevsky, D.I. Mendeleev, N.N.zinin, N.D. Zelinsky, P.N. Yablokkov, A.N.Lodigin, A.S. Popov, N.Ipirogov, I.I.Mechnikov, I.P. Pavlov, P.N. Lebedev, I.M. Schechenov, K.A.Timiryazev, M.M. Kovalevsky, T.N.Granovsky, M.P. Podogodin, S.M.Solviev, V.O. Klechevsky, A.A.Shakhmatov, N.P. Pavlov-Silvansky, L.P. Carsawin.
Industrialists and patrons: P.M. and S.M. Tretyakov, pp and V.P. Ryabushinsky, S.I. Mamontov, Morozovy Dynasty, S.I. Bichkin, A.A. Bahrushin.
Travelers: I.F. Trruzenshtern, F.F. Bellinghausen, Yu.F. Lisyansky, M.P.Lazarev, G.I.nevela, N.M. Przhevalsky.
Events / dates:
1801-1825 years - The Board of Alexander I
1811 year - the establishment of the Tsarskostsky Lyceum
1812. - Bucharest World with the Ottoman Empire
1813-1814 years - Foreign hikes of the Russian army
1815 year - Vienna Congress
1817-1864 - War in the North Caucasus
1821 year - Education of the Northern and South Societies
1824 - Opening of the Small Theater in Moscow
1825 year - Opening of the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow
1825-1855 years - The Board of Nicholas I
1826 year - Opening of non-child geometry N.I.Lobachevsky
1828 year - Turkmannya world with percia
1829 year - Adrianopol world with the Ottoman Empire
1837-1841 - Reform of management of state peasants P.D.Kislev
1853-1856 years - Crimean War
1856 year - Paris Treaty
February 19, 1861 - Edition of the manifesto on the liberation of peasants and "Regulations on the peasants who came out of serfdom"
1862 year - Institution of the St. Petersburg Conservatory
1863-1864 - uprising in Poland
1864 year - Judicial Reform
1864 year - zemskoy reform
1866 year - Institution of the Moscow Conservatory
1869 year - Opening of the Periodic Law of the Chemical Elements D.I. Ivelaeev
1870 - The emergence of the "Partnership of Mobile Art Exhibitions"
1870 - City reform
1877-1878 years - Russian-Turkish war
1878 year - Berlin Congress
1881-1894 - The Board of Alexander III
1881 year - the publication of the "Regulations on measures to protect state order and public peace"
1884 year - publication of a new university charter
1890 year - publication of the new Zemsky
1891-1892 years - Hunger in Russia
1892 year - Creating a Tretyakov Gallery
1894 year - Conclusion of the Union with France
1894-1917 - The Board of Nicholas II
1897 year - Introduction of the Golden Ruble
1898 - Education of the Moscow Art Theater
1904-1905 years - Russian-Japanese war
August 6, 1905 - Manifesto on the establishment of the Law of the State Duma
October 17, 1905 - The Highest Manifesto on Giving Freedomies and the Institution of the State Duma
February 20 - June 3, 1907 - Activities of the State Duma and the publication of electoral law June 3, 1907
1907 year - The final design of the Entente
1907-1912 - work III of the State Duma
1912-1917 - work of the IV State Duma
Territory and population.
At the beginning of the XIX century. The territory of Russia amounted to more than 18 million km2, and the population is 40 million people. The Russian Empire was a single territory.
The bulk of the population is in the central and western provinces; On the territory of Siberia - just over 3 million.
Human. And in the Far East, the development of which only began, the deserted lands stretched.
The population differed on national, estate and religious affiliation. The peoples of the Russian Empire: Slavic (Russian, Ukrainians, Belarusians); Turkic (Tatars, Bashkirs, Yakuts); Finno-Ugors (Mordva, Komi, Udmurts); Tongussian (EVENA and Evenki) ...
More than 85% of the population of the country professed Orthodoxy, a significant part of the peoples - Tatars, Bashkirs, and others - were followers of Islam; Kalmyks (Low Globes) and Buryats (Transbaikalia) adhered to Buddhism. Many peoples of the Volga region, the North and Siberia retained pagan beliefs.
At the beginning of the XIX century. The Russian Empire includes countries of Transcaucasia (Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia), Moldova, Finland.
The territory of the empire shared on the province, counties and parish.
(In the 1920s, the province in Russia was transformed into the edges and regions, the counties - to the districts; parliament - rural areas, the smallest administrative-territorial units, were abolished during the same years). In addition to the provinces, there were several governorate-general, including one or more provinces or regions.
Political system.
The Russian Empire has remained an autocracy monarchy in the entire XIX century. Should be observed the following conditions: The Russian emperor was obliged to confess to Orthodoxy and get the throne as a legal heir.
In the hands of the emperor, all power in the country was focused. At his disposal was a huge number Officials who presented great strength to the bureaucracy.
The population of the Russian Empire was divided into class: non-detrunities (nobility, clergy, merchants) and submitted (meshness, peasantry, Cossacks). Belonging to the estate was inherited.
The most privileged position in the state occupied the nobility. The most important privilege was the right to ownership of serfs.
Smallopomy (less than 100 shower of peasants), the overwhelming majority;
Large competition (over 1 thousand shower of peasants) there were approximately 3,700 families, but they had half of all the fortress peasants. Among them were stood with Sheremetev, Yusupov, Vorontsov, Gagarins, Golitsyn.
In the early 1830s, 127 thousand noble families were numbered in Russia (about 500 thousand people); Of these, 00 thousand families were the owners of serfs.
The composition of the nobility was replenished at the expense of representatives of other class groups who managed to advance by service. Many nobles led the traditional lifestyle described by Pushkin in the novel "Eugene Onegin". However, many young nobles affected the influence of the ideas of the enlightenment, the sentiments of the Great French Revolution.
At the beginning of the XIX century. The free economic society founded in 1765 continued. It united major practitioners, naturalists, retracting them into solving economic problems, announcing competitive tasks (preparation of beets, tobacco production in Ukraine, improving the treatment of peat, etc.
However, Barskaya psychology and the opportunity to enjoy cheap fortress work limited business manifestations in the noble environment.
Clergy.
The privileged estate was the clergy.
At the beginning of the XVIII century. The nobility was forbidden to join the spiritual estate. Therefore, the Russian Orthodox clergy in socially socially - In the overwhelming majority - stood closer to the lower layers of the population. And in the XIX century. The clergy remained a closed layer: the children of priests were trained in the Orthodox diocesan schools, seminary, married the daughters of the people of spiritual title, continued the case of fathers - service in the church. Only in 1867 to enter the seminary was allowed the young men of all classes.
Part of the clergy received state salary, but most priests existed due to the pleasants of believers. The lifestyle of the rural priest was little difference from the life of the peasant.
The community of believing small territories was called the arrival. Several parishes were a diocese. The territory of the diocese, as a rule, coincided with the provincial. The highest organ of church administration was the Synod. Its members were appointed by the emperor from among the bishops (the heads of the Diocese), and the newsletter stood a secular official - Ober-Prosecutor.
The centers of religious life were monasteries. Troyce-Sergiyev, Alexander Nevsky Lavra, Optina Desert (in the Kaluga province), etc.
Merchants.
Mercury depending on the size of the capital was divided into closed groups - Guild:
The merchants of the 1st Guild had preemptive right conduct foreign trade;
The merchants of the 2nd Guild led a major internal trade;
The merchants of the 3rd Guild were engaged in small urban and county trade.
Mercury was freed from the filings, corporal punishments; On the merchants of the first two guilds did not spread the recruit meal.
The merchants either invested their capital and produced, or allowed to "benogenous things."
Among the Russian bourgeoisie, merchants prevailed: merchants - wealthy peasants who received special "tickets" to trade law. In the future, a merchant or a rich peasant could become a manufacturer or a manufacturer who invests its capital in industrial production.
Craftsmen, small traders, home shops and restaurants, employees belonged to an unprivileged class - mesh. In the XVII century They were called landing people. Promenban was paid by grades, put recruits into the army and could be subjected to corporal punishments. Many breasts (artists, singers, tailors, shoemakers) joined Artel.
Peasants.
The most numerous estate was the peasantry, to which more than 85% of the country's population.
Peasants:
State (10 - 15 million) - stateless, that is, belonged to the treasury, considered "free rural ordinary people", but who carried out natural subsidy in favor of the state;
Landlord (20 million) - owned, serfs;
Specific (0.5 million) - belonging to the royal family (felt lifts and government anemas).
Half of all peasants constituted landlords (serfs) peasants. The landowner could sell them, to give, pass by inheritance, impose on them a duty at their own discretion, dispose of the property of peasants, regulate marriages, punish, link to Siberia or donate out of turn into recruits.
Most of all serfs numbered in the central provinces of the country.
It was not at all the serfs in the Arkhangelsk province, in Siberia from the number barely exceeded 4 thousand people.
Most of the landlord peasants of the Central Industrial Gubniy paid the lifts. And in the agricultural areas of the Black Earth and Volga provinces, in Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine - almost all landlord peasants were worked out by the Barchina.
In search of earnings, many peasants left the village: they were engaged in crafts, others went on manufactory.
There was a process of stratification of the peasantry. Gradually allocated independent peasants: the usurists, buyers, merchants, entrepreneurs. The number of this village top was still insignificant, but its role is great; The rustic rustic rogue often held a whole district in Kabal. In the treasury village, the bundle manifested more than in the landlock, and in the landowner - stronger among the rural peasantry and weaker among the bargaining.
At the end of the XVIII - at the beginning of the XIX century. In the midst of the fortress peasants, entrepreneurs were distinguished, subsequently those who became the Dynasties of the famous manufacturers: Morozov, Huchkov, Malini, Ryabushinsky.
Peasant community.
In the XIX century, primarily in the European part of Russia, the peasant community remained.
The community (peace) seemed to be rented by the owner (landlord, treasury, specific departments) land, and the peasants-community users used it. The field sections of the peasants received equal (in terms of the number of eaters of each yard), while they were not given a land share on women. In order to comply with equality, periodic redistributes of the Earth have obedient (for example, in the Moscow province, the redels were performed 1 - 2 times in 20 years).
The main document proceeding from the community was the "verdict" - the decision of the peasant gathering. The gathering on which Men-Communities gathered, solved the issues of land use, choosing the headman, the appointment of guardian of the orphans and others. Neighbors helped each other and difficulty and money. The fortress peasants depended from the barin, and from the barbecue. They were "connected by hand and legs."
Cossacks.
A speciallysis group was Cossacks, which not only carried military service, but also engaged in agriculture.
Already in the XVIII century. The government fully subordinate to the Cossack Volinets. Cossacks were enrolled in a separate military estate, which were attributed to individuals from other classes, most often - state peasants. The authorities have formed new Cossack troops for the protection of borders. By the end of the XIX century. In Russia, there were 11 Cossack troops: Don, Teresk, Ural, Orenburg, Kuban, Siberian, Astrakhan, Zabaikalskoye, Amur, Semirechensk and Ussuriyskoye.
Due to revenues from his farm, the Cossack was to completely "gather" for military service. He served with his horse, outfit and cold weapons. At the head of the troops stood a mad (appointed) Ataman. Each village (village) was elected by the Stanic Ataman. Ataman of all Cossack troops was considered the heir to the throne.
Socio-economic development of the country.
By the end of the XVIII century. In Russia, the domestic market is formed; Foreign trade becomes more and more active. The serfdom, drawn into market relations, is modified. As long as it was natural, the needs of the landowners were limited by what was produced on their fields, vegetables, livestock courts, etc. Operation of the peasants had clearly indicated limits. When it became a real opportunity to turn the products produced in the goods and get money, the needs of the local nobility begin to grow uncontrollably. The landowners rebuild their farm so as to maximize its productivity by traditional, serfdom.
In the black earth areas that gave excellent yields, the enhancement of operation was expressed in expanding the Bark scarce through the peasant posts and the increase in the barbecue. But this rooted the peasant economy. After all, the peasant handled the land in the land, using his inventory and his cattle, and he himself represented value as an employee's insight, because he was full, Silen, healthy. The decline of his farm beat and on the economy of the landlord. As a result, after a noticeable rise at the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries. The landowner economy gradually falls into the strip of hopeless stagnation. In the Non-Earth region, the facilities made an increasing profit. Therefore, the landowners were prone to turn their farm. Strengthening the exploitation of peasants was expressed here in a constant increase in cash loss. Moreover, it is often that the lifts were installed above the real profitability of the Earth allocated to the peasant in use: the landowner hoped to earn its fortress on the expense of fishing, waste - work in factories, manufactory, in various fields of urban economy. These calculations were fully justified: in this region in the first half of the XIX century. Growing cities, the factory production of a new type is developed, which is widely used by Wolnoname labor. But attempts to use these conditions to increase the profitability of the farm, led to him self-dispersion: increasing the monetary lifts, the landowners inevitably leave the peasants from the ground, turning them partly in artisans, in part of the voltage workers.
In an even more difficult situation, the industrial production of Russia was. At this time, the decisive role was played inherited from the XVIII century. Industry of old, serf type. However, she did not have incentives for technical progress: the amount and quality of products were regulated from above; The number of attributed peasants was strictly suitable for the established production volume. The fortress industry was doomed to stagnation.
At the same time, enterprises of other type appear in Russia: they are not related to the state, they work to the market, use free-controlled labor. Such enterprises arise primarily in the light industry, the products of which already have a massive buyer. Their owners are getting rich fisosals; And there are peasants-peasants work here. Behind this production was the future, but the domination of the serf system was shy. The owners of industrial enterprises usually were in the fortress dependence and were forced to be a significant part of the income in the form of a lifestyle to give the owners of landowners; The workers are legally and in essence they remained the peasants who sought, earning on the lifts, return to the village. The growth of production was hampered by a relatively narrow market of sales, the expansion of which, in turn, was limited to serfs. So, in the first half of the XIX century. The traditional economy system has obviously slowed down the development of production and prevented the establishment of new relations in it. The serfdom turned into an obstacle to the normal development of the country.
In the new, XIX century, the Russian empire entered the powerful power. In the Russian economy, the capitalist structure, but still the defining factor of the country's economic life remained the noble land tenure, which was connected during the reign of Catherine II. The nobility expanded its privileges, only this "noble" class belonged all the Earth, a considerable part of the peasants fell into fortress slavery was subordinated to him on the humiliating conditions. The nobles received a corporate organization that had a great influence on the local administrative apparatus. The authorities vigorously followed the public thought. They betrayed the Court of Volnoduum - revolutionary A.N. Radishcheva - the author "Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow", and then sharpened him in the distant Yakutsk.
A peculiar brilliance of Russian autocracy gave progress in foreign policy. The boundaries of the Empire during almost continuous military campaigns were spread: in the West, Belarus, Right-Bank Ukraine, Lithuania, South of Eastern Baltic States, were included in the sections of Poland, and after two Russian-Turkish wars and almost the entire North Caucasus. The inner position of the country meanwhile was fragile. Finance experienced a threat to constant inflation. The output of the assemilments (since 1769) overlap the reserves of silver and copper coins accumulated in credit institutions. The budget, although it was reduced without a deficit, was maintained only by internal and external loans. One of the reasons for the financial difficulties was bought not so much permanent costs and the content of the expansioned administrative apparatus, how much is the increase in the arrears of the peasants. Farm and hunger was repeated for individual provinces every 3-4 years, and in general the country every 5-6 years. Attempts by the government and individual nobles increase the marketability of agricultural production due to the best agricultural engineering, which was concerned about the free economic created in 1765, often only increased the barland oppression of the peasants, to which they were answered by unrest and uprisings.
The estate system, which before that existed in Russia, gradually broke itself, especially in cities. Mercury no longer controlled the entire trade. Among the urban population, classes characteristic of capitalist society were increasingly clearly distinguished, - bourgeoisie and workers. They were formed not on legal, but on a purely economic basis, which is typical of capitalist society. Many nobles were found in the ranks of entrepreneurs, merchants, rejected the innings and peasants. Among the workers were dominated by peasants and incense. In 1825, there were 415 cities and Postedies in Russia. Many small towns had agricultural character. Gardening was developed in the mid-Russian cities, wooden buildings prevailed. Because of frequent fires, the whole cities were devastated.
The mining and metallurgical industry was located mainly in the Urals, Altai and Transbaikalia. Petersburg, Moscow and Vladimir Province, Tula, were the main centers of metalworking and textile industry. By the end of the 20s of the XIX century, Russia imported coal, Steel, chemical products, linen fabrics.
Some factories began using steam engines. In 1815, in St. Petersburg, the first domestic motor ship "Elizabeth" was built on the Machine-Building Plant Berd. Since the middle of the XIX century, an industrial coup has begun in Russia.
System of serfdom brought to the limit to the limit turned into a real "powder cellar", under the building of the powerful empire.
The beginning of the reign of Alexander I. The very beginning of the XIX century was marked by a sudden change of persons on the Russian throne. Emperor Paul I, Samodor, Despot and Neurasthenik, on the night of March 11 to 12, 1801 was removed by conspirators from the highest nobility. The murder of Paul was sacred from the knowledge of his 23-year-old son Alexander, who entered on March 12 on the throne, stirring through the Father's corpse.
Event March 11, 1801 was the last palace coup in Russia. It completed the history of the Russian statehood of the XVIII centuries.
With the name of the new king, everyone connected hopes not the best: "Bowls" to weaken the landlord of the oppression, "tops" - for even greater attention to their interests.
The nobility to know that Alexander I planted on the throne, pursued the old tasks: to preserve and strengthen the autocratic system in Russia. Social nature of autocracy remained unchanged as the dictatorship of the nobility. However, a number of threatening factors threatened by the time forced the Alexander government to look for new methods for solving old tasks.
Most more nobles worried the growth of the discontent "bottoms". By the beginning of the XIX century, Russia was a power, unawartlessly stretching at 17 million square meters. km from Baltic to Okhotsk and from white to the Black Sea.
About 40 million people lived in this space. Of these, Siberia accounted for 3.1 million people, the North Caucasus - about 1 million people.
The central provinces were most tightly populated. In 1800, about 8 people per quarter consisted of the population's density. mile. South, north and east of the center, the population density decreased sharply. In the Samara Volga, the lower times of the Volga and on the Don, it was not more than 1 person at 1Q. mile. Even less population density was in Siberia. From the entire population of Russia, the nobles were 225 thousand, clergymen - 215 thousand, merchants - 119 thousand, generals and officers - 15 thousand and the same government officials. In the interests of these approximately 590 thousand people, the king ruled his empire.
The huge majority of other 98.5% were powerless fasteners. Alexander I understood that although slaves of his slaves squeeze a lot, even their patience there is a limit. Meanwhile, the oppression and abuse was then infinite.
It suffices to say that the born in the areas of intensive farming was 5-6, and sometimes all 7 days a week. The landowners ignored the decree of Paul I about the 3-day barbecue and did not comply with it until the cancellation of serfdom. The serfs then did not consider people in Russia, they were forced to work as a major cattle, sold and bought, exchanged on dogs, lost in the cards, put on a chain. That was not possible to endure. By 1801, 32 of 42, the provinces of the Empire were covered with peasant unrest, the number of which exceeded 270.
Another factor influencing the new government was the pressure from the noble circles demanding to return to them the privileges given by Catherine II. The government was forced to take into account the distribution of liberal european trends Among the noble intelligentsia. The needs of economic development forced the Government of Alexander I to reforms. The domination of serfdom, in which the manual labor of millions of peasants was a gift, prevented technical progress.
Industrial coup - the transition from manual production to the machine, which began in England from the 60s, and in France from the 80s of the XVIII century - in Russia it became possible only since the 1930s of the next century. Market relations between various regions of the country were sluggish. More than 100 thousand villages and villages and 630 cities scattered across Russia did not know how and what the country lives, and the government about their needs and know did not want. Russian routes of communication were the most extended and least landscaped in the world. Until 1837, Russia did not have railways. The first steamer appeared on the Neva in 1815, and the first steam locomotive only in 1834. The narrowness of the domestic market slowed down the growth of foreign trade. Russia's share in the global turnover was only 3.7% by 1801. All this has determined the nature, content and methods of the internal policy of tsarism under Alexander I.
Domestic policy.
As a result of the palace coup on March 12, 1801, the eldest son of Paul I, Alexander I, was entered into the Russian throne. Inside, Alexander I was not less despot than Paul, but he was decorated with an external gloss and courtege. The young king is not an example to his parent, was distinguished by an excellent appearance: high, slim, with a charming smile on an angel like a similar person. In published on the same day, Manifesto, he announced his commitment to the political course of Catherine II. He began with the fact that he was restored by Paul's complained diplomas of 1785 nobility and cities, freed the nobility and clergy from corporal punishment. Before Alexander I stood the tasks of improving the state system of Russia in a new historical setting. To carry out this course, Alexander I approached his youth's friends - European educated representatives of the younger generation by Rodovit's nobility. Together they formed a circle, which was called the "unlaspped committee." In 1803, a decree on "free blades" was adopted. According to which the landowner could, if desired, could free his peasants, having gone their land and receiving a redemption from them. But the landowners were in no hurry to free their fortress. Alexander for the first time in the history of the autocracy discussed the question of the possibilities for the abolition of serfdom, but recognized him not yet matured for the final decision. Breeway than in the peasant question, there were reforms in the field of enlightenment. By the beginning of the XIX century, the administrative system of the state was in a state of decline. Alexander hoped to restore order and strengthen the state by introducing the ministerial system of central control, based on the principle of unity. Triple need forced Tsarism to reform this area: prepared officials were required for the updated state apparatus, as well as qualified specialists for industry and trade. Also for distribution across Russia liberal idehelle was ordered to streamline public education. As a result, for 1802-1804. The Government of Alexander I rebuilt the entire system of educational institutions, dividing them into four rows (from the bottom up: parish, county and provincial schools, universities), and opened four new universities at once: in Derpte, Vilna, Kharkov and Kazan.
In 1802, instead of the previous 12 colleges, 8 ministries were created: military, maritime, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, folk education and justice. But the new defects settled in the new ministries. Alexander was known to the senators who were anti-bribes. To change them, they struggled in it with fear to drop the prestige of the Governing Senate.
We needed a fundamentally new approach to solving the problem. In 1804, a new censorship charter was adopted. He picked up that censorship serves "not for the constraint of freedom to think and write, but the only one for the adoption of decentive measures against the abuse of it." The Pavlovsky ban on the importation of literature from abroad was canceled - for the first time in Russia, publishing the works of F. Voltaire translated into Russian, J.Zh.zh. Rousseau, D. Didro, S. Montesquieu, Rainal, who were read by future Decembrists. This ended the first series of reforms Alexander I, sneaking by Pushkin as "Alexandrov's Days A Great Start."
Alexander I managed to find a person who could fully qualify for the role of the reformer. Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky took place from the family of a rural priest. In 1807, Alexander I brought him closer. Speransky was distinguished by the breadth of its horizons and a strict system of thinking. He did not tolerate Chaos and Sumbura. In 1809, on the teaching of Alexander, he compiled a draft of indigenous state transformations. The State Device of Speransky put the principle of separation of the authorities - legislative, executive and judicial. Each of them, starting from the lower links, was to act in a strictly outlined framework.
Representative meetings of several levels were created led by the State Duma - the All-Russian representative body. The Duma was supposed to make conclusions on draft laws submitted for its consideration, and to hear reports of ministers.
All the authorities are legislative, executive and judicial - connected in the State Council, the members of which were appointed king. The opinion of the State Council approved by the king was becoming a law. No law could enter into action without discussion in State Duma and the State Council.
Real legislature, according to the Speransky project, remained in the hands of the king and the highest bureaucracy. The actions of the authorities, in the center and in the field, he wanted to control public opinion. For the shamelessness of the people opens the way to the irresponsibility of the authorities.
According to the project of Speransky electoral rights, all citizens of Russia owning land or capital were used. Master, domestic servants The fortress peasants did not participate in the elections. But used the most important government rights. The main thing that sounded like this was: "No one can be punished without a court sentence."
The project began in 1810, when the State Council was created. But then the case was stopped: Alexander became more and more in the taste of autocratic board. Higher nobility, having heard about the plans of Speransky to endow the civil rights of serfs, discontent was openly expressed. Against the reformer, all the conservatives were united, starting with N.M. Karamzin and ending A.A. Arakchev, hitting the mercy and to the new emperor. In March 1812, Speransky was arrested and exiled to Nizhny Novgorod.
Foreign policy.
By the beginning of the XIX century, two main directions in Russia's foreign policy were determined: Middle Eastern - the desire to strengthen its position in the Transcaucasia, on the Black Sea and in the Balkans, and European - participation in coalition wars 1805-1807. against Napoleonic France.
Becoming the emperor, Alexander I restored relations with England. He canceled the preparation of Paul I to the war with England and returned from the campaign to India. Normalization of relations with England and France allowed Russia to intensify its policies in the Caucasus region and Transcaucasus. The situation here was aggravated in the 90s when Iran acted an active expansion to Georgia.
The Georgian king has repeatedly appealed to Russia asking for patronage. On September 12, 1801, a manifesto on the accession of Eastern Georgia to Russia was adopted. The reign of the Georgian dynasty lost his throne, and the control passed to the governor of the Russian king. For Russia, the accession of Georgia meant the acquisition of a strategic attitude of the territory to strengthen its position in the Caucasus and in the Transcaucasus.
Alexander came to power in extremely difficult for Russia in a tense atmosphere. Napoleonic France sought to domination in Europe and potentially threatened Russia. Meanwhile, Russia led friendly talks with France and was in a state of war with England - the main opponent of France. Such a position that was inherited from Paul, did not suit the Russian nobles at all.
First, with England, Russia supported long and mutually beneficial economic ties. By October 18, England absorbed 37% of all Russian exports. France is incomparably less rich than England, never delivered Russia such benefits. Secondly, England was a well-order legitimate monarchy, while France was a Bunchotrian countries, through the regularity of the revolutionary spirit, the country, at the head of which stood a rushing, roasting warrior. Thirdly, England was in good relations with other feudal monarchies in Europe: Austria, Prussia, Sweden, Spain. France is precisely as a country-rowers confined to the uniform front of all other powers.
Thus, the priority foreign policy of the Government of Alexander I should be the restoration of friendship with England. But the tsarism was not going to fight and with France - the new government required time for the device of urgent internal affairs.
Coalition Wars of 1805-1807 were conducted due to territorial claims and mainly due to domination in Europe, for which each of the five great powers claimed: France, England, Russia, Austria, Prussia. In addition, coalitioners set the goal to restore in Europe, up to France itself, feudal regimes, overthrown by the French revolution and Napoleon. Coalitioners did not bother on phrases about their intentions to free France "from chains" Napoleon.
Revolutionaries - Decembrists.
The war sharply accelerated the growth of the political consciousness of the noble intelligentsia. The main source of the revolutionary ideology of the Decembrists was the contradictions of Russian reality, that is, between the needs of national development and feudal-serfdom, which traded the national progress. The most intolerable for advanced Russian people was serfdom. It personified all the evil feudalism - despotism and arbitrariness reigning everywhere, civilian willing to most of the people, the country's economic lag. From the life of the future, the Decembrists drew the impressions that pushed them to the conclusion: it is necessary to cancel the serfdom, to transform Russia from the autocratic to the constitutional state. To reflect on this, they began before the war of 1812. Advanced nobles, including officers, even some generals and major officials, were waiting for Alexander, defeating Napoleon, will give the peasants of Russia will, and the country is a constitution. As it turned out that the king would not give up the country either that neither the other, they were all-round disappointed in it: the halo reformer Merck in their eyes, exposing his true face of the serf and autocrat.
From 1814th, the Decembrist movement makes the first steps. One after another folds four unions, which entered the story as before the Decembrist. They did not have a charter, nor the program, nor a clear organization, nor even a certain composition, and were engaged in political discussions on how to change the "evil of the existing order of things." They entered them very different people who mostly became later outstanding Decembrists.
"Order of Russian knights" headed two siblings of the highest nobility - Count MA Dmitriev - Mamonov Gvardeysky General M.F. Orlov. "Order" faced the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in Russia, but did not have a coordinated action plan, since there was no observer between the participants of the Order.
"Sacred Artel" officers of the General Staff also had two leaders. They were the Muravye Brothers: Nikolai Nikolayevich and Alexander Nikolaevich - Later the founder of the Union of Salvation. "Sacred Artel" arranged its life in the Republican: one of the premises of the officer's barracks, where the members of Artel lived, decorated the "Bell Bell", by the ringing of which all the "artifers" were going to conversations. They not only condemned the serfdom, but also dreamed of the republic.
Semenov Artel was the largest of the deckric organizations. It was 15-20 people, among which such leaders of mature decamicism were distinguished, as S. B. Trubetskaya, S. I. Muravyev, I.D. Yakushkin. Artel existed only a few months. In 1815, Alexander I learned about her and commanded "to stop the gathering of officers."
The fourth before the Decembrist organization historians consider the Circle of the First Decembrist V.F. Raevsky in Ukraine. He arose around 1816 in the city of Kamenetk - Podolsk.
All before the Decembrist associations existed legally or semi-easily, and on February 9, 1816, a group of members of the "sacred" and Semenov Artel, headed by A.N. Muravyov established a secret, the first Decembrist organization is the Union of Salvation. Each of the participants in the Company had a combat campaigning campaigns in 1813-1814, dozens of battles, orders, medals, ranks, and their average age was 21 years.
The union of salvation adopted the charter, the main author of which was a stern. The objectives of the charter were such: destroy the serfdom and replace the autocracy of the constitutional monarchy. There was a question: how to achieve this? Most of the Union offered to prepare such a public opinion in the country, which over time would have forced the king to promulgate the Constitution. A smaller part was looking for more radical measures. Lunin suggested his reservoi plan, he was that the detachment of brands in masks met Karet's kiet and committed the daggers with him. Disagreements inside the salvation intensified.
In September 1817, when the Guard accompanied the royal family to Moscow, members of the Union held a meeting, known as the Moscow conspiracy. Here suggested himself in the killer killer I.D. Yakushkin. But the thought of Yakushkin was supported only by units, almost everyone was "horrified about it and talk." As a result, the Union banned the attempt on the king "due to the scarce of funds to achieve the goal."
Disagreements have brought the Salvation Union in a dead end. Active members of the Union decided to eliminate their organization and create a new, more cohesive, wide and effective. So in October 1817, "Military Society" was created in Moscow - the Second Secret Society of Decembrists.
"Military Society" played a role as if the control filter. Through it, the main shots of the Union of Salvation and the main staffs and new people who had to be checked were missed. In January 1818, the "Military Society" was dissolved and instead of him began to operate the union of prosperity - the third secret society of the Decembrists. This union had more than 200 members. According to the Charter, the Union of Benencies shared on the councils. The main thing was the fundamental stop in St. Petersburg. She was obeyed by business and side councils in the capital and in the field - in Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Poltava, Chisinau. All the control was 15.1820 can be considered a turning point in the development of decamism. Prior to this year, the Decembrists, although approved the results of the French revolution of the 18th century, considered its main tool - the uprising of the people. Therefore, they doubted whether to take a revolution in principle. Only the opening of the tactics of the military revolution finally made them revolutionaries.
1824-1825 was noted by the activation of the activities of the Decembrist societies. The task of preparing a military uprising was completed.
It was assumed to start him in the capital - St. Petersburg, "Yako the centers of all authorities and boards". At the periphery, members of the South Society should provide military support to the uprising in the capital. In the spring of 1824, an agreement was reached with the leaders of Northern Society as a result of negotiations with the leaders of Northern Society, which was planned for the summer of 1826.
During the summer camp fees of 1825, M.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin and S.I. The Apostle Muravyev learned about the existence of the society of the United Slavs. At the same time, his union was held with southern society.
The death of Emperor Alexander I in Taganrog on November 19, 1825 and the emergence of the transaction created an environment that the Decembrists decided to take advantage of immediate performance. Members of the Northern Society decided to start the uprising on December 14, 1825 - a day, to which the oath was appointed to Emperor Nikolai I. The Decembrists were able to submit to the Senate Square to 3 thousand soldiers and sailors. The rebels were waiting for the leader, but elected on the eve of the "dictator" of the rebellion of S. P. Trubetskoy refused to appear on the square. Nicholas I pulled about 12 thousand faithful troops with artillery. With the onset of twilight, several volley shopping, the construction of the rebels was scattered. On the night of December 15, arrestdekybris began on December 29, 1825 in Ukraine, in the Beloy of the Church, the uprising began a Chernihiv regiment. He was headed by S. I. Muravyev-Apostol. With 970 soldiers of this regiment, he made a raid for 6 days in the hope of accession of other military units, which served members of the secret society. However, the military authorities blocked the area of \u200b\u200bthe uprising of reliable parts. On January 3, 1826, the rising regiment was met by a detachment of hussar with artillery and scattered by a creek. Wounded by S.I. The Austal Muravyev was captured and sent to St. Petersburg. Until the middle of April 1826, the Decembrists were arrested. 316 people were arrested. In total, in the case of the Decembrists, over 500 people took place. 121 people appeared before the Supreme Criminal Court, in addition, the courts over 40 members of the secret societies in Mogilev, Belostok and Warsaw were held. P.I. Pestel, K.F. Ryleev, S.I. Muravyev-Apostle and P.G. Kakhovsky were prepared for the "death penalty", replaced by hanging. The rest are distributed by 11 discharges; 31 people of the 1st category was sentenced "to death with a cut-off of the head", the rest towards various timing cavities. More than 120 Decembrists suffered different punishments without trial: some were enclosed in the fortress, others are subject to the supervision of the police. Early in the morning of July 13, 1826, a penalty of convicts was held to hang the Decembrists, then their bodies were secretly buried.
Public and political thought in the 20s-50s of the XIX century.
Idea life in Russia of the second quarter of the XIX century was held in difficult for advanced people to enhance the reaction after the suppression of the Decembrist uprising.
The defeat of the Decembrists gave rise to pessimism and despair in some part of society. The noticeable revival of the ideological life of Russian society occurs at the turn of the 30s-40s of the XIX century. By this time, the currents of the socio-political soap were clearly designated, as a protective and conservative, liberal-opposition and the beginning of the revolutionary-democratic one.
The ideological expression of the protective and conservative direction was the theory of "official nationality". Its principles were formulated in 1832 by S.S. Uvarov as "Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality." The conservative and protective direction in the conditions of awakening the national identity of the Russian people are also appeal of "nation". But the "nationality" was interpreted by him as a commitment to the masses to the "invalid Russian origin" - autocracy and Orthodoxy. The social task of "official nationality" was to proof the originalness and legitimacy of autocratic-serfdom in Russia. The main inspirer and conductor of the theory of "official nationality" was Nicholas I, and the Minister of Folk Enlightenment, Conservative Professors and Journalists acted as its diligent conductors. The theorists of the "official nationality" argued that in Russia the best order of things, consonant with the requirements of the Orthodox religion and "political wisdom", dominate. Alexander Industrial Empire Political
"Official Nationality" As officially recognized ideology was supported by the entire power of the government, preached through the church, royal manifestos, official printing, systemic folk education. However, contrary to this was a huge mental job, new ideas were born, which united the rejection of the Nikolaev political system. Among them, Slavophiles and Westerners occupied a significant place in the 30s-40s.
Slavophile representatives of the liberally configured noble intelligentsia. The doctrine of the identity and the national exclusivity of the Russian people, the rejection of the Western European route of development, even the oppression of Russia, the West, the protection of autocracy, Orthodoxy.
Slavophilism - the opposition flow in Russian public thought, it had many points of contact with the opposing Westernist, rather than with the theorists of the official nationality. The initial date of design of Slavophilms follow 1839. The founders of this flow were Alexey Khomyakov and Ivan Kireevsky. The main thesis of Slavophiles is the proof of the original path of Russia's development. They put forward the thesis: "The power of power-king, the power of opinion - the people." This meant that the Russian people should not interfere with politics, providing the monarch all the completeness of power. The Nikolaev political system with its German "bureaucracy" Slavophiles considered as a logical investigation negative Parties Petrovsky transformations.
Western appeared at the turn of the 1930s of the 1930s of the XIX century. Westners belonged to writers and publicists - P.V. Annenkov, V.P. Botkin, V.G. Belinsky and others. They argued the commonality of the historical development of the West and Russia, argued that Russia, though he was late, but there was a way that other countries were told for Europeanization. Westerners advocated the constitutional monarchical form of the Board of the Western European Sample. In contrast, the Slavophilas Westerners were rationalists, and they were crushed, and not the primacy of faith. They argued the value of human life as a medium of reason. For the propaganda of their views, Westerners used university departments and Moscow literary salons.
In the late 40s - early 50s of the XIX century, the democratic direction of Russian public thought is developing, representatives of this circle were: A.I.Grenz, V.G. Belinsky. This direction was the basis of public thought, philosophical and political teachings spread in the early XIX century Western Europe were easily.
In the 40s of the XIX century, Russia began to spread various socialist theories, mainly S. Fourier, A. Saint-Simon and R. Owen. The active propagandists of these ideas were Petrashevtsi. Young official of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Gifted and sociable, M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky, starting from the winter of 1845, began to collect on Fridays at its St. Petersburg apartment of interested in literary, philosophical and political innovations of young people. These were students of senior courses, teachers, minor officials and beginner writers. In March - April 1849, the most radical part of the mug began to design a secret political organization. Several revolutionary proclamations were written, the printing machine was purchased to replicate them.
But on this activity, the circle was interrupted by the police, which for about a year he watched Petrashevtsy through the agent sent to them. On the night of April 231849, 34 Petrashevtsva were arrested and sent to the Petropavlovsk fortress.
At the turn of the 40-50s of the XIX century, the theory of "Russian Socialism" is developing. Its founder was A. I. Herzen. The defeat of the revolutions of 1848-1849 in the Western European countries made a deep impression on it, gave rise to disbelief in European socialism. Herzen proceeded from the idea of \u200b\u200bthe "original" path of development of Russia, which, bypassing capitalism, will come through the peasant community to socialism.
Conclusion
For Russia, the beginning of the XIX century is the greatest turnuisle of the epoch. Traces of this era are grandiose in the fate of the Russian Empire. On the one hand, this is a lifelong prison for most of its citizens, where the people were in poverty, and 80% of the population remained illiterate.
If you look at the other hand, Russia at this time is the birthplace of the great, controversial, liberation movement from the Decembrists to Social Democrats, which twice led the country close to the democratic revolution. At the beginning of the XIX century, Russia saved Europe from the destructive wars of Napoleon and saved the Balkan peoples from Turkish yoke.
It was at that time in this time the brilliant spiritual values \u200b\u200bbegan to be created, which to this day remain unsurpassed (Creaters A.S. Pushkin and L.N. Tolstoy, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, F.I. Shalyapin).
In a word, Russia looked in the XIX century an uncomfortable mischief, learning and triumphs, and humiliation. One of the Russian poets N.A. Nekrasov said the prophetic words about her, which are true and understood:
You and wretched,
You and abundant
You and Mighty,
You and powerless
Domestic policy in the first half of the XIX
When joining the throne, Alexander solemnly proclaimed that from now on the basis of politics will not be a personal will or whim of the monarch, but strict adherence to laws. The population promised legal guarantees from arbitrariness. Around the king there was a circle of friends, called the unlawful committee. It includes young aristocrats: Count P. A. Stroganov, Count V. P. Kochubey, N. N. Novosillesev, Prince A. D. Chartorian. Aggressively tuned aristocracy dubbed the Committee to the Jacobin Sayka. This Committee began from 1801 to 1803 and discussed the draft state reforms, the abolition of serfdom, etc.
In the first period of the reign of Alexander I from 1801 to 1815. It was done a lot, but even more promised. Restrictions imposed by Paul I were canceled. Kazan, Kharkov, St. Petersburg universities were created. Universities are open in Derpte and Vilna. In 1804, Moscow Commercial School was opened. From now on, representatives of all classes could be taken to educational institutions, at the lowest levels, training was free, paid from the state budget. For the reign of Alexander I is characterized by unconditional kindness, which was extremely important for multinational Russia.
In 1802, outdated colleges who were still with Petrovsky times were the main executive bodies were replaced by ministries. The 8 first ministries were established: military-land forces, naval forces, justice, internal affairs, finance. Commerce and folk enlightenment.
In 1810-1811. When reorganizing ministries, their number has increased, and the functions were even more clearly delimited. In 1802, the Senate was reformed, which became the highest judicial and control body in the public administration system. He received the right to make "ideas" the emperor about outdated laws. The spiritual affairs of the Holy Synod, whose members were appointed by the emperor. He was headed by an Ober-Prosecutor, a person is usually close to the king. From military or civilian officials. Under Alexandra I, the position of the Ober-Prosecutor in 1803-1824. Prince A. N. Golitsyn, former since 1816, as the minister of folk enlightenment. The most active supporter of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe reform of the public administration system was the Statis secretary of the indispensable Council M. M. Speransky. However, he took a very long time to be the location of the emperor. The implementation of the Speransky project could contribute to the beginning of the constitutional process in Russia. In total, the project "Introduction to the deposits of state laws" was scheduled for the principle of separation of legislative, executive and judicial authorities by convening representatives of the State Duma and the introduction of elected judicial institutions.
At the same time, he considered it necessary to create a public council, which would be a link between the emperor and the authorities of the Central and local self-government. All the newly proposed bodies cautiously emphasized only advisory rights and did not attend the completeness of the autocratic power. A conservative part of the nobility spoke against the liberal project of the Speransky, which he saw a danger to the autocratic-fastened system in it and for its privileged position.
The ideologist of the conservatives was the famous writer and historian I. M. Karamzin. In practical terms, the reaction policy was carried out close to Alexander I Count A. A. Arakcheev, who, unlike M. M. Speransky, sought to strengthen the personal power of the emperor, by further development of the bureaucratic system.
The struggle between liberals and conservatives ended with the victory of the latter. Speransky was removed from affairs and sent to the link. The only result was the establishment of the State Council, in 1810, which consisted of ministers and other Higher Sanovnikov appointed by the emperor. He was attached by deliberative functions when developing essential laws. Reforms 1802 -1811. did not change the autocratic essence of the political system of Russia. They only strengthened the centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. As before, the emperor was the supreme legislative and executive power.
In subsequent years, the reformists of Alexander I were reflected in the introduction of the Constitution in the Kingdom of Polish (1815), the preservation of the Seimas and the Constitutional Device of Finland, attached to Russia in 1809, as well as in the creation of N. N. Novosiltsev, on behalf of the king "Standard Russian Empire "(1819 -1820). The project provided for the division of the branches of the government, the introduction of government agencies. Equality of all citizens before the law and the federal principle of the state device. However, all these proposals remained on paper.
In the last decade, Alexander I, in domestic politics, a conservative trend was increasingly felt. By the name of her conductor, she got the name "Arakcheevshchyna". This policy was expressed in the further centralization of public administration, in police-repressive measures aimed at the destruction of freedomiff, in the "cleaning" of universities, in the planting of a walleling discipline in the army. Military settlements became the most vivid manifestation of the policy of Count A. A. Arakcheev - a special form of the acquisition and content of the army.
The purpose of the creation of military settlements is to achieve self-reproducing army itself. Easy for the budget of the country the severity of the content of a huge army in peaceful conditions. The first attempts of their organization belonged to 1808-1809, but in mass order it began to be created in 1815-1816. The category of military settlements was translated from the state peasants of the St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Mogilev and Kharkiv province. Here the soldiers sent to which their families were also discharged. The wives became dreams, the sons from the age of 7 were credited to the cantonists, and from 18 years old in valid military service. The whole life of the family peasant was strictly regulated. For the slightest violation of the order of corporal punishment. A. A. Arakcheev was appointed the chief boss on military settlements. By 1825, about a third of the soldiers were translated into the settlement.
However, the army failed with self-sufficiency failed. On the organization of settlements, the government spent huge money. The military nights did not become a special estate that expanded the social support of self-adjusting, on the contrary, they worried and rebuilding. The government from this practice in subsequent years refused. Alexander I died in Taganrog in 1825 he had no children. Due to the ambiguity in the question of the prestiplotia in Russia was created emergency - Promotion.
The years of the reign of Emperor Nikolai I (1825-1855) is fairly regarded as "apogee autocracy". The Nikolaev reign began violent over the Decembrists and ended in the days of the defense of Sevastopol. Replacing the heir to the throne Alexander I was a surprise for Nicholas I, who was not prepared for the management of Russia.
On December 6, 1826, the First Secret Committee was created by the emperor, at the head of which the Chairman of the State Council of V. P. Kochubay became. Initially, the Committee was developing projects for the transformation of higher and local governance and the law "On States", i.e. on the rights of estates. It was assumed to consider the peasant question. However, in fact, the work of the Committee did not give any practical results, and in 1832 the Committee ceased to operate.
Nicholas I put the task to focus in my hands the decision of both general and private affairs, bypassing the relevant ministries and departments. The principle of personal power regime was embodied in his own imperial majesty of the office. She was divided into several offices interfering with the country's political, social and spiritual life.
The codification of Russian legislation was assigned returned from the reference M. M. Speransky, who intended to collect and classify all the laws that had had a fundamentally new system of legislation. However, conservative trends in domestic politics limited him a more modest task. Under his leadership, the laws adopted after the Cathedral Casting of 1649 were published in the "full meeting of the laws of the Russian Empire" in 45 volumes. In a separate "Code of Laws" (15 volumes), existing laws were placed, which consisted of legal status in the country. All this was directed also to strengthen the bureaucratization of management.
In 1837-1841 Under the leadership of Count P. D. Kiselev, a wide system of events was carried out - reform of government peasants. In 1826, a committee on educational institutions was established. His task it was: checking the charters of educational institutions, the development of uniform principles of education, the definition of training disciplines and benefits. The Committee has developed the basic principles of government government policy. They were legally enshrined in the charter of the lower and secondary educational institutions in 1828. The data, the closedness, the conclusion of each stage, the restriction in obtaining education by representatives of the lower estates, created the essence of the created education system.
The reaction collapsed on universities. Their network, however, has been expanded in connection with the needs of qualified personnel personnel. The charter of 1835 eliminated the university autonomy, tightened control over the trustees of educational districts, police and local self-government. The Minister of Folk Enlightenment was at this time S. S. Uvarov, who in his policy sought to combine "Wedding" Nicholas I with the development of educational and culture.
In 1826, a new censorship charter was published, which was called Cast-iron contemporaries. The main department of censorship was subordinate to the Ministry of Folk Enlightenment. The fight against advanced journalism was considered by Nikolai I, as one of the priority political tasks. One by one fell damage to the publication of magazines. 1831 was the date of termination of the publication of the "literary newspaper" A. A. Delvich, in 1832. "European" P. V. Kirievsky was closed, in 1834, "Moscow Telegraph" N. A. Polevoye, and B1836 " Telescope »N. I. Nethackin.
In the internal policies of the recent years of the reign of Nicholas I (1848-1855), the reaction-repressive line intensified even more.
By the middle of the 50s. Russia turned out to be "ear on clay legs." It predetermined the failures in foreign policy, defeat in the Crimean War (1853-1856) and caused reforms of the 60s.
Russia's foreign policy in the first half of the XIX century.At the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries. Two directions in the foreign policy of Russia were clearly defined: Middle Eastern - the struggle for strengthening its position in the Transcaucasus, in the Black Sea and the Balkans and European - Russia's participation in coalition wars against Napoleonic France. One of the first acts of Alexander I after the entry into the throne was the restoration of relations with England. But Alexander I did not want to conflict with France. Normalization of relations with England and France allowed Russia to intensify its activities in the Middle East, mainly in the Caucasus region and Transcaucasus.
According to the manifesto, Alexander I dated September 12, 1801, the Georgian ruling bagration dynasty lost the throne, the management of cards and Kakheti moved to the Russian governor. In Eastern Georgia, the royal administration was introduced. In 1803-1804 In the same conditions, the remaining parts of Georgia were included in Russia - Mengrelia, Guri, Imeretius. Russia has become an important strategy territory to strengthen its position in the Caucasus and in Transcaucasia. Of great importance not only in strategic, but also in economic terms, it was completed in 1814. The construction of the military-Georgian road, which was connected by the Transcaucasia with European Russia.
The joining of Georgia collided Russia with Iran and the Ottoman Empire. The hostile attitude of these countries to Russia was heated by intrigues of England. In 1804, the war with Iran was carried out by Russia successfully: already within 1804-1806. The main part of Azerbaijan was attached to Russia. The war ended with accession in 1813 Talysh Khanate and the Mugan Steppe. In the Gulistan World, signed on October 24, 1813, Iran recognized the consolidation of these territories behind Russia. Russia was given the right to keep their military courts in the Caspian Sea.
In 1806, the war of Russia began with Turkey, which relied on the help of France, which supplied it with weapons. The reason for the war was shifting in August 1806 with the posts of the rulers of Moldova and Valahia at the insistence of the Napoleonic General Sebastiana who arrived in Turkey. In October 1806, Russian troops under the command of General I. I. Michelson took Moldova and Valachia. In 1807, D. N. Sensky's escade defeated the Ottoman fleet, but then the distraction of the fundamental forces of Russia to participate in the anti-drug coalition did not allow Russian troops to develop success. Only when in 1811 the commander of the Russian army was appointed M. I. Kutuzov, military actions took a completely different turn. The main forces of Kutuzov focused on the fortress Rushchuk, where June 22, 1811 inflicted the Ottoman Empire crushing defeat. Then the main blows of Kutuzov defeated the main forces of Ottomans on the left bank of the Danube in parts, the remnants of them folded the weapons and surrendered. On May 28, 1812, Kutuzov signed a peace treaty in Bucharest, according to which Moldova, which later received the status of the Bessarab region. Serbia, which rising to the struggle for independence in 1804 and the autonomy supported by Russia was presented.
In 1812, the Eastern part of Moldova entered Russia. Its western part (for the river. Prut) called the principality of Moldova remained in vassal dependence on the Ottoman Empire.
In 1803-1805 The international situation in Europe sharply aggravated. The strip of Napoleonic wars begins, in which all European countries were involved, incl. and Russia.
At the beginning of the XIX century. Under the rule of Napoleon was almost all the central and southern Europe. In foreign policy, Napoleon expressed the interests of the French bourgeoisie, competing with the Bourgeoisie of English in the struggle for world markets and for the colonial section of the world. Anglo-French rivalry acquired a pan-European character and took the lead place in international relations At the beginning of the XIX century.
The proclamation in 1804 on May 18, Napoleon, the emperor further grew the situation. April 11, 1805 was concluded. The Anglo-Russian Military Convention, according to which Russia was obliged to set 180 thousand soldiers, and England to pay a subsidy of Russia in the amount of 2.25 million pounds of sterling and participate in land and maritime hostilities against Napoleon. Austria, Sweden and Neapolitan Kingdom have joined this convention. However, only Russian and Austrian troops with a number of 430 thousand soldiers were directed against Napoleon. Having learned about the movement of these troops, Napoleon took his army in the Boulogne camp and quickly moved it to Bavaria, where the Austrian army was held under the command of General Makka and the headwood broke it with Ulm.
Commanded by the Russian army M. I. Kutuzov, given the four-time superiority of Napoleon in the forces, by a number of skillful maneuvers, escaped a large battle and, having committed a heavy 400 kilometer maneuver, connected with another Russian army and Austrian reserves. Kutuzov offered to take the Russian-Austrian troops further to the East to collect enough strength to successfully conduct hostilities, but the emperors of Franz and Alexander I insisted under the army on the general battle of June 20, 1805. It happened with Austerlice (Czech Republic) and ended with the victory Napoleon. Austria capitulated and entered into a humiliating world. The coalition actually broke up. Russian troops were assigned to Russia and Russian-French talks about the world began in Paris. On July 8, 1806, a peace treaty was concluded in Paris, but Alexander I refused to ratify it.
In mid-September 1806, the fourth coalition against France (Russia, United Kingdom, Prussia and Sweden) was created. In the battle at Jena and Auersthedte, the Prussian troops were fully defeated. Almost all Prussia was occupied by French troops. The Russian army had one for 7 months to carry out a stubborn struggle against the superior forces of the French. The most significant were the battles of Russian troops with the French in Eastern Prussia on January 26-27, during Passache-Eilau and June 2, 1807 under Friedland. During these battles, Napoleon managed to push Russian troops to Neman, but he did not decide to enter into Russia and proposed to conclude the world. The meeting of Napoleon and Alexander I took place in Tilsit (on Neman) at the end of June 1807. The peace treaty was concluded on June 25, 1807
Accession to the continental blockade applied severe damage to the Russian economy, as England was its main trading partner. The conditions of the Tilzite world caused strong discontent both in conservative circles and in advanced circles of Russian society. A serious blow to the international prestige of Russia was inflicted. A painful impression of the Tilzite world was somewhat "compensated" by success in the Russian-Swedish war of 1808-1809, which became a consequence of Tilzist agreements.
The war began on February 8, 1808 and demanded a lot of strength from Russia. First, military actions were successful: In February-March 1808, the main city centers and fortresses of Southern Finland were occupied. Then the military actions were suspended. By the end of 1808, Finland was liberated from the Swedish troops, and in March, a 48-thousand body of M. B. Barclay de Tolly, having completed the transition along the ice of the combat bay, went to Stockholm. On September 5, 1809, the world was concluded between Russia and Sweden, according to the terms of which Finland and the Aland Islands passed to Russia. At the same time, contradictions between France and Russia were gradually deepened.
The new war between Russia and France became inevitable. The main motive for the unleashing war was the desire of Napoleon to the world domination, on the way to which Russia stood.
On the night of June 12, 1812, the Napoleonic army forced Nemman and invaded Russia. The left flank of the French army was 3 corps under the command of McDonald, which were advancing at Riga and St. Petersburg. The main, central group of troops consisting of 220 thousand people led by Napoleon was an offensive on Coveno and Vilna. Alexander I at that time was in wine. With the news of the transition of France of the Russian border, he sent to Napoleon General A. D. Balashov with peaceful sentences, but received a refusal.
Usually, Napoleon's war boiled down to one - two general battles, which solved the fate of the company. And on this rose, the calculation of Napoleon was to ensure that, using its numerical superiority, break the dispersed Russian army alone. On June 13, the French troops occupied Coveno, and on June 16, Vilna. Napoleon's attempt at the end of June to surround and destroy the Army Barclay de Tolly in the Dris camp (in Western Dvina) failed. Barclay de Tollya with a successful maneuver brought his army from the trap, which a DRISA camp could be and headed through Polotsk to Vitebsk on the connection with the Army of Bagration, which was south of the south in the direction of Bobruisk, the new bychika and Smolensk. The difficulties of the Russian army were further aggravated by the lack of a single command. On June 22, after the heavy arker fighting of the Army, Barclaya da Tolly and Bagration were connected in Smolensk.
The thrust fight of the Russian ariecard with the casual invertible parts of the French army on August 2 under the red (west of Smolensk) allowed Russian troops to strengthen Smolensk. On August 4-6, a bloody battle for Smolensk occurred. On the night of August 6, burned and destroyed city was left by Russian troops. In Smolensk, Napoleon decided to adopt Moscow. August 8, Alexander I signed a decree on the appointment of the commander-in-chief of the Russian army M. I. Kutuzov. In nine days of Kutuzov arrived in the existing army.
For the general battle of Kutuzov, he chose the position at the village of Borodino. On August 24, the French army approached the best strengthening to the Borodino Field - Shevardinsky Rally. Heavy battle has ringed: 12 thousand Russian soldiers held the entire day to restrain the onslaught of the 40,000 French squad. This battle helped to strengthen the left flank of the Borodino position. Borodino battle began at 5 am on August 26, the attack of the French division General Delzone on Borodino. Only by 16 o'clock was captured by Raevsky French Cavalry. By evening, Kutuzov gave an order to move back to a new line of defense. Napoleon stopped the attacks, limiting the artillery cannonade. As a result of the Borodino battle, both army suffered heavy losses. Russians lost 44 thousand, and the French are 58 thousand people.
1 (13) September in the village of Fili was collected by the military council, in which Kutuzov took the only right decision - to leave Moscow to preserve the army. The next day, the French army approached Moscow. Moscow was empty: no more than 10 thousand inhabitants remained in it. On the same night, fires that raged the whole week broke out at different points of the city. Russian army, leaving Moscow first moved to Ryazan. Near Kolomna Kutuzov, leaving a barrier of several Cossack regiments, turned his army from under the impact of the French cavalry. Russian army joined Tarutino. On October 6, Kutuzov suddenly strikes the corpus of Murat, standing on the river. Inhibit not far from Torutina. The defeat of Murata forced Napoleon to speed up the movement of the main forces of his army to Kaluga. Kutuzov sent his troops to him in the midwalls. On October 12, the battle occurred under Maloyaroslavetz, who forced Napoleon to abandon the movement to the south and turn to Vyazma on the broken war to the old Smolensk road. The retreat of the French army began, subsequently turned into flight, and its parallel persecution of the Russian army.
Since the invasion of Napoleon to Russia, the national war against foreign invaders broke out in the country. After leaving Moscow and especially during the Tarutinsky camp, the partisan movement took a wide range. Partisan detachments, deploying a "small war", violated the communications of the enemy, carried out the role of intelligence, sometimes given real battles and actually blocked the retreating French army.
Departing from Smolensk to r. Berezina, the French army still retained combat capability, although he carried large losses from hunger, diseases. After crossing through the r. Berezin began the disorderly flight of the remains of the French troops. On December 5 in Smorgan Napoleon handed over the command of Marshal Murata, and Himself hurried to Paris. On December 25, 1812, the royal manifesto was issued, which heated on the end of the Patriotic War. Russia was the only country in Europe, capable of not only to resist the Napoleonic aggression, but also to apply a crushing defeat. But this victory went to the people an expensive price. 12 provinces that have become the enemy of the fighting were ruined. The ancient cities such as Moscow, Smolensk, Vitebsk, Polotsk, and others, were burned and ruined.
To ensure its security, Russia continued military actions and led the movement for the liberation of European peoples from French domination.
In September 1814, the Vienna Congress opened, on which the winner's powers solved the question of the post-war device of Europe. The allies were difficult to agree among themselves, because There were sharp contradictions, mainly on territorial issues. The work of the Congress was interrupted due to Napoleon's flight with about. Elba and restoration of 100 days of his power in France. The United States of European States inflicted him a final defeat in the battle of Waterloo in the summer of 1815, Napoleon was captured and Soslated on about. St. Helena from the west coast of Africa.
The ruling of the Vienna Congress led to the return of old dynasties in France, Italy, Spain and other countries. Of most Polish lands, the kingdom of Polish was created as part of the Russian Empire. In September 1815, Russian Emperor Alexander I, the Austrian Emperor Franz and Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm III signed an act of creating a sacred union. His author himself was Alexander I. The text of the Union contained the obligations of Christian monarchs to provide each other with all the assistance. Political goals - support for old monarchical dynasties based on the principle of legitimism (recognition of the legality of preserving their power), the fight against revolutionary movements in Europe.
At the Congress of the Union for 1818 to 1822. The suppression of revolutions in Naples (1820-1821), Piedmont (1821), in Spain (1820 -1823) was authorized. However, these actions were aimed at maintaining peace and stability in Europe.
The news of the uprising in St. Petersburg in December 1825 was perceived by the Shah government as a good time to unleash hostilities against Russia. On July 16, 1826, the 60-thousand Iranian army without declaring war invaded the limits of Transcaucasia and began the rapid movement on Tbilisi. But soon was stopped and began to tolerate defeat. At the end of August 1826, the Russian troops under the command of A. P. Yermolov completely cleaned the Transcaucasia from Iranian troops and hostilities were transferred to the territory of Iran.
Nicholas I, not trusting Yermolov (he suspected him in relations with the Decembrists), passed the command of the Caucasian District of I. F. Pashevich. In April 1827, the offensive of Russian troops in Eastern Armenia began. Local Armenian population rose to the help of Russian troops. In early July, Nakhichevan fell, and in October 1827 - Erivan - the largest fortresses in the center of Nakhichevan and Erivanian Khunni. Soon, all Eastern Armenia was released by Russian troops. At the end of October 1827, the Russian troops occupied Tauris - the second capital of Iran and quickly moved to Tehran. Among Iranian troops began panic. Under these conditions, the Shah government was forced to go to the world's conditions proposed by Russia. On February 10, 1828, the Turkmanchai peace treaty of Russia with Iran was signed. In Turkmanchai Agreement, Nakhichevan and Erivanian Khanate joined Russia.
In 1828, the Russian-Turkish war began, which was extremely severe for Russia. The troops accustomed to the front art, technically poorly equipped and led by the talentless generals, were initially unable to achieve any significant success. Soldiers are starved, among them the diseases were rapidly, from which heaven more than from enemy bullets. In the company of 1828, the price of considerable effort and losses managed to take Valachia and Moldova, go Danube and take the fortress Varna.
The company 1829 was more successful. The Russian army crossed the Balkans and at the end of June after a long siege took possession of the strong fortress of Silistria, then she was noisy, and in July Burgas and Sozopol. In the Transcaucasus, Russian troops besieged the Kars Fortress, Ardagan, Bayazet and Erzem. August 8 fell Adrianopol. Nicholas I tracked the commander-in-chief of the Russian Army Dibic with the conclusion of the world. On September 2, 1829, a peaceful treatise was concluded in Adrianopol. Russia received the mouth of the Danube, the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus from Anapa to approaches to the Batum. After the joining of the Transcaucasia, before the Russian government, it became the task of ensuring a stable environment in the North Caucasus. Under Alexander I, the general began promoting in charge of Chechnya and Dagestan, building military support points. The local population was rumped into the construction of fortresses, fortified points, the construction of roads and bridges. The result of the rebellion of the rebellion of the uprising in Kabarda and Adygea (1821-1826) and Chechnya (1825-1826), which, but subsequently were suppressed by the Ermolov Corps.
A large role in the movement of Highlanders of the Caucasus played Muridism, which was widespread among the Muslim population of the North Caucasus in the late 20s. XIX century He meant religious fanaticism and an implacable struggle against the "wrong", which gave him a nationalist character. In the North Caucasus, it was directed exclusively against the Russians and received the greatest distribution in Dagestan. There was a peculiar state - Immat. In 1834, Imam (head of state) became Shamil. Under his leadership in the North Caucasus, the struggle against the Russians intensified. She continued for 30 years. Shamil managed to combine the wide masses of the horses, carry out a number of successful operations against Russian troops. In 1848, his power was declared hereditary. It was the time of the greatest success of Shamil. But at the end of the 40s - early 50s, the city population, dissatisfied with feudal-theocratic orders in Imamate Shamil, began to gradually move away from movement, and Shamil began to endure failure. The mountaineers left Shamil with whole auls and stopped armed struggle against Russian troops.
Even Russia's failures in the Crimean War did not make facilitated the position of Shamil, who tried to actively promote the Turkish army. Failed his raids on Tbilisi. The peoples of Kabardia and Ossetia did not want to join Shamil and oppose Russia. In 1856-1857 Chechnya disappeared from Shamil. Began uprings against Shamil in the accident and Northern Dagestan. Under the onslaught of troops, Shamil retreated to South Dagestan. On April 1, 1859, General Evdokimov's troops took Shamil's "capital" - Aul was kept and destroyed it. Shamil with 400 Murids hid in Aulu Gunib, where August 26, 1859, after a long and stubborn resistance, surrendered. Imamat ceased to exist. B1863-1864. Russian troops occupied the entire territory along the northern slope of the Caucasian Range and suppressed the resistance of Circassians. Caucasian war ended.
For European absolutist states, the problem of combating revolutionary hazards was dominated in their foreign policy, it was associated with the main task of their internal policies - the preservation of feudal-serfdom.
In 1830-1831. In Europe, a revolutionary crisis arose. On July 28, 1830, a revolution broke out in France, who overthrew the bourbon dynasty. Upon learning of it, Nikolai I began to prepare the intervention of European monarchs. However, the sent delegations Nikolai I in Austria and Germany returned with anything. The monarchs did not decide to accept proposals, believing that this intervention could turn into serious social shocks in their countries. European monarchs recognized the new French king Louis Philippa Orleans, as follows and Nikolai I. In August 1830, a revolution in Belgium broke out, which declared himself an independent kingdom (earlier Belgium was part of the Netherlands).
Under the influence of these revolutions in November 1830, an uprising broke out in Poland, caused by the desire to return the independence of the borders of 1792. The prince of Konstantin managed to hide. A temporary government was formed from 7 people. I gathered on January 13, 1831, the Polish Sejm proclaimed the "identification" (deprivation of the Polish throne) Nicholas I and the independence of Poland. Against 50 thousand army of the rebels, 120 thousand army under the command of I. I. Dibica, who was embedded on February 13, a major defeat of the Poles under the gross. On August 27, after a powerful artillery cannonade, the storming of Warsaw's suburbs - Prague began. The next day, Warsaw fell, the uprising was suppressed. The Constitution of 1815 was annulled. According to the limited statute of the Kingdom of the Polish, published on February 14, 1832, the Polish was an integral part of the Russian Empire. Poland's management was assigned to the administrative council, at the head of which the Emperor's governor was put in Poland I. F. Pashevich.
In the spring of 1848, the wave of bourgeois-democratic revolutions covered Germany, Austria, Italy, Valachia and Moldova. At the beginning of 1849, the revolution broke out in Hungary. Nicholas I took advantage of the Austrian Habsburgs request for help in suppressing the Hungarian revolution. In early May 1849, 150 thousand Army I. F. Pashevich was directed to Hungary. A significant advantage of forces allowed Russian and Austrian troops to suppress the Hungarian revolution.
Especially acute for Russia was the question of the mode of the Black Sea strait. In the 30-40s. XIX century Russian diplomacy led a tense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, a UNKYAR-SKELECII contract was concluded between Turkey and Russia for a period of 8 years. Under this contract, Russia received the right to free wire of their warships through the straits. In the 40s, the situation has changed. Based on a number of agreements with European states, the straits were closed to all military fleets. It was hardly reflected in the Russian Fleet. He was locked in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on his military power, sought to respond to solving the problem of straits, strengthen positions in the Middle East and the Balkans. The Ottoman Empire wanted to return the territory lost as a result of Russian-Turkish wars in the late XVIII - the first half of the XIX century.
England and France hoped to crush Russia as a great power and deprive her influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula. In turn, Nicholas I sought to use the conflict for a decisive attack on the Ottoman Empire, believing that he would have to lead the war with a one weakened empire, hoped to agree with England about the section, according to his expression: "Inheritance of a sick person." He expected to isolation of France, as well as to support Austria for the "service" provided to her in the suppression of the revolution in Hungary. His calculations were erroneous. England did not go to his proposal about the section of the Ottoman Empire. The erroneous was the calculation of Nicholas I and that France does not have sufficient military forces for aggressive policies in Europe.
In 1850, a pan-European conflict began in the Middle East, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic Church, which of the churches belongs to the right to own the keys from the Vaflia temple, possess other religious monuments in Jerusalem. The Orthodox Church supported Russia, and Catholic - France. The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, rose to the side of France. This caused a sharp discontent of Russia and Nikolai I. In Constantinople, a special representative of King Prince A. S. Menshikov was sent to Constantinople. He was instructed to achieve privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and the right of patronage of the Orthodox, citizens of Turkey. However, his ultimatum was rejected.
Thus, the dispute about the holy places served as a reason to the Russian-Turkish, and later the European War. For pressure on Turkey in 1853, the Russian troops occupied the Danube Principles Moldova and Valachia. In response, Turkish Sultan in October 1853, supported by England and France declared the war of Russia. Nikolai I was published by the manifesto about the war with the Ottoman Empire. Military actions were deployed on the Danube and Transcaucasia. On November 18, 1853, Admiral P. S. Nakhimov at the head of the Squadron from six linear ships and two frigates defeated the Turkish fleet in the Sinop Bay and destroyed coastal fortifications. The brilliant victory of the Russian fleet in Sinopove was a reason for the proportion of direct intervention of England and France in a military conflict between Russia and Turkey, which was on the verge of defeat. In January 1854, 70 thousandth English-French Army was concentrated in Varna. In early March 1854, England and France showed Russia an ultimatum about the purification of Danube Principles, and without receiving an answer, declared the war of Russia. Austria for its part signed with the Ottoman Empire on the occupation of the Danube Principles and moved to their borders 300 thousandth army, threatening with Russia by Russia. Austria's requirement supported Prussia. At first, Nicholas I responded with refusal, but the Commander-in-Chief of the Danube Front I. F. Paskevich convinced him to bring troops from the Danube principalities, which were soon occupied by the Austrian troops.
The main purpose of the United Anglo-French Command was the seizure of Crimea and Sevastopol - the naval base of Russia. On September 2, 1854, the Allied forces began landing the landing on the Crimean Peninsula near Evpatoria as part of 360 ships and 62 thousandth army. Admiral P. S. Nakhimov ordered to sink the entire sailing fleet in the Sevastopol bay, in order to prevent allies ships. 52 thousand Russian troops, of which 33 thousand at 96 guns at Prince A. S. Menshikova, was located on the whole Crimean Peninsula. Under his leadership battle on r. Alma In September 1854, Russian troops lost. By order, Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol, and moved to Bakhchisaray. On September 13, 1854, the siege of Sevastopol began, which lasted 11 months.
The defenser was headed by the head of the Black Sea Fleet, Vice-Admiral V. A. Kornilov, and after his death, at the very beginning of the siege - P. S. Nakhimov, who was mortally wounded on June 28, 1855. The main part of the Russian army took distracting operations: the battle under Inkerman (November 1854), an offensive in Evpatoria (February 1855), battle on a black river (August 1855). These hostilities did not help Sevastopol. In August 1855, the last assault on Sevastopol began. After the fall of Malakhov Kurgan, to continue the defense was hopeless. At the Caucasus Theater, military operations developed more successfully for Russia. After the defeat of Turkey in the Transcaucasia, the Russian troops began to act on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish Fortress of Kars fell. Maintenance of hostilities was discontinued. Negotiations began.
On March 18, 1856, the Paris Mirny treatise was signed, through which the Black Sea was announced neutral. Russia has been rejected only by the southern part of Besarabia, however, she lost the right of the patronage of the Danube Principles in Serbia. With the "neutralization" of France, Russia was forbidden to have naval forces, arsenals and fortresses on the Black Sea. It applied a blow to the safety of southern borders. The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the placement of international forces and the inner position of Russia. The defeat failed the sad outcome to the Nikolaev rule, the social masses stirred and forced the government to tightly to reform the state.
How to return the love of her husband to his wife - Tips of the psychologist
Why you can not give icons