NUCLEAR GAMES It has been documented that the US has developed two new scenarios in addition to the hundred year old plan. By dropping atomic bombs on Japan and examining the consequences of atomic attacks on environment, the United States developed plans for such strikes against

nuclear munitions

Nuclear munitions Nuclear munitions, warheads of missiles, torpedoes, aviation (depth) bombs, artillery shots, land mines with nuclear charges. Designed to hit various targets, destroy fortifications, structures and other tasks. Action Ya. based

nuclear models

Nuclear shells

Nuclear reactions

The nucleus, its structure and biological role.

The core is made up of 1) on the surface of the core apparatus(I have distinguished in it: 2 membranes, perinuclear spaces, pore complexes, lamina.) 2) karyoplasms(nucleoplasms) 3) chromatin(contains euchromatin and heterochromatin) 4) nucleolus(granular and fibrillary component.)

The nucleus is a cell structure that performs the function of storing and transmitting information, and also regulates all the life processes of the cell. The nucleus carries the genetic (hereditary) inf in the form of DNA. The nuclei are usually spherical or ovoid in shape. I am surrounded by a nuclear sheath. The nuclear envelope is permeated with nuclear pores. Through them, the nucleus exchanges substances with the cytoplasm (internal environment of the cell). The outer membrane passes into the endoplasmic reticulum and may be studded with ribosomes. The ratio of the size of the nucleus and the cell depends on the functional activity of the cell. Most cells are mononuclear. Cardiomyocytes can be binuclear. Always binuclear ciliates. They are characterized by nuclear dualism (that is, the nuclei are different in structure and functions). The small nucleus (generative) is diploid. It provides only the sexual process in ciliates. The large (vegetative) nucleus is polyploid. It regulates all other life processes. Cells of some protozoa and skeletal muscle cells are multinucleated.

P.A.Ya. or caroteca ) has a microscopic thickness and is therefore visible under a light microscope. The surface apparatus of the nucleus includes:

a) nuclear membrane, or karyolemma; b) steam complexes; c) peripheral dense plate (PPP), or lamina .

(1) Nuclear envelope (karyolemma). consists of 2 membranes - external and internal, separated by the perinuclear space. Both membranes have the same fluid-mosaic structure as plasma membrane, and differ in the set of proteins. These proteins include enzymes, transporters, and receptors. The outer nuclear membrane is a continuation of the rEPS membranes and can be studded with ribosomes on which protein synthesis takes place. From the side of the cytoplasm, the outer membrane is surrounded by a network of intermediate (vi-mentin) fipaments. Between the outer and inner membranes there is a perinuclear space - a cavity 15-40 nm wide, the contents of which communicate with the cavities of the EPS channels. The composition of the perinuclear space is close to the hyaloplasm and may contain proteins synthesized by ribosomes. home karyolemma function - isolation of hyaloplasm from karyoplasm. Special proteins of nuclear membranes located in the region of nuclear pores perform a transport function. The nuclear membrane is permeated with nuclear pores, through which the connection of karyoplasm and hyaloplasm is carried out. To regulate this connection, pores contain (2) pore complexes. They occupy 3-35% of the surface of the nuclear envelope. The number of nuclear pores with pore complexes is a variable value and depends on the activity of the nucleus. In the area of ​​nuclear pores, the outer and inner nuclear membranes merge. The set of structures associated with a nuclear pore is called nuclear pore complex. A typical pore complex is a complex protein structure - it contains more than 1000 protein molecules. In the center of the pore is central protein globule(granule), from which thin fibrils extend along the radius to peripheral protein globules, forming a pore diaphragm. Along the periphery of the nuclear pore, there are two parallel ring structures with a diameter of 80-120 nm (one from each surface of the karyolemma), each of which is formed by 8 protein granules(globules).

The protein globules of the feather complex are subdivided into central And peripheral . Via peripheral globules macromolecules are transported from the nucleus to the hyaloplasm. (they are fixed in the membrane by a special integral protein. From these granules converge to the center protein fibrils, forming a partition - diaphragm pore)

It involves special proteins of peripheral globules - nucleoporins. In peripheral globules there is a special protein - a carrier of t-RNA molecules

central globule specializes in the transport of mRNA from the nucleus to the hyalopdasma. It contains enzymes involved in the chemical modification of mRNA - its processing.

Granules of pore complexes are structurally related to the proteins of the nuclear lamina, which is involved in their organization.

Functions of the nuclear pore complex:

1. Ensuring the regulation of electoral transport in-in between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.

2. Active transfer in core of proteins

3. Transfer of ribosome subunits into the cytoplasm

(3) PPP or Lamina

layer 80-300 nm thick. adheres internally to the inner nuclear membrane. The inner nuclear membrane is smooth, its integral proteins are associated with the lamina (peripheral dense plate). Lamina consists of special intertwined lamin proteins that form the peripheral karyoskeleton. Lamin proteins belong to the class of intermediate filaments (skeletal fibrils). In mammals, 4 types of these proteins are known - these are Lomimy A, B, B 2 and C. These proteins enter the nucleus from the cytoplasm. Lamins of different types interact between failures and form a protein network under the inner membrane of the nuclear envelope. With the help of lamins "B" PPP is connected to the special integral of the protein shell. Proteins of the peripheral holobules "inside the ring" of the pore complex also interact with PPP. Telomere regions of chromosomes are attached to lamin "A".

Lamina Functions: 1) support the shape of the nucleus. (even if the membranes are destroyed, the core retains its shape due to the lamina and the porous components remain in place.

2) serves as a component of the karyoskeleton

3) participating in the assembly of the nuclear envelope (formation of the karyollema) during cell division.

4) in the interphase nucleus, chromatin is attached to the lamina. thus, the lamina provides the function of fixing chromatin in the nucleus (ensuring the orderly packing of chromatin, participates in the spatial organization of chromatin in the interphase nucleus). Lamin "A" interaction with telomeric regions of chromosomes.

5) provide structures with the organization of pore complexes.

import and export of proteins.

Into the core through the nuclear pores enter: proteins-enzymes synthesized by cytoplasmic ribosomes that are involved in the processes of replication and repair (damage repair in DNA); enzyme proteins involved in the transcription process; repressor proteins that regulate the transcription process; histone proteins (which are associated with a DNA molecule and form chromatin); proteins that make up the subunits of ribosomes: nuclear matrix proteins that form the karyoskeleton; nucleotides; ions of mineral salts, in particular Ca and Mg ions.

From the core mRNAs are released into the cytoplasm. tRNA and ribosome subunits, which are ribonucleoprotein particles (rRNA associated with proteins).

5. Chemical composition and structural organization of chromatin. compaction levels. human chromosomes are structured and classified.

In the cell nucleus, small grains and clumps of material are stained with basic dyes.

Chromatin is a deoxyribonucleoprotein (DNP) and consists of DNA coupled to my-histone proteins or non-histone proteins. Histones and DNA are combined into structures called nucleosomes. Chromatin corresponds to chromosomes, which in the interphase nucleus are represented by long twisted threads and are indistinguishable as individual structures. The severity of spiralization of each of the chromosomes is not the same along their length. The implementation of genetic information is carried out by despiralized sections of chromosomes.

chromatin classification:

1) euchromatin(active despiralized. inf reading (transcription) occurs on it. in the nucleus it is revealed as lighter areas closer to the center of the nucleus) It is assumed that it contains the DNA that is genetically active in the interphase. Euchromatin corresponds to segments of chromosomes that despiralized And open for transcription.

2) heterochromatin(non-working spiralized, condensed, more compact. In the nucleus, it appears as lumps on the periphery.) divided by:constitutive (always inactive, never goes into euchromatin) and Optional (under certain conditions or at certain stages of the immune cycle, it can turn into euchromatin). located closer to the shell of the nucleus, more compact. An example of the accumulation of facult heterochromatin is the Barr body - an inactivated X chromosome in female mammals, which is tightly twisted and inactive in the interphase.

Thus, according to morphological features nucleus (according to the ratio of the content of eu- and heterochromatin), one can evaluate the activity of transcription processes, and, consequently, the synthetic function of the cell.

Chromatin and chromosomes are deoxyribonucleoproteins (DNPs), but chromatin is an untwisted state and chromosomes are a twisted state. There are no chromosomes in the interphase nucleus; chromosomes appear when the nuclear envelope is destroyed (during division).

The structure of chromosomes:

Chromosomes are the most packed state of chromatin.

The chromosomes are distinguished primary constriction (centromere), dividing the chromosome into two arms. The primary constriction is the least spiralized part of the chromosome; during cell division, spindle threads are attached to it during cell division. Some chromosomes have deep secondary straps, separating small sections of chromosomes called satellites. In the region of secondary constrictions, there are genes encoding information about rRNA, therefore, secondary constrictions of chromosomes are called nucleolar organizers.

Three types of chromosomes are distinguished depending on the location of the centromere:

1) metacentric (have shoulders of equal or almost equal size);

2) submetacentric (have shoulders of unequal size);

3) acrocentric (have a rod-shaped form with a short, almost imperceptible second shoulder);

The ends of chromosome arms are called telomeres

Levels of chromatin compatibilization:

1. Nucleosomal- Two and a half turns of the DNA double helix (146-200 base pairs) are wound on the outside of the protein core, forming a nucleosome. Each histone is represented by two molecules. The DNA wraps around the core from the outside, forming two and a half turns. The section of DNA between nucleosomes is called a linker and has a length of 50-60 base pairs. The thickness of the nucleosomal thread is 8-11 nm.

2. Nucleomeric. The nucleosomal structure twists to form a supercoil. Another histone protein HI, which lies between nucleosomes and is associated with a linker, takes part in its formation. 1 histone HI molecule is attached to each linker. HI molecules in complex with linkers interact with each other and cause supercoiling nucleosomal fibril.

As a result, a chromatin fibril is formed, the thickness of which is 30 nm (DNA is compacted 40 times). Supercoiling occurs in two ways. 1) a nucleosomal fibril can form a second-order helix, which has the shape of a solenoid; 2) 8-10 nucleosomes form a large compact structure - nucleomer. This level does not allow the synthesis of RNA from nucleomeric DNA (no transcription occurs).

3. Chromomeric(loop structure). The chromatin fibril forms loops that interlock with each other with the help of special non-histone proteins, or loop centers - chromomeres. Thickness 300 nm.

4. Lame- is formed as a result of convergence of chromomeres along the length. Chromonema contains one giant DNA molecule in complex with proteins, i.e. fibril deoxy-ribonucleoprotein - DNP (400 nm).

5. Chromatid- chromonema folds several times, forming a chromatid body (700 nm). After DNA replication, the chromosome contains 2 chromatids.

6. Chromosomal(1400 nm). Consists of two chromatids. The chromatids are connected by a centromere. When a cell divides, the chromatids diverge, falling into different daughter cells.

human chromosomes

Karyotype - a set of features (number, size, shape, etc.) of a complete set of chromosomes, inherent in cells of a given biological species ( species karyotype), given organism ( individual karyotype) or line (clone) of cells.

For the procedure for determining the karyotype, any population of dividing cells can be used; for determining the human karyotype, either mononuclear leukocytes extracted from a blood sample, the division of which is provoked by the addition of mitogens, or cultures of cells that divide rapidly in the norm (skin fibroblasts, bone marrow cells) are used.

karyotype - a diploid set of chromosomes inherent in the somatic cells of organisms of a given species, which is a species-specific trait and is characterized by a certain number and structure of chromosomes.

The chromosome set of most cells is diploid (2n) - this means that each chromosome has a pair, i.e. homologous chromosome. Usually a diploid (2n) set of chromosomes is formed at the time of fertilization (one of the pair of chromosomes from the father, the other from the mother). Some cells are triploid (Tp), such as endosperm cells.

A change in the number of chromosomes in a person's karyotype can lead to various diseases. The most frequent chromosomal disease a person has down syndrome due to trisomy (one more of the same, extra one is added to a pair of normal chromosomes) along the 21st chromosome. This syndrome occurs with a frequency of 1-2 per 1000.

Known trisomy on the 13th chromosome - Patau Syndrome, as well as on the 18th chromosome - Edwards syndrome, in which the viability of newborns is sharply reduced. They die in the first months of life due to multiple malformations.
Quite often in humans there is a change in the number of sex chromosomes. Monosomy X is known among them (only one (X0) is present from a pair of chromosomes) - this is Shereshevsky-Turner syndrome. Trisomy X is less common Klinefelter syndrome(XXY, XXXY, HUU, etc.)

6. Hyaloplasm. Organelles, their classification. biological membranes.

hyaloplasm - a part of the cytoplasm of animal and plant cells that does not contain structures that are visible under a light microscope.

Hyaloplasm(hyaloplasma; from the Greek hyalinos - transparent) is approximately 53-55% of the total volume of the cytoplasm (cytoplasma), forming a homogeneous mass complex composition. Hyaloplasm contains proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, enzymes. With the participation of ribosomes in the hyaloplasm, proteins are synthesized, various reactions of intermediate exchange occur. The hyaloplasm also contains organelles, inclusions and the cell nucleus.

The main role of the hyaloplasm is the unification of all cellular structures in relation to their chemical interaction and the provision of transport biochemical processes.

Organelles (organellae) are essential microstructures for all cells that perform certain vital functions. Distinguish membrane and non-membrane organelles.

TO membrane organelles , delimited from the surrounding hyaloplasm membranes, include the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria.

Endoplasmic reticulum is a single continuous structure formed by a system of tanks, tubes and flattened sacs. On electron micrographs, a granular (rough, granular) and non-granular (smooth, agranular) endoplasmic reticulum is distinguished. The outer side of the granular network is covered with ribosomes, the non-granular network is devoid of ribosomes. The granular endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes (on ribosomes) and transports proteins. The non-granular network synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates and participates in their metabolism (for example, steroid hormones in the adrenal cortex and Leydig cells (sustenocytes) of the testicles; glycogen in the liver cells). One of the most important functions of the endoplasmic reticulum is the synthesis of membrane proteins and lipids for all cell organelles.

golgi complex is a collection of sacs, vesicles, cisterns, tubes, plates, bounded by a biological membrane. The elements of the Golgi complex are interconnected by narrow channels. In the structures of the Golgi complex, the synthesis and accumulation of polysaccharides, protein-carbohydrate complexes, which are excreted from the cells, take place. This is how secretory granules are formed. The Golgi complex is present in all human cells, except for erythrocytes and horny scales of the epidermis. In most cells, the Golgi complex is located around or near the nucleus, in exocrine cells - above the nucleus, in the apical part of the cell. The inner convex surface of the structures of the Golgi complex faces the endoplasmic reticulum, and the outer, concave surface, faces the cytoplasm.

The membranes of the Golgi complex are formed by the granular endoplasmic reticulum and are carried by transport vesicles. From the outside of the Golgi complex, secretory vesicles constantly bud off, and the membranes of its tanks are constantly updated. Secretory vesicles supply the membrane material for the cell membrane and the glycocalyx. This ensures the renewal of the plasma membrane.

Lysosomes are vesicles with a diameter of 0.2-0.5 microns, containing about 50 types of various hydrolytic enzymes (proteases, lipases, phospholipases, nucleases, glycosidases, phosphatases). Lysosomal enzymes are synthesized on the ribosomes of the granular endoplasmic reticulum, from where they are transported by transport vesicles to the Golgi complex. Primary lysosomes bud from the vesicles of the Golgi complex. The lysosomes maintain an acidic environment, its pH ranges from 3.5 to 5.0. The membranes of lysosomes are resistant to the enzymes contained in them and protect the cytoplasm from their action. Violation of the permeability of the lysosomal membrane leads to the activation of enzymes and severe damage to the cell up to its death.

In secondary (mature) lysosomes (phagolysosomes), biopolymers are digested to monomers. The latter are transported through the lysosomal membrane into the hyaloplasm of the cell. Undigested substances remain in the lysosome, as a result of which the lysosome turns into the so-called residual body of high electron density.

Mitochondria(mitochondrii), which are the "energy stations of the cell", are involved in the processes of cellular respiration and the conversion of energy into forms available for use by the cell. Their main functions are the oxidation of organic substances and the synthesis of adenosine triphosphoric acid (ATP). Many large mitochondria in cardiomyocytes, muscle fibers of the diaphragm. They are located in groups between myofibrils, surrounded by glycogen granules and elements of a non-granular endoplasmic reticulum. Mitochondria are double membrane organelles (each about 7 nm thick). Between the outer and inner mitochondrial membranes there is an intermembrane space 10-20 nm wide.

To non-membrane organelles include the cell center of eukaryotic cells and ribosomes present in the cytoplasm of both eu- and prokaryotic cells.

Ribosome is a rounded ribonucleoprotein particle with a diameter of 20-30 nm. It consists of small and large subunits, the combination of which occurs in the presence of messenger (messenger) RNA (mRNA). One mRNA molecule usually combines several ribosomes like a string of beads. Such a structure is called polysome. Polysomes are freely located in the ground substance of the cytoplasm or attached to the membranes of the rough cytoplasmic reticulum. In both cases, they serve as a site for active protein synthesis.

70S ribosomes are found in prokaryotes and in eukaryotic chloroplasts and mitochondria. 8OS ribosomes, somewhat larger, are found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotes. During protein synthesis, ribosomes move along the mRNA. The process is more efficient if not one, but several ribosomes move along the mRNA. Such chains of ribosomes on mRNA are called polyribosomes, or polysomes.

MEMBRANES:

all membranes form lipoprotein films; have a lipid bilayer.

The membranes contain up to 20% water. lipids.

membranes consist of three classes of lipids: phospholipids, glycolipids and cholesterol. Phospholipids and glycolipids are composed of two long hydrophobic hydrocarbon "tails" that are associated with a charged hydrophilic "head". Cholesterol stiffens the membrane by occupying the free space between the hydrophobic lipid tails and preventing them from bending. Therefore, membranes with a low cholesterol content are more flexible, and those with a high cholesterol content are more rigid and brittle.

Cell membranes are often asymmetric, that is, the layers differ in lipid composition, the transition of an individual molecule from one layer to another (the so-called flip flop) is difficult. The composition and orientation of membrane proteins differ.

One of the most important functions biomembranes - barrier. For example, the peroxisome membrane protects the cytoplasm from peroxides that are dangerous for the cell.

Another important property of a biomembrane is selective permeability.

The concept of the unity of material structures and the ontological massless wave medium makes it possible to understand the nature of all types of interaction and the systemic organization of the structure of nucleons, nuclei and atoms. Neutrons play a key role in the formation and maintenance of the stability of nuclei, which is provided by two boson-exchange bonds between protons and neutrons. Alpha particles are the main "bricks" in the structure. The structures of the nuclei, close in shape to spherical, are formed in accordance with the periods in the periodic system of D.I. Mendeleev successive addition complex n-p-n, alpha particles and neutrons. The reason for the radioactive decay of atoms is not the optimal structure of the nucleus: an excess of the number of protons or neutrons, asymmetry. The alpha structure of nuclei explains the causes and energy balance of all types of radioactive decay.

nucleon structure

alpha particles

"boson-exchange" forces

stability

radioactivity

1. Vernadsky V.I. Biosphere and noosphere. – M.: Rolf. 2002. - 576 p.

2. Dmitriev I.V. Rotation along one, two or three of its own internal axes is a necessary condition and form for the existence of particles of the physical world. - Samara: Samara book. publishing house, 2001. - 225 p.

3. Polyakov V.I. Exam for "Homo sapiens" (From ecology and macroecology... to the WORLD). - Saransk: publishing house of the Mordovian University, 2004. - 496 p.

4. Polyakov V.I. SPIRIT OF THE WORLD instead of chaos and vacuum (Physical structure of the Universe) // "Modern high technologies" - -2004. No. 4. - P.17-20.

5. Polyakov V.I. Electron = positron?! //Modern science-intensive technologies. - 2005. - No. 11. - S. 71-72.

6. Polyakov V.I. The birth of matter // Basic Research 2007. No. 12. - P.46-58.

7. Polyakov V.I. Exam for "Homo sapiens - II". From the concepts of natural science of the twentieth century to natural understanding. - Publishing house "Academy of natural sciences". - 2008. - 596 p.

8. Polyakov V.I. Why are protons stable and neutrons radioactive? // "Radioactivity and radioactive elements in the human environment": IV International Conference, Tomsk, June 5-7, 2013. - Tomsk, 2013. - P. 415-419.

9. Polyakov V.I. Fundamentals of natural understanding of the structure of nucleons, nuclei, stability and radioactivity of atoms // Ibid. - S. 419-423.

10. Polyakov V.I. Structures of atoms - orbital wave model// Successes of modern natural sciences. - 2014. No. 3. - P.108-114.

12. Physical quantities: Handbook // A.P. Babichev, N.A. Babushkina, A.M. Bratkovsky and others; Ed. I.S. Grigorieva, E.Z. Melikhova. – M.: Energoatomizdat, 1991. – 1232 p.

Modern physics offers drop, shell, generalized and other models to describe the structure of nuclei. The binding of nucleons in nuclei is explained by the binding energy due to "special specific nuclear forces". The properties of these forces (attraction, short range, charge independence, etc.) are accepted as an axiom. The question "why so?" arises for almost every thesis. “It is accepted (?) that these forces are the same for nucleons… (?). For light nuclei, the specific binding energy increases steeply, undergoing whole line jumps (?), then more slowly increases (?), and then gradually decreases. “The most stable are the so-called “magic nuclei”, in which the number of protons or neutrons is equal to one of the magic numbers: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126 ... (?) The doubly magic nuclei are especially stable: 2He2, 8O8, 20Ca20, 20Ca28, 82Pb126" (the left and right indices correspond to the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, respectively). Why do "magic" nuclei exist, and the magic isotope 28Ni28 with a maximum specific energy bonds 8.7 MeV - short-lived
(T1 / 2 = 6.1 days)? "The nuclei are characterized by an almost constant binding energy and a constant density, independent of the number of nucleons" (?!). This means that the binding energy characterizes nothing, as well as the tabular values ​​of the mass defect (for 20Са20 it is less than for 21Sc24, for 28Ni30 it is less than for 27Co32 and 29Cu34, etc.). Physics recognizes that "the complex nature of nuclear forces and the difficulties of solving equations ... have not allowed to develop a unified consistent theory of the atomic nucleus until now." The science of the 20th century, built on the postulates of the theory of relativity, abolished logic and causation, and declared mathematical phantoms a reality. Without knowing the structure of nuclei and atoms, scientists have created atomic bombs and are trying to imitate the Big Bang of the Universe in colliders ...

“The revolution in the natural sciences of A. Einstein” replaced the “space-time continuum” equations with the works of dozens of prominent scientists (Huygens, Hooke, Jung, Navier, Stokes, Hertz, Faraday, Maxwell, Lorentz, Thomson, Tesla, etc.) who developed theories electromagnetism and atomism in the "ether" medium. Should go back a century...

Purpose and method of work. The way out of the impasse of science is possible on the basis of understanding the essence of the "ether" medium. IN AND. Vernadsky wrote: “The radiations of the NON-MATERIAL environment cover all accessible, all conceivable space... Around us, in ourselves, everywhere and everywhere, without interruption, forever changing, coinciding and colliding, there are radiations of different wavelengths - from waves whose length is calculated in ten millionths fractions of a millimeter, to long ones measured in kilometers ... All space is filled with them ... ". Everything material is formed by this ontological, non-material, wave medium and exists in interaction with it. "Ether" is not a gas and not a chaos of whirlwinds, but "Action Ordering Chaos - SPIRIT". In the environment of the SPIRIT from a single elementary particle - a masson (electron / positron), structures from nucleons, nuclei and atoms to the Universe are regularly and systematically organized.

A model of the structure of nuclei is developed in the work, which explains their properties, the reasons for the bonding of nucleons in nuclei, special stability and radioactivity.

Structure and properties of nucleons

The nucleon model accepted in physics is built from dozens of hypothetical particles with the fabulous name "quark" and fabulous differences, including: color, charm, strangeness, charm. This model is too complicated, has no evidence, and cannot even explain the mass of the particles. The model of the structure of nucleons, which explains all their properties, was developed by I.V. Dmitriev (Samara) on the basis of the principle of maximum configurational entropy discovered by him (equality of structural elements on the surface and in the volume of the primary particles) and the thesis that particles exist only during rotation “along one, two or three proper internal axes” . The nucleon is formed from 6 hexagonal structures of π+(-)-mesons surrounding the plus-muon μ+, and their structure is built by selecting the number of balls: electrons and positrons of two types. Such a structure was substantiated on the basis of the interaction of the material particles of the massons and the SPIRIT medium in the work, and then refined and proved on the basis of constructing the structure of mesons in accordance with the fine structure constant
1/α = 2h(ε0/μ0)1/2/e2 = 137.036 . Physicists W. Pauli and R. Feynman puzzled over the physical meaning of this constant, but in the SPIRIT medium it is obvious: only at a relative distance 1/α from the charge does the wave interaction of matter and medium exist.

The calculated number of massons (me) in the muon structure should be 3/2α = 205.6 , and the muon mass 206.768 me . In its structure of 207 massons, the central one determines the charge ±e and the spin ±1/2, and 206 cancel each other out. Pions, as postulated by I. Dmitriev, are formed from "biaxial" electrons and positrons (spin = 0, charge +/-, mass me). In the SPIRIT medium, bosons with a mass of 2/3 me should be formed as the first stage in the formation of matter from quanta of the background radiation of the Universe in the Sun's atmosphere. There should be 3/α = 411 such particles in a dense structure, and their mass should be 3/α · 2/3 me = 274 me , which corresponds to pi-mesons (mπ = 273.210 me ). Their structure is similar to muons: the particle in the center determines the charge ± 2/3e and spin 0, and the 205 particles are mutually balanced.

The structure of the proton from the central muon and 6 pions, taking into account the mass loss for the exchange (“nuclear”) bond of 6 massons (the bond between the muon and pions) and 6 bosons (the bond between pions, 4 me), explains its mass.

MP \u003d 6mp + mm - 10me \u003d 6 273.210 me + +206.768 me - 10me \u003d 1836.028 me.

This value, with an accuracy of 0.007%, corresponds to the proton mass Мр = 1836.153me. The proton charge +e and the spin ±1/2 are determined by the central masson+ in the central muon+. The proton model explains all of its properties, including stability. In the SPIRIT medium, the interaction of material particles occurs as a result of the resonance of the "clouds" of the medium associated with them (coincidence of shape and frequency). The proton is stable, as it is protected from material particles and quanta by a shell of pions having a different wave field.

The mass of the proton is 1836.153 me, and the mass of the neutron is 1838.683 me. Compensation for the proton charge, by analogy with the hydrogen atom, will provide an electron in a wave orbit in its equatorial plane (“one axis of rotation”), and its “biaxial rotation” turns out to be “its own” in the pion cloud. Let us add 2 bosons in opposite pions of the neutron; they compensate for the orbital momentum, and the mass of the neutron will be 1838.486 me. This structure explains the mass of the neutron (difference of 0.01%), the absence of a charge, and, most importantly, the "nuclear" forces. The “extra” boson is weakly bound in the structure and provides an “exchange” connection, occupying a “vacancy” in the neighboring pion of the proton with the nuclear frequency, it displaces another boson returning to the neutron. The "extra" bosons in the neutron are its "two arms" holding the nuclei together.

The neutron in the nuclei of elements ensures the stability of the nuclei, and itself is "saved" in the nucleus from decay (T1 / 2 \u003d 11.7 min.), The cause of which is its " weak spots”: the orbit of an electron and the presence in the “pion coat” of two of the six pions for an “extra” boson.

Scientists of the 20th century came up with dozens of theories and hundreds of "elementary" particles, but could not explain the structure of atoms, and Nature needed only two such particles to create two nucleons, and of them 92 elements and build the entire material WORLD!!!

Alpha structure of atomic nuclei

The isotopes of all elements most common in Nature have an even number of neutrons (with the exception of 4Be5 and 7N7). In total, out of 291 stable isotopes, 75% have an even number of neutrons and only 3% have even-odd nuclei. This indicates a preference for the bond of a proton with two neutrons, the absence of proton-proton bonds, and the "charge independence of nuclear forces." The framework of the nuclei is formed by neutron-proton bonds, where each neutron can hold 2 protons by the exchange of two bosons (for example, 2He1). In heavy nuclei, the relative number of neutrons increases, strengthening the framework of the nucleus.

The above arguments and the principle of systematic organization of matter in a non-material environment allow us to propose a model of "block construction" of the structure of the nuclei of elements, in which the "block" is the nucleus of the helium atom - alpha particle. Helium is the main element of cosmological nucleosynthesis, and in terms of abundance in the Universe, it is the second element after hydrogen. Alpha particles are the optimal structure of firmly bound two pairs of nucleons. This is a very compact, tightly connected spherical structure, which can be geometrically represented as a sphere with a cube inscribed in it with nodes in opposite diagonals of 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Each neutron has two "nuclear-exchange" bonds with two protons. The electromagnetic coupling of the approach of a neutron with protons is provided by an orbital electron in its structure (confirmation: magnetic moments: μ (p) \u003d 2.793 μN, μ (n) \u003d -1.913 μN, where μN is the Bohr nuclear magneton).

The supposed "Coulomb" repulsion of protons does not contradict their approach. The explanation for this, as well as in the structures of muons from massons, lies in the understanding of the "charge" as an integral property of the mass of a particle - the movement of the SPIRIT medium, associated with the wave motion of the mass, expressed as a force in this medium (the unit of charge can be a coulomb2 - a force multiplied by surface). The two types of +/- charges are left and right direction of rotation. When two protons approach each other in the equatorial plane, the movement of the “captured” medium will be opposite, and when approaching “from the poles”, it occurs in one direction, contributing to the approach. The approach of particles is limited by the interaction of their “field” shells corresponding to the “Compton” wavelength: λК(р) = 1.3214 10-15 m, and λК(n) = 1.3196 10-15 m. of a neutron, boson-exchange (“nuclear”) forces between them act at such a distance.

The structures of nuclei from alpha particles are formed with a minimum volume and a shape close to spherical. The structure of alpha particles allows them to combine by breaking one n-p boson-exchange bond and forming two n-p and p-n bonds with a neighboring alpha particle. With any number of protons in the nucleus, a single spherical field is formed, the intensity of which is the same as if the charge were concentrated in the center (Ostrogradsky-Gauss rule). The formation of a single field of the nucleus is confirmed by the orbital-wave structure of atoms, where all s, p, d, f orbits form spherical shells.

The construction of the nuclei of elements from alpha particles occurs systematically, sequentially in each period based on the nucleus of the previous element. In nuclei with an even number of protons, the bonds are balanced; the appearance of an additional proton in the structure of the next atom is not possible. In the nuclei of atoms after oxygen, the addition of a proton occurs according to the scheme (n-p-n). A clear sequence of formation of structures in accordance with the periods and series in the table of D.I. Mendeleev - confirmation of the validity of the proposed model of nuclei and serves as confirmation of the thought of V.I. Vernadsky about the “succession of atoms”: “The process of regular impermanence of atoms inevitably and irresistibly occurs ... Taking the history of any atom in cosmic time, we see that at certain intervals of time, immediately, in equal jumps, in the direction of the polar vector of time, it passes into another atom, another chemical element. Diagrams of the nuclei of the first periods of atoms are presented in Table. one.

Table 1

Estimated structure of nuclei (flat projection) of the main isotopes of stable atoms from alpha particles (α), protons (p) and neutrons (n): pAn

The next 5th and 6th periods of the elements can be modeled similarly, taking into account the fact that an increase in the number of protons will require an increase in the number of neutrons both in the inner frame of the nuclei and in the surface layer, according to the n-n scheme.

The presented illustrative flat projection of the structure of the nuclei can be supplemented by an orbital scheme corresponding to the periods in the periodic table
(Table 2).

table 2

Nuclear shells of elements and periods in the table D.I. Mendeleev

Shells are built like the structure of an atom, where spherical shells of electron orbits in each period are formed at a larger radius than in the previous period.

Elements after 82Pb126 (83Bi126 T1/2 ≈1018 years) are not stable (given in brackets in Table 2). The 41 alpha particles in the structure of lead form an electrical charge, which requires an additional 40-44 neutrons to maintain the stability of the nuclei. The ratio of the number of neutrons and protons n/p> (1.5÷1.6) is the limit of stability for heavy nuclei. The half-lives of nuclei after 103 "elements" are seconds. These "elements" cannot preserve the structure of the nucleus and form the electron shell of the atom. It is hardly worth spending the money and time of scientists on their artificial production. "Islands of stability" can not be!

The model of the alpha structure of the nuclei explains the forces of interconnection, stability, and all the properties of the elements (the completeness of the structure of inert gases, the abundance in nature and the special stability of elements with a symmetrical structure: O, C, Si, Mg, Ca, similarity to Cu, Ag, Au ...) .

Causes of "non-spontaneous" decay

The structures of radioactive isotopes are not symmetrical, they have an unbalanced n-p pair. The half-life of isotopes is the shorter, the more their structure differs from the optimal one. The radioactivity of isotopes with a large number of protons is explained by the fact that the "exchange" forces of neutrons are not able to hold their total charge, and the decay of isotopes with an excess of neutrons is explained by their excess for the optimal structure. The alpha structure of the nuclei makes it possible to explain the causes of all types of radioactive decay.

Alpha decay. In nuclear physics, "according to modern concepts, alpha particles are formed at the moment of radioactive decay when two protons and two neutrons moving inside the nucleus meet ... the departure of an alpha particle from the nucleus is possible due to the tunnel effect through a potential barrier with a height of at least 8.8 MeV" . Everything happens by chance: movement, meeting, formation, a set of energy and departure through a certain barrier. In nuclei with an alpha structure, there are no barriers to escape. When the strength of the total charge of all protons exceeds the boson-exchange forces of containment of all neutrons, the nucleus throws off the alpha particle, the least bound in the structure, and "rejuvenates" by 2 charges. The appearance of the possibility of alpha decay depends on the structure of the nuclei. It appears at 31 alpha particles in the 62Sm84 nucleus (n/p = 1.31), and becomes necessary from 84Po (n/p = 1.48).

β+ decay. In nuclear physics, “the process of β + decay proceeds as if one of the protons of the nucleus turned into a neutron, emitting a positron and a neutrino: 11p→ 01n + +10e + 00νe… such reactions cannot be observed for a free proton. However, for a proton bound in the nucleus, due to the nuclear interaction of particles, these reactions turn out to be energetically possible. Explanations of the reaction process, the appearance of a positron in the nucleus and an increase in mass by 2.5 me for the transformation of a proton into a neutron, physics replaced the postulate: "the process is possible." This possibility is explained by the alpha structure. Let us consider the classical decay scheme: 15P15 → 14Si16 + +10e + 00νe. In accordance with Table 1, the structure of the stable isotope 15Р16 (7α-npn). Isotope structure
15P15 - (7α-np), but the bond (n-p) in the structure is weak, so the half-life is 2.5 minutes. The decay scheme can be presented in several stages. A weakly bound proton is pushed out by the nuclear charge, but "grabs" the neutron of the alpha particle and destroys it with the release of 4 bond bosons. "Biaxial" bosons cannot exist in the SPIRIT environment and are transformed into "triaxial" massons with different moments (+ and -; electron and positron) with the emission of neutrinos and antineutrinos according to the schemes
β-: (e--- + e+++ → e- -++ + ν0-) and β+: (e--- + e+++ → e+ --+ + ν0+). The positron is pushed out of the nucleus, and the electron in orbit around the former proton compensates for its charge, turning it into a neutron. Suggested reaction scheme: (7α-np) → (6α- npn-р-np + 2е--- + 2e+++) → ((6 α) + (npnp) + n + (pe-)) + e+ + ν0- + ν0+ → (7 α -nn) + e+ + ν0- + ν0+ . The scheme explains the cause and process of decay, the change in the mass of particles and assumes the emission of 2 pulses: a neutrino and an antineutrino.

β- -decay. “Since the electron does not fly out of the nucleus and does not escape from the shell of the atom, it was assumed that the β-electron is born as a result of processes occurring inside the nucleus ...” . There is an explanation! Such a process is typical for nuclei that have in their structure the number of neutrons greater than that of stable isotopes of this element. The structure of the nucleus of the next isotope after the nucleus with the formed even-even structure grows in a “block” n-p-n, and the isotope following in mass after it contains one more “not very superfluous” neutron. A neutron can quickly "drop" an orbital electron, becoming a proton, and form an alpha structure: npn + (n→p) = npnp = α. The electron and antineutrino carry away the excess mass and energy, and the charge of the nucleus increases by one.

ε-capture. With a lack of neutrons for a stable structure, the excess charge of protons attracts and captures an electron from one of the inner shells of the atom, emitting neutrinos. The proton in the nucleus turns into a neutron.

Conclusion

The presented model of the alpha structure of the nuclei of elements makes it possible to explain the patterns of formation of nuclei, their stability, causes, stages and energy balance of all types of radioactive decay. The structures of protons, neutrons, nuclei and atoms of elements, confirmed by the correspondence to the universal constants, which are the physical characteristics of the SPIRIT medium, explain all properties and all interactions. Modern nuclear and atomic physics are not capable of this. It is necessary to revise the basic concepts: from postulates to understanding.

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