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Nesterov AK Peter I reforms [Electronic resource] // Educational Encyclopedia Website

Peter's reforms of the first - the topic of extreme importance today. Peter is a symbol of the urgent public need for change, and in the change of cardinal, fast and at the same time successful. Such a need, even the need, exists now. And the experience of transformations of those years may be invaluable for today's reformers of Russia. They can avoid those beggars who allowed Peter, seeking to raise the country from the knees.

The value of Peter's first reforms

The identity of the first emperor of Russia, its transformation and their results are an exceptional example for all generations.

In the history of each state there are critical moments, after which the country rises to a qualitatively new stage of development. There were three such periods in Russia: Peter the Great reforms, the Great October Socialist Revolution and Decay Soviet Union. Petrovsky transformations held three centuries ago, had a huge impact on the imperial era, which was launched during almost two centuries; Unlike most Kings, Peter was not forgotten in Soviet times.

In the last twenty-five years of reform of the first quarter of the eighteenth century, also have relevant importance, because today, as well as, reforms are needed, capable of putting our country in one row with Western states.

As a result of Peter's reforms, a new strong state was created, capable of competing with the advanced powers of Europe. If there were no Peter, then there is no way out of strategically important seas, not able to trade under the new conditions, uneducated Moscow would have become the province of Sweden or Turkey. To defeat, we had to learn from the Europeans. All civilizations adopted the experience of others, only two developed almost originally: India and China. Muscovy, who made up many positive and negative features of Asian culture during the Mongolian yoke, combined them together with the remnants of the Byzantine culture, with a certain proportion of European culture, penetrating into the country through a few trade relations. This indicates the absence of any originality and to Peter. Peter, dividing all the negative, outstretched itself, and progressive, completely destroyed the first and many times multiplied the latter.

Peter the first forced the country for a quarter of a century to make such a huge step forward, which other countries did in several centuries.

But it is impossible to forget about how the price it was done than donated by the Russian people, seeking to enter the European arena. The question of violence in reforms is very controversial. Peter forced everyone to obey his will, forced himself with rugs and sticks, and everyone conquered before his will. But on the other hand, there were state orders that were regularly paid. Without this or without another, such a grand success would be unattainable. On the question of the possibility of avoiding violence in reformist activities, it is possible to answer that without it the Russian man and Russian boyar from the shop did not raise. The core of Muscovy was the main obstacle to any reforms. It was possible to overcome it only by force, and the power of rigid and cruel.

Chronological table of the main reforms of Peter I

Table. Peter's reforms of the first.

	Peter I. reform	Description of reforms
	Fleet construction Formation of a regular army Urban reform The first reform of Russian life	The fleet was built in Voronezh and the surroundings for the campaign on the Azov. Cumpands are organized from peasants, landowners, clergy, subsidence and the proteinous population, merchants of living room and cloth hundreds. 16 ships were built and 60 brigantin. A call for the service of everyone from among the unlocked people, a salary is 2 times higher than that of Sagittarov. An introduced recruit system. The city reform transferred the Poshensky Population to the management of the Burmister Chamber, the role of the Boyar Duma was reduced, for training specialists Peter sent Russian to learn to European countries. The first reform of Russian life concerned the ban on the wearing beard, those who wanted to leave the beard paid the tax on the treasury (except the clergy), the peasants with a beard paid the collection at the entrance to the city.
	Beginning of military reform	The elimination of Streletsky troops in 1698, the formation of regiments with foreigners officers who were insolvented. The formation of a new army based on the recruitment service after the defeat near Narva.
	Military reform	The duty for the nobles to bear military service from the soldiers' rank. Creation of 50 military schools. Shipbuilding moved to Petersburg.
	Beginning of construction manuff	Construction of iron manuffs in the Urals and in the Olonets Territory.
	Reform of the Mint	The centered system was based on a decimal principle: the ruble - the Grivennik - a penny. It was an advanced division that does not have analogues in many Western countries. The state monopoly on the chasing of coins and the ban on the removal from the country of gold and silver. The ruble by weight is equal to Talera.
	Foreign trade reform	Protectionist policy. High duties on the export of raw materials. Foreign trade is concentrated in the hands of the state.
	Administrative reform	Establishment 8 provinces, the creation of a Senate, the introduction of the Senate Prosecutor General to control the activities of the Senate, the abolition of orders and the creation of colleges. In 1714, a decree was issued on union assault to strengthen the absolute monarchy. In 1721, a sacred synod was formed, the church became a state institution.
	Reform Education	The many schools have been opened, textbooks appeared, applied disciplines were put forward to the first place, civil fonts and Arabic figures were introduced, the first library was created, which became the basis for the library of the Academy of Sciences, the appearance of the first newspaper, the Kunstkamera is open - the first museum in Russia.
	Changes in Russian	The prohibition of long-oil Russian clothes, prescribed to drink tea and coffee, the assembly introduced, put an end to the positiveness of Russian women. The life of the nobles and merchants has changed so much that the peasants they began to seem ingenic. Changes almost did not touch the life of the peasants.
	Change of summer	Improving the Julian calendar.
	The emergence of a publicly available Russian theater	"Comedy Khorichrich" on Red Square in Moscow. Later the theater of the Slavic-Greek-Roman Academy appeared.
	Changes in culture	Portraits appeared. In the literature, the genre of "history" appeared. The secular beginning prevailed over church.

Peter I Reform Backgrounds

French historians are the most important borders in the history of France consider the Great French Revolution. Petrovsky reforms can be brought as analog in the history of Russia. But it is impossible to think that the transformation began under Peter the first, that all the merit in their holding belongs only to him. The transformations began to him, he only found funds, the possibilities and very timely completed everything that he was inherited. By the time of the promotion of Peter on the throne for reforms existed all the necessary prerequisites.

Russia at that time was the largest state of the old world. Its territory stretched from the Northern Ocean to the Caspian Sea, from Dnipro to the shores of the Okhotsk Sea, but the population was only 14 million people, focused mainly in the center and in the north of the European part of Russia. Originality geographic location Countries caused duality in the economic and political development of Russia: she sought to Europe, but she had considerable interests and in the East. To become the main intermediary in Europe's trade with Asia, Russia was supposed to be able to conduct European cases. But neither the trade, nor military fleet state until the end of the seventeenth century did not have, since there was no way out of strategically important seas, and Russian merchants could not compete with ingeneses. Swedes, whose trading fleet by the end of the seventeenth century amounted to 800 ships, dominated the shores of the Baltic, and Turkey and the Crimean Khanate owned to all the coast of the Black Sea.

Foreign trade was carried out only after two ports: Astrakhan and Arkhangelsk. But through Astrakhan, trade was only with the East, and the path to the White Sea was very long, difficult, dangerous and open only in the summer. The merchants of other countries enjoyed it reluctantly, and upon arrival in Arkhangelsk, they immediately underestimated the price of goods, and the Russians refused to sell at a different price besides the one that they installed themselves. As a result, the product spoiled right in warehouses. Therefore, the priority for the country was to conquer the exit to the Baltic and the Black Sea. Karl Marx, not inclined to approve crowded heads of absolute monarchies, studied Russia's foreign policy and proved that the territorial acquisitions of Peter were historically justified by the objective needs of Russia's development. Although Peter was not the originator of these areas of foreign policy: attempts to restore the exits to the seas were taken to Peter: the Livonian war of Ivan the Terrible and hiking in Crimea Knyaz V.V. Golitsyn under the princess Sofye.

The level of development of the West countries was so superior to the Russian, which threatened the country's enslavement, transform into one of the colonies. In order to avoid this threat and elimination of retardation in Russia, it was necessary to hold a number of economic, military, administrative and political reforms. All economic prerequisites have already developed in the seventeenth century: the growth of production, the expansion of the range of agricultural products, the development of craft production, the appearance of manufactories, the development of trade. Political prerequisites for the reforms were a significant strengthening of autocracy, which contributed to the rapid implementation of reforms, the growth of the economic role of merchants, the desire of reforms on the part of the local nobility. By the end of the seventeenth century, the trend of the formation of absolutism was increasingly clearly observed in the country. Zemskaya Cathedrals stopped their activities, the Boyar Duma lost its role, along with her a personal office of the king, who received the name of the order of mysteries.

To manage the war with Sweden, which had the most severe army in Europe, a well-organized and experienced army was needed. The main shock force of the Russian army remained the noble cavalry, the Street Troops were not a regular army, only during the war the army was gathered, more resembling the national militia, small hired shelves of the "new building" were not widespread. To reform the army, we needed a good economic and administrative support. There was no one again in Russia again. Therefore, the transformations were to be conducted in all three spheres at the same time.

For the start of reforms, Peter first in the Great Embassy was involved, during which the young king met the economic, cultural and technical achievements of Europe. The reason for the beginning of the main transformations was the defeat under Narva at the very beginning of the Northern War, in November 1700. After it began military reform, followed by economic reform.

The first transformations of Peter the first

The first transformations began after the first Azov campaign of 1695, during which the fortress at the mouth did not succeed due to the lack of the Russian fleet troops. The Turks had free access to the fortress from the sea and supplied precipitated supplies and weapons, and it was impossible to prevent them from this without the presence of a fleet. Peter, who personally took part in the siege, did not put his hands after the defeat. He instructs the command of all land forces to generalissimus A.S. Shaina, and the fleet, which was necessary to build, - Admiral Lefutu. The decree on the construction of the fleet was published in January 1696. The future fleet was supposed to be built in Voronezh and the surrounding places. Such a choice was not done by chance: here a long time ago built flat river ships - Strugs, and during the Chigirin and Crimean trips, maritime ships were built here; Good ship pines grew around Voronezh. At the end of May 1696, the Russian army again approached Azov. Thanks to the built fleet, she was accompanied by success: Turkish garrison capitulated.

The so-called coupling should be built, the principle of organization of which was quite simple: from ten thousand peasants needed a single ship into water. Large landowners built ships alone, the rest were going to the company so that all its members had a total of ten thousand peasants. Church decade should have shutting a ship with eight thousand peasants into the water, the principle remained the same. In total, 42 secular and 19 spiritual kumpantsv were formed. Posad and the Black-sized population, as well as the merchants of the living room and the cloth hundreds were combined into one kumpange, obliged to build 14 ships and headed by the Commission from five guests. Another builder of the Voronezh Fleet was the treasury. Admiralty struck ships for money collected from secular and spiritual decades who had less than a hundred peasants. As a result, they were built by 16 ships and 60 brigantin.

Decrees from November 8 and 17, 1699 laid the foundation for the formation of a new regular army. The first called for the service of everyone from among the unsappecified people, and the salary was 2 times more than that of Streltsov and amounted to 11 rubles a year. Danish Ambassador Paul Gaines wrote to Copenhagen: "Now he (Peter) went through the organization of his army; he wants to bring up to 50,000, cavalry to 25,000. The second decree meant the beginning of the recruit system. From a certain number of peasant and landing courtyards, some recruit were called, depending on the needs of the army, the number of courtyards constantly changed.

The urban reform of 1699 had financial and economic and administrative importance at the same time: the Posovy population was seized from the Department of Governor and moved to the Burmister Chamber, which carried out judicial functions over the population and became a responsible collector of direct and indirect taxes. An important change occurred in the Boyarskoy Duma: her role was practically sued, and a non-corrosive element began to penetrate. The first formation in the Duma became F.Yu. Romodanovsky, who had only rank of the So-Square. Not having schools for training specialists, Peter sent Russian people to learn abroad to acquire practical skills on shipbuilding and ship management.

Changes touched I. external view: After returning from abroad, Peter itself covered the beard with some boyars. Those who wished to leave the beard were to pay for the tax for her wearing. Moreover, the amount of tax was determined by the social position of its owner: the merchants were most paid, they were serviced by serviced people and prominent representatives of the Posal population, to know them, the least paid simple landing people and boyars. Leaving beards was allowed only by the clergy and peasants, but the last at the entrance to the city should have paid one penny. As a result, convinced Borodachi suffered, and won the royal treasury.

The transformations were just beginning, they had not yet affected the essential foundations of the Russian state, but were already quite tangible for the people and noticeable by the part. Danish Ambassador Paul Gaines wrote to Copenhagen: "The king committed lately A number of miracles ... Compare Russia with the old one - the difference is the same as between the day and night. "

Military reform of Peter I

One of the most significant and important transformations of Peter the first can be considered a military reform that allowed to create an army that meets all military standards of that time. At first, the Russian troops defeated the enemy with a superior number, then equal, and at the end smaller. And the enemy was one of the best armies of Europe of the time. As a result of the reform, the noble cavalry with hiking courtyards and the shelves of ingenic building, headed by Peter's predecessors, were transformed into a regular army, which due to a long war herself became permanent. Streletsky army after the insurgency of 1698 was destroyed. But it was destroyed not only for political reasons, Sagittarius by the end of the century no longer represented the real military force capable of withstanding the opponent's well-armed regular troops. They reluctantly climbed to war, since many had their own shops, the Archers were much nursing civilian classes, besides, the service salary was not paid regularly.

In 1698 - 1700. Several regiments headed by foreigners who do not know sometimes even Russian languages \u200b\u200bwere formed. These shelves showed their complete inconsistency in the siege of Narva in 1700. Partly due to the lack of experience, partly due to the betrayal of foreign officers, among whom were Swedes. After the defeat, a new army was compacted and trained, which under Poltava showed itself at the level of the army of any european country. At the same time, in Russia, a recruited service was used for the first time. This regimony formation system has provided greater efficiency when recruiting troops. In just 1725, 53 sets were held, according to which more than 280 thousand people were mobilized into the army and the fleet. Initially, it was taken to the army on one recruit from 20 yards, and since 1724 they began to be recruited in accordance with the principles laid on the basis of the Pushdroeat. Recruits passed military training, received uniforms, weapons, while to the eighteenth century warriors - and nobles, and peasants - they should have been in full equipment. Unlike other European monarchs, Peter did not use mercenaries, preferring to them Russian soldiers.

Fuseller (infantryman) of the army infantry regiment 1720

A distinctive feature The new army was the duty of the nobles to bear military service from the soldiers' rank. Since 1714, the nobles have been forbidden to produce in officers if they were not soldiers. The most capable nobles were sent to learn abroad, especially the maritime case. But the preparation was carried out in domestic schools: the scorer, transfiguration, navigator. By the end of the reign of Peter, 50 schools were opened to prepare a non-commissioned officer.

Much attention was paid to the fleet: at the end of the seventeenth century, ships were built in Voronezh and Arkhangelsk, and after the founding of St. Petersburg, the military shipbuilding moved to the Baltic coast. Admiralty and ship shipyards were founded in the future capital. Sailors on the fleet were also gained in recruitment sets.

The need to contain a new army, which required significant expenses, forced Peter to modernize the economy and finance.

Economic reforms of Peter the Great

The first military failures forced Peter seriously think about creating a domestic industry, which could satisfy the needs of wartime. Prior to that, almost all iron and copper were imported from Sweden. Naturally, with the beginning of the war, the supply stopped. The existing Russian metallurgy was not enough to successfully conduct war. Creating conditions for its faster development has become a vital task.

In the first decade of the Northern War, it was built by the royal treasury with iron trading manufactories in the Urals and in Olonetsk Territory. She began to practice the transfer of government orders in private hands. Sometimes they were transmitted even to foreigners. Provided certain benefits to the sectors that provided the army and the fleet. The main competitor of the manufactory remained handicraft production, but the state stood on the side of the large industry and forbade it to produce craftsmen of cloth, iron paid in hand Morning etc. A distinctive feature of state manuff was that the government first attributed whole villages to enterprises and seed only on the autumn-winter period, when it was not necessary to work in the field, but soon the village and the villages were fixed behind manufactories forever. The work of serf peasants was used on the fastened manufactories. In addition, the possession of manufactory, the owners of which from 1721 were allowed to buy fortress peasants to their plants. This was caused by the leadership of the government to help industrialists consolidate workers' hands, due to the lack of a large labor market in the conditions of serfdom.

There were absent in the country good roadsThe trading paths in the fall and in the spring turned into real swamps. Therefore, in order to improve trade, Peter decided to use as trade routes of rivers available in sufficient quantities. But the rivers needed to be combined with each other, and the government began to build channels. For 1703-1709. To connect St. Petersburg with the Volga, the Vyshnevolotsky Canal was built, the construction of the Mariinskaya water system, the Ladoga Channel, completed after Peter's death.

The trade was also held back by the existing monetary system: in the go were mostly small copper money, and the silver pen was a rather large coin and chopped it into parts, each of which made his trading path. In 1700-1704 The reform of the coin yard was carried out. As a result, the decimal principle was based on the basis of the coin system: the ruble - the Grivennik - a penny. To this division, many Western countries came much later. To facilitate foreign trade calculations, the ruble was equal to the Talera, which had to go in a number of European countries.

The monopoly on the chasing of money belonged to the state, and the removal from the country of gold and silver was forbidden by the special decree of Peter the first.

In foreign trade, following the teachings of mercantistists, Peter achieved the prevalence of exports over imports, which also contributed to the strengthening of trade. Peter conducted a protectionist policy with respect to the young domestic industry, having high duties imported goods and low-exported. In order to prevent the removal of the raw materials necessary for the Russian industry abroad, Peter has fallen its high duties. Almost all foreign trade was in the hands of the state that uses monopolous trade companies for this.

Powder to submit, introduced after the census of the population of 1718-1724, instead of the previous residential tax obliged to pay 74 kopecks per year by landlord peasants and 1 ruble 14 kopecks of state peasants. The pillow was a progressive tax, she canceled all the minor taxes that existed before that, and the peasant always knew the amount of taxes, as it did not depend on the amount of harvest. The cerebral peasants of the northern regions, Siberia, the peoples of the Middle Volga, the Posaly people and the Bezenan were also a podium. The pitchfork, delivering the treasury most of the income (4,656,000 in 1725), gave direct taxes a significant advantage in the budget over other sources of income. The entire amount of the pitchfork clamps was on the maintenance of the land army and artillery; The fleet was found on customs and pety fees.

In parallel with the economic reforms of Peter I, the private construction of plants begin to develop. Among the private entrepreneurs, the Tula breeder Nikita Demidov is allocated, which Petrovsky government provided with great benefits and privileges.

Nikida Demidov

Nevyansky plant "with all buildings and supplies" and lands of 30 miles in all directions were given to Demidov on very profitable conditions for the breeder. Demidov during the receipt of the plant did not pay anything. Only later he was charged with the obligation to return the execution of its expenditures on the construction of the plant: "Although not suddenly, but weather." This was motivated by the fact that "from those plants a great profitable source went, and from one domain in two releases per day the cast iron will be born of it from 400 pounds, and a year, you will take into account both the domain without interference, will take it into a smaller one 260,000-lists. "

At the same time, the government, passing the Demidov plant, provided the breeder with official orders. He was obliged to put in the treasury of iron, guns, morties, fuzzies, stalls, tesaks, executioners, spears, lats, shishes, wire, steel and other tackles. Casual orders paid for Demidov very generously.

In addition, the treasure was provided by the Demidov of the Green or almost giving work.

In 1703, Peter I ordered: "Nikita Demidov for multiplication of iron and other factories and sovereign seals ... Conscribe to work and give the Verkhtursky County Aetical, Red-Polish Sloboda and the Monastery Pokrovskoye village with villages and with all the peasants from children and brothers and brothers and nephews and earth and with all sorts of land. " Soon there was a decree on the new prescription of the peasants. By these decisions, Peter I gave Demidov to the Nevyanskaya plant about 2,500 peasants of both sexes. The breeder was obliged to be only made for the peasants of the Casna in the treasury.

Operation of the labor of the assignment peasants from Demidov did not have limits. Already in 1708, the Nevyansky peasants complained about Demidov. The peasants pointed out that they didn't get money from insulator to their hard work "unknown for what", as a result of this, "from His, Akinfiyeva, taxes and exorbitant drives were rejuvenated and broke out", "and many brothers peasants dispersed unknotely ... And getting off it will differ from it. "

So the Petrovsky government marked the beginning of the "Demidov Urals" with his infinite cruelty, serfdom and immeasurable exploitation of peasants and workers.

Began to build plants in the Urals and other entrepreneurs: Okokina, Stroganov, Ragiasin, Turchanins, Vyazemsky, Nahbates.

The cruelly exploiting the attitudes of the peasants and the factory workers of serfs and voltentene, Demids quickly riches and expands its power and meaning.

In the Urals, along with Stroganov, a new feudal, Grozny and cruel to their workers and peasants, greedy and predatory towards the treasury and neighbors grow up.

Peter clearly saw the need to reform the administrative management of the country. This reform finally secured the position of absolute power in Russia, destroying the order of the Boyar Duma. Without her, it would be impossible to further develop the country with new developing capitalist relations.

Administrative reforms of Peter I

At the end of 1708, Peter began holding provincial reform. Decree of December 18 informed about the intention of the king "For the nationwide benefit to teach eight provinces and to paint the cities to them." As a result of the reform of the province shared on the provinces, and the provinces on the counties. The governor stood at the head of the province, who had all the complete judicial, administrative, police and financial power. The responsibilities of the governors included the tax collecting, the son of runaway fasteners, recruited sets, providing army regiments with a provisional and fodder. The order system received a serious blow after this reform: many orders stopped their existence, since their functions and responsibilities moved to the provincial administration.

As a result of the second reform, the government of the governor was distributed only to the province of the province of the province of the province of the province, in the rest of the provinces, the governors have possessed, submitted to the governors on military and judicial affairs.

On February 22, 1711, before going to Turkey, Peter issues a decree on the creation of the Senate. The decree reflected and the reason for the creation of this organ: "determined to be for the ability of our Government Senate to control." The Senate was supposed to replace the sovereign in his absence, because everyone had to obey the decions of the Senate, as decrees of Peter himself, under the fear of the death penalty for healing. The Senate consisted initially of nine people who solved things unanimously, without which the senate's sentence could not have a valid strength. In 1722, the position of the Senate Prosecutor General was established, designed to control the activities of the Senate. The prosecutors subordinate to him were appointed to all government agencies. In 1717-1721. The 11 colleges were created on the Swedish sample, replaced the orders that existed before that. The peculiarity of the Board was that they had a national level and controlled clearly defined parties to government. It provided a higher level of centralization. The rights of the colleges also operated the main magistrate and Holy Synod. The board headed the president, decisions were taken by a majority vote, in the event of equality of votes, the voice of the president was considered for two. Joint discussion was distinctive feature Collective control.

After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, Peter did not allow him to elect a new patriarch, but introduced the position of the Patriarcharchy Patriarchal. In 1721, a sacred synod was formed, at the head of which a secular official - Ober-Prosecutor. So the church became a state institution, the priests brought oath in the fact that they were obliged to convey if they would know for confession of any anti-state intentions. For violation, the oath threatened the death penalty.

Decree on the Union of Minced 1714 supported the interests of the local nobility, which supported the course to strengthen the absolute monarchy. According to the decree, the final merger of two types of property and estate in a single legal concept of "immovable property" were equal in all respects. The estate became heredge. The estates could not be fragmented between the heirs, they were usually transmitted to the eldest son, and the rest should have been careful on a military or civilian field: sons who did not receive real estate estate, "will be forced to look for his home care, teachings, trading or other useful activities.

"Tabel about ranks" was a natural continuation of this decree. All posts of military and civil service were divided into 14 ranks. The Tabel introduced the principle of personal service and finally destroyed the excelated in 1682. Now the nobles could drive up to the highest posts and really join the state administration. And this happened due to only the personal qualities of a person, which did not allow people unable to manage it.

Huge successes in the economic, military and administrative field would be impossible without sufficient number highly educated specialists. But all the time send Russian to learn abroad would be irrational, in Russia it was necessary to create their own educational system.

The reform of education under Peter the first

To Peter Nobles, education was obtained almost exclusively by domestic way, but only elementary grades and arithmetic was studied. Caring for education permeates all the reign of Peter the first. Already in 1698, the first group of nobles was sent to study abroad, this practice was preserved in subsequent years. Upon returning the nobles, I was waiting for a strict exam. Peter himself repeatedly acted as an examiner.

• The naval school was opened already in 1701,
• in 1707 - Medical School,
• in 1712 - Engineering school.

For provincial nobles, 42 cyphic schools were opened. Since the nobles studied reluctantly, Peter forbade them to marry until the end of the Tsifir school. Schools appeared for children of master, mountain workers, garrison soldiers. The concept of education itself has changed significantly: the theological items moved to the background, the first place was taken by mathematics, astronomy, engineering and other practical knowledge. New textbooks have appeared, for example, "arithmetic" L.F. Magnitsky. Study during Peter was equated to the public service. For this time, the rapid development of typography is also characteristic. At the end of the first decade of century, civil fonts and Arabic figures were introduced.

In 1714, the first state library was created, which became the basis for the library of the Academy of Sciences, open after the death of the Emperor, but he had conceived himself.

One of the largest events of that period was the emergence of the first newspaper in the country. "Vedomosti" reported on events in the country and abroad.

In 1719, Kunstkamera was opened - the first Russian museum.

Peter's reforms in the field of culture and Russian life

Modernization touched on Peter the first even life, that is, the external side of Russian life. Peter The first, striving to bring together Russia with Europe, tried to eliminate even the external differences of Russian people from Europeans. In addition to the ban, the beard was forbidden to wear a long-oil Russian dress. German, Hungarian or French toilets, in the representation of Staromoshkovsky people completely indecent, they also put the noble wives and daughters. In order to educate the Russians in the European spirit, Peter prescribed a subject to drink tea and coffee, smoking tobacco, which was not like all nobles "old hardening". Peter enforced new forms of leisure - Assembly, that is, receptions of guests in noble houses. They appeared with wives and daughters. This meant the end of the terman chief of Russian women. Assembly required learning foreign languages, gallant manner, named foreign manner "Polytes", skills to dance. The life of the nobility and the tops of the merchants seriously changed.

The transformation into everyday life did not touch the masses of the urban population and especially the peasantry. The lifestyle of the nobility began to spread from the lifestyle of the simple people so much that the nobleman, and subsequently any educated person Began to seem to the peasant in Inomem.

Along with the introduction of a new way of life, professions began to appear serving new needs of the nobility, merchants and wealthy citizens. Such were hairdressers, marigons and other professions that came together with Peter from the Great Embassy.

Some attitude towards the change in the outside of Russian life also had to transition to new calendar. At the end of 1699, Peter commanded the vehicle not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ, but the transition was not committed gregorian calendar, and on Julian, who have already had significant differences. In addition, Peter issued a decree on the celebration of the New Year on January 1, and in the sign of good undertaking to celebrate this holiday shooting from guns and fireworks.

With Peter, the first publicly available Russian theater appeared. In 1702, in the "Comedy Horomine" on Red Square in Moscow, the plays of foreign authors were played by German actors. Later, the Theater of the Slavic-Greco-Roman Academy appeared, in which there was a Russian troupe and plays were placed on modern topics. With Peter, the first portraits appeared, which, unlike Persun, were completely free from the church canon and realized concrete people. A new genre appeared in the literature - the story, the hero of which was an educated person seeking to see the world, to travel in distant countries and always achieve success. Such a motive was absolutely unthinkable for the works of the Moscow period.

At the beginning of the eighteenth century, a secular beginning of the church finally trembled in Russian culture. The main merit in this undoubtedly belongs to Peter, although the "priority" of culture began to him, and attempts to bring European innovations to the country was made in its predecessors, but they did not fit.

Output

At the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. Peter The first has conducted a number of reforms in the economic, military, political, administrative and cultural fields. This allowed Russia to enter the European political system and take a serious position in it. Peter forced the Western powers to reckon with the interests of the young Empire. He brought the country to a new level of development, which allowed her to stand in short with European powers. But the reforms themselves, the methods they have been conducted, cause ambiguous assessments of its activities so far.

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Church reform of Peter I

Sovereign Peter Izhil at such a time when Russia was impossible to stay on the former beaten road and was needed to join the renewal path.

A prominent place among Peter's transformations occupies a spiritual reform. Peter knew perfectly well the struggle for the power of his father with Patriarch Nikon, he also knew the attitude of the clergy to his transformations. At this time, the Patriarch in Russia was Adrian. Relations between Peter and Patriarch were clearly strained. Peter perfectly understood the desire of the church to subordinate to himself secular power - This has led those events that were conducted in this area. In 1700, Patriarch Andrian died, but the king was in no hurry with the election of a new patriarch. The leadership of the church were transferred to Ryazan Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky.

The position of the Russian church was complex. On the one hand, the split, on the other, the influx of foreigners' innerians. "Peter had to start a fight against splitting. Raskolniki, owning large wealth, refused to take part in common insights: to come to service, military or civil. Peter found a solution to this issue - he posted them with double tax. Raskolnikov refused to pay - struggle broke out. Raskolnikov executed, referred to the link or stroke. " Peter sought to completely subordinate the church to the state. He begins to limit the rights of the Church and her chapters: the bishop council was created, and then in 1721 the Holy Synod, which made the church affairs was created. Stephen Yavorsky was appointed president of Synod. "By decree of January 25, 1721, the Synod was founded, and already on January 27, the convened convened members of the Synod brought the oath and on February 14, 1721, a solemn discovery occurred. The spiritual regulation, to lead the activities of the Synod, was written by Feofan Prokopovich and corrected and approved by the king. "

The spiritual regulation is a legislative act that determined the functions, rights and obligations of the Synod, its members to manage the Russian Orthodox Church. He equated the members of the Synod to members of other government agencies. According to the "spiritual regulations", 12 people should be part of the Synod - President, 2 Vice-President, 4 Advisors, 4 Assistra and Secretary. All of them were appointed king from spiritual persons. At least three of them were to be bishops. The Synod was put in one rank with the Senate, above all the other colleges and administrative bodies. The Synod was transmitted questions: a spiritual court (for crimes against faith and piety); censorship; Consideration of sectarian teachings, with the aim of the report to the State for the admissibility of their presence in Russia; Test candidates for bishop titles; supervision of church property; Protection of the clergy to the worldly court; check authentication; Charity and the eradication of the benchmark; Fighting various abuses in church environment. Management and organization of the Church.

The church from now on completely obeyed the secular power.

Peter did not complain nor "white" nor "black" monks. Seeing in the face of the monasteries, an article by unjustified costs, the king decided to reduce the expense of finance for this sphere, stating that he would tell the monks to holiness to holiness not with sturgeon, honey and wines, and bread, water and work for the benefit of Russia. For this reason, the monasteries were charged with certain taxes, in addition to this, they were supposed to engage in carpentry, icon painting, spinning, sewing, etc. - All the fact that it was not contraindicated in monogram. In 1701, the Tsarsky Decree limits the number of monks: for the resolution of the posture, it was now necessary to contact the monastery order. Subsequently, the king appeared the idea of \u200b\u200busing monasteries as shelters for retired soldiers and beggars. In decree of 1724, the number of monks in the monastery is put into direct dependence on the number of people, followed by. In one of their guarantees, the Synod did the persuasion of the people about the godding of suffering, to which the splitters often resorted. Their children were ordered to baptize on the Orthodox custom. Outlooking Orthodoxy Raskolnikov dismissed from the double salary and shavers. Peter did not like that there were many churches in Russia, Moscow was especially famous for their abundance. The king ordered to rewrite the churches, point out the time of their foundation, the number of arrival courtyards, the distance between churches and unnecessary to abolish. Synod forbade bringing personal icons to church and pray before them. During church services, it was pointed out to collect champion in two wallets - in one of the church needs, and in the other - for the content of patients and the poor. By the decree of Peter, it was rich forbidden to invite the clergy to her home to serve the evening and utmost, considering it a vanity. All household churches abolished. Since that time, the priest was delivered by a government of state power and had to put the interests of her above the church rules. By decree of the Synod dated March 26, 1722, the spiritual fathers were charged with the duty to convey about persons recognized as confession in evil intent against the king. The priests were obliged to follow the parishioners to visit the churches on holidays and on the Sundays, on the birthdays and the name of the king and the queen, in the days of Poltava Victory and New Year. Wanting to introduce Russians with other religions, the sovereign ordered to translate Lutheran and Calvin Catechisis into Russian. Inovers of the Kazan province, who expressed the desire to be baptized, ordered not to take into soldiers. And when the king was informed that the newly-clothes Tatars in Siberia was given to the servant, he ordered to immediately declare them free. Also, the Synod issued a decree, where he allowed marriage with the injectors. On October 10, 1723, an important decree was released not to steal the dead at churches, but to do it in cemeteries or in monasteries. A year later, new rules about the monasteries, which were now supposed to be contained by their works were drawn. Holy relics and miraculous icons for the mantis placed at the gate, outside the fence of the Church. From now on, women's monasteries became impenetrable for outsiders. To prepare the bishops in St. Petersburg and Moscow arranged a seminary. In the age of 30, those who wish could enter into the Nevsky Monastery, after three years to take a victim, to preach in the Nevsky Monastery and in the Cathedral Churches, as well as translate books. Every day they had to nine 4 hours in the library, studying the church teachers. From among these privileged intells, the bishops and archimandritis were chosen, which the sovereign argued after Synod.

Thus, Peter eliminated the threat to the attempt of spiritual power to secular and put the church to the service of the state. From now on, the church was part of the support on which an absolute monarchy stood.

Social (estate) reforms Peter I - briefly

As a result social reforms Peter I changed the situation of the three main Russian classes - nobles, peasants and urban residents.

Serve nobles After Peter I reforms began to perform military service not with the local militia themselves, but in regular shelves. The service nobles now (in theory) began with the same lower ranks as the commoner. Suites from the non-invalid classes on a par with nobles could surchase to the highest ranks. The procedure for the passage of official degrees was determined from the times of Peter I reforms no longer beging and not the customs like local estates, but published in 1722 " Tabel about ranks" She installed 14 ranks of the Army and civil service.

For preparing for the service, Peter I also ordered the nobles to undergo initial learning of diploma, cyphyry and geometry. The nobleman, who could not withstand the established exam, was deprived of the right to marry and receive an officer rank.

It should be noted that the landfill of the estate and after Peter's reforms I still had pretty important official advantage over people dinner. Enter by military service Noblemen, as a rule, were not rated by the usual army regiments, but to the privileged Guards - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky, leaning in St. Petersburg.

The main change in social situation peasants was associated with the submitted reform of Peter I. It was held in 1718 and replaced the former outlook (from each peasant yard) method of taxation pillow (from the soul). According to the results of the census, 1718 introduced subtle.

This purely financial, at first glance, the reform had, however, and important social content. The new pillow was ordered equally charged not only from the peasants, but also with previously not paid government taxes of private owner kestops. This prescription of Peter I near the social position of the peasantry with a powerless Kholaopsky. It predetermined the evolution of view on the fortress towards the end of the 18th century not as sovereign people (which they were considered before), but as on full of gentlemen slaves.

Cities : Peter I reforms were aimed at arranging urban management for European samples. In 1699 Peter I provided Russian cities the right of self-government represented by elected burmistrovwho had to make up town Hall.. Citizens are now divided into "regular" and "irregular", as well as on guilds and goals by occupation. By the end of the board of Peter I, the Town Hall were converted to magistrateswho had more rights than the town hall, but were elected to a less democratic way - only from the "primostal" citizens. At the head of all magistrates stood (from 1720) the metropolitan major magistrate considered special college.

Peter I. Portrait of a brush P. Demosha, 1838

Military reform of Peter I - briefly

Administrative and state reforms of Peter I - briefly

Financial reforms of Peter I - briefly

Petra's economic reforms - briefly

Like most European figures of the second half of the XVII - early XVIII century Peter I followed in the economic policy the principles of mercantilism. Applying them to life, he hardly tried to develop the industry, built plants for public funds, by broad benefits encouraged such construction by private entrepreneurs, attributed to factors and manuffs of serf peasants. By the end of the reign of Peter I, there were already 233 factory in Russia.

In foreign trade, the Mercantilism policy of Peter I led to strict protectionism (high duties were introduced for imaging to prevent them from competing with Russian products). The state regulation of the economy was widely applied. Peter I contributed to the laying of channels, roads and other ways to communicate, intelligence minerals. A powerful impetus to the Russian economy gave the development of the Mineral Wealth of the Urals.

Church reform of Peter I - briefly

As a result church reform Peter I The Russian Church, previously quite independent, has become a complete dependence on the state. After the death of Patriarch Adrian (1700), the king prescribed do not choose The new patriarch, and the Russian clergy then did not have it to the Cathedral of 1917. Instead the king was appointed "Location of the Patriarch Throne" - Ukrainian Stefan Yavorsky.

Such a "undefined" state of affairs was maintained, until in 1721, the final reform of the church governance was carried out, developed with the actual participation of Feofan Prokopovich. According to this church reform of Peter I, the Patriarchate was finally abolished and replaced by the "spiritual board" - Holy Synod. Her members did not choose the clergy, but appointed the king - the church now and legally became a complete dependence on secular power.

In 1701, the land owners of the Church were transferred to the Office of the Second Monastic Order. After the Synodal reform of 1721, they were formally returned to the Clear, but since the latter now fully obeyed the state, this return did not have much importance. Under strict state control Peter I put monasteries.

Introduction

"This monarch Fatherland Nasche led to comparison with other, taught to find out that we are people; In a word, to which in Russia, not a look, all of him has it, and that would continue to be done, they will draw from this source. "

I. I. Neptyv

Peter I (1672 - 1725) by law belongs to the pleiad of bright historical workers of a global scale. Many studies and artistic works are devoted to transformations associated with his name. Historians and writers in different ways sometimes are exactly the opposite, they evaluated the identity of Peter I and the importance of his reforms. Already contemporaries Peter I were divided into two camps: supporters and opponents of his transformations. The dispute lasted and later. In the XVIII century M. V. Lomonosov Slavs Peter, hesitated his activities. And a little later, the historian Karamzin accused Peter in the treason of "truly Russian" the beginning of his life, and his reforms called a "brilliant mistake."

At the end of the XVII century, when a young king Peter I was turned out to be in the Russian throne, our country experienced a turning point of its history. In Russia, in contrast to the main Western European countries, there were almost no large industrial enterprises capable of providing a country with weapons, tissues, agricultural instruments. She had no way out to the seas - neither to black, nor to the Baltic, through which external trade could develop. Therefore, Russia and his own military fleet, which would guard her frontiers. The land army was built according to obsolete principles and consisted mainly from the noble militia. The nobles reluctantly left their estates for military campaigns, their weapons and military sweating lag behind the advanced European armies. There was a fierce struggle for power between the old, born boyars and servant people. In the country there were continuous uprisings of peasants and urban bases, which fought against the nobles, and against the boyars, as they were all feudal festers. Russia attracted greedy views of the neighboring states - Sweden, the speeches of the associate, which was not offended to seize and subjugate Russian lands. It was necessary to reorganize the army, build a fleet, master the coast of the sea, create a domestic industry, rebuild the country management system. For the indigenous breakdown of the old defendance of Russia, a smart and talented leader was needed, an outstanding person. Such was Peter I. Peter not only incident to the venue of the time, but also gave it to the service of this class, all his outstanding talent, perseverance of obsessed, inherent patience and the ability to give the state of span. Peter powerly invaded all spheres of the country's life and much accelerated the development of the beginning of the inheritance.

The history of Russia to Peter the Great and after him knew a lot of reforms. The main difference between Petrovsky transformations from the reforms of the preceding and subsequent time consisted of the fact that Petrovskie wore a comprehensive nature, covered all parties to the life of the people, while others have introduced innovations concerning only individual spheres of society and states we, people of the late XX century, not We can fully appreciate the explosive effect of Petrov's reforms in Russia. People of the past, the XIX century perceived their sharper, deeper. This is what I wrote about the meaning of Peter contemporary A.S. Pushkin Historic M. N. Pogodin in 1841, that is, almost a half century after the great reforms of the first quarter of the XVIII century: "In the hands of (Peter), the ends of all our threads are connected in one node. Where are we lit, everywhere we meet with this tremendous figure, which throws a long shadow from myself to all our past and even stipulates us an ancient story, which is still still as if he holds his hand over us, and which seems to never lose sight of, no matter how far We are in the future. "

Created in Russia, Peter survived and generation M.N. Pusher, and the next generations. For example, the last recruit set took place in 1874, that is, 170 years after the first (1705). Senate existed from 1711 to December 1917, that is, 206 years; The Synodal Device of the Orthodox Church remained unchanged from 1721 to 1918., That is, for 197 years, the system of culbage was canceled only in 1887, that is, 163 years after its introduction in 1724. In other words, in the history of Russia we We find a little consciously created by the person of institutions that would exist so long by providing such a strong impact on all parties to public life. Moreover, some principles and stereotypes of political consciousness, developed or finally enshrined in Peter, the survivities still, sometimes in new verbal clothes, they exist as traditional elements of our thinking and social behavior.

1. Historical conditions and prerequisites of Peter I reforms

The country stood on the eve of great transformations. What were the prerequisites of Petrovsky reforms?

Russia was a backward country. This backwardness was a serious danger to the independence of the Russian people.

The industry was destroyed by its structure, and in terms of production, the industry of Western European countries has been significantly inferior.

The Russian army in a significant part of its own part consisted of the backward noble militia and archers, poorly armed and trained. A complex and vaguely ordinary state apparatus, at the head of which the boyars aristocracy stood, did not meet the needs of the country. Standing Rus and in the field of spiritual culture. Enlightenment almost did not penetrate the popular masses, and even in the ruling circles there were a lot of illiterate people and at all illiterate people.

Russia of the XVII century, the course of historical development itself was raised before the need for indigenous reforms, since only this way could provide a decent place among the West states and the East. It should be noted that by this time the history of our country has already occurred significant shifts in its development. The first industrial enterprises of the manufactory type have emerged, handicrafts grew, crafts, agriculture trade developed. Continuously increased public and geographical separation of labor - the basis of the established and developing All-Russian market. The city was separated from the village. Fishing and agricultural districts have highlighted. Internal and foreign trade developed. In the second half of the XVII century, the nature of the state system in Russia is beginning to change, absolutism is increasingly clearly. Russian culture and science and science received further development: mathematics and mechanics, physics and chemistry, geography and botany, astronomy and "enemy". The Cossacks of the landowner opened a number of new lands in Siberia.

The XVII century was time when Russia established constant communication with Western Europe, tied up with her closer trade and diplomatic connections, used her technique and science, perceived its culture and enlightenment. The study and borrowing, Russia developed independently, took only what she needed, and only when it was necessary. It was the time of accumulation of the forces of the Russian people, which made it possible to carry out the grandiose reforms of Peter himself by the progress of the historical development of Russia.

Peter's reforms were prepared by the entire previous stories of the people, "were required by the people." Already before Peter, there was a fairly solid conversion program, in many respects coincided with Peter's reforms, in the other of them even further. The transformation was prepared in general, which in peaceful progress could stretch to a number of generations. The reform, as it was performed by Peter, was his personal business, an unprecedented violent and, however, involuntary and necessary. The external hazards of the state were ahead of the natural growth of the people who were wicked in its development. The renewal of Russia could not be provided with a quiet gradual work of time, not pushed by violently. The reforms touched the literally of all sides of the life of the Russian state and the Russian people. It should be noted that the main driving force of Petrovsky reforms was the war.

2. Military reforms

Military reforms occupy a special place among Petrovsky transformations. The essence of military reform was the elimination of noble militias and the organization of a combat-ready army with a uniform structure, weapons, outfit, discipline, charters.

The tasks of creating a modern combat-ready army and fleet occupied the young king even before he became a full-fledged sovereign. You can only count more (according to different historians - differently) peaceful years for the 36-year-old reign of Peter. The army and fleet have always been the main subject of the care of the emperor. However, military reforms are important not only by themselves, but also because they have provided very large, often decisive, influence on other parties to the state of the state. The progress of the most military reform was determined by the war.

"The game in the soldiers", which the young Peter gave all his time, from the late 1680s. It becomes more and more serious. In 1689, Peter builds a lake on the Pleascheev, near Pereslavl-Zalessky, several small ships under the leadership of Dutch masters. In the spring of 1690, the famous "funny shelves" - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky are created. Peter begins to lead real military maneuvers, "Claud Grad Prosburg" is built on Jauze.

Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky shelves became the core of the future constant (regular) army and showed themselves during the Azov campaigns of 1695 - 1696. Petr I pays great attention to the fleet, the first combat baptism of which also falls at this time. The treasury did not have the necessary funds, and the construction of the fleet was instructed by the so-called "quaggers" (companies) - associations of secular and spiritual landowners. With the beginning of the Northern War, the focus switches to the Baltic, and with the base of St. Petersburg, the construction of ships is carried out almost exclusively there. By the end of the reign of Peter, Russia became one of the strongest marine powers of the world, having 48 linear and 788 galleries and other vessels.

The beginning of the Northern War has become an impetus to the final creation of a regular army. To Peter, the army consisted of two main parts - noble militia and various semoregular formations (Sagittarius, Cossacks, the shelves of ingenic building). The fundamental change was that Peter introduced a new principle of the recruitment of the army - the periodic conveners of the militia were replaced by systematic recruitial sets. The substantive-fastener principle was based on the recruit system. Recruit sets applied to the population, which was paid by Catering and enthusiastic uncensity. In 1699, the first recruit set was produced, since 1705, the sets are pronounced by the corresponding decree and became annual. From 20 yards took one person, idling aged 15 to 20 years (however, during the Northern War, these deadlines were constantly changed due to the lack of soldiers and sailors). Most of the recruitous sets were injured by the Russian village. The service life of the recruit was practically not limited. The officers of the Russian army was replenished at the expense of the nobles who were trained in the Guards Noble Shelves or in specially organized schools (Pushkarskaya, artillery, navigation, fortification, maritime academy, etc.). In 1716, Military was adopted, and in 1720 - Maritime Charter, a large-scale re-equipment of the army was carried out. By the end of the North War, Peter had a huge strong army - 200 thousand people (not counting 100 thousand Cossacks), which allowed Russia to win in the exhaustive, stretched almost a quarter of a century war.

The main results of military reforms of Peter the Great are as follows:

creating a combat-ready regular army, one of the strongest in the world, which gave Russia the opportunity to fight with their main opponents and defeat them;

the appearance of the whole Pleiads of talented commander (Alexander Menshikov, Boris Sheremetev, Fedor Apraksin, Yakov Bruce, etc.);

creating a powerful military fleet;

giant growth of military spending and coating them at the expense of the most severe squeezing of funds from the people.

3. Reform of public administration

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. The transition to absolutism was accelerated by the Northern War and received its completion. It was in Petrovskoye Board that the regular army and the bureaucratic state administration apparatus are created, both actual and legal design of absolutism occur.

The absolute monarchy is characterized by the highest degree of centralization, developed, fully dependent on the monarch, a bureaucratic apparatus, a strong regular army. These signs were also inherent in Russian absolutism.

The army besides its main inner function to suppress folk unrest and uprisings, other functions. With Petrovsky, it was widely used in state administration as a forced force. The practice of sending military teams to places to file administration to best fulfill government orders and instructions was greatly distributed. But sometimes the central institutions were put at the same position, for example, even the activities of the Senate in the first years of its creation was under the control of the Guards officers. Officers and soldiers also engaged in the census of the population, tax collecting and arreed. Along with the army, absolutism used and specially created for this purpose punitive organs - Preobrazhensky orders, secret office.

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. The second support of the absolute monarchy occurs - the bureaucratic office of public administration.

The central authorities who inherited from the past time (Boyarskaya Duma, orders) are eliminated, a new system of government agencies appears.

The peculiarity of Russian absolutism was that he coincided with the development of serfdom, whereas in most European countries, the absolute monarchy developed in the context of the development of capitalist relations and the abolition of serfdom.

The old form of management: the king with the Boyarskaya Duma - orders - the local administration in counties, did not meet new tasks in ensuring military needs for material resources, nor in the assessment of cash supply from the population. Orders often duplicated each other's functions, creating confusion in control and slowness in making decisions. The counties were different sizes - from dwarf counties to the counties, giants, which made it impossible to effectively use their administration to collect taxes. Boyarskaya Duma with its traditions of unhurried discussion of cases, representative offices of the informance, not always competent in state affairs, also did not meet the requirements of Peter.

The establishment of an absolute monarchy in Russia was accompanied by a wide expansion of the state, his invasion of all spheres of public, corporate and private life. Peter I conducted a policy of further reassigning the peasants who made the most stringent forms on the outcome of the XVIII century. Finally, the strengthening of the role of the state was manifested in the detailed, thorough regulation of the rights and obligations of individual estates and social groups. Along with this, the legal consolidation of the ruling class was happening, the estate of the nobility was developed from different feudal layers.

The state that was formed at the beginning of the XVIII century, is called the police not only because it was during this period a professional police created, but also because the state sought to interfere in all directions of life, regulating them.

Administrative transformations contributed to the transfer of the capital to St. Petersburg. The king wanted to have the necessary control levers at hand, which he often created anew, guided by momentous needs. As in all other endangers, Peter in state power reform was not considered Russian traditions and widely transported the structure of the structure and methods of management widely to the Russian soil on Western European vigi. Having a clear plan of administrative reforms, the king probably also represented the desired image of the state apparatus. This is a strictly centralized and bureaucratic apparatus, clearly and quickly performing the sovereign states, within its competence, manifests a reasonable initiative. This is something very similar to the army, where every officer, fulfilling the general order of the commander-in-chief, independently solves its private and specific tasks. As we will see, the Petrov state car was far to such an ideal, which was viewed only as a tendency, although well-pronounced.

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. A whole range of reforms related to the restructuring of the central and local authorities and management, cultural and life regions, and the root reorganization of the armed forces occurs. Almost all of these changes occurred during the reign of Peter I and had a huge progressive value.

Consider the reforms of the highest authorities and the management that have passed in the first quarter of the XVIII century, which are commonly divided into three stages:

Stage I - 1699 - 1710. - partial transformations;

Stage II - 1710 - 1719. - the elimination of the former central authorities and management, the creation of the Senate, the emergence of a new capital;

III Stage - 1719 - 1725. - Education of new bodies of industry management, conducting the second regional reform, church management reforms and financial and tax.

3.1. Central control reform

The last mention of the last meeting of the Boyarskaya Duma refers to 1704. The near office that arose in 1699 (the institution that carried out administrative and financial control in the state) was of paramount importance. The real power of Consilia Ministers, the Council of Heads of the most important departments in the Tsar, who managed orders and offices, who provided the army and the fleet, who provided to the Army and the Fleet, who had ends with finances and construction (after the formation of the Senate, the near office (1719) and the Ministerial Concept (1711) cease your existence).

The next stage in the reform of the central authorities was the creation of a Senate. A formal reason served to departure Peter to the war with Turkey. On February 22, 1711, Peter Putrously wrote a decree on the composition of the Senate, which began in the phrase: "Defended to be the opposite of our Government Senate for Management." The content of this phrase gave the reason to historians still arguing about how the institution was presented by Peter Senate: temporary or permanent. On March 2, 1711, the king issued several decrees: about the competence of the Senate and justice, about the device of state revenues, trade and other industries of state economy. Senate prescribed:

"The court has a non-estater, and unrighteous judges to punish the benefit of honor and all the estates, that and the Yabedniki will follow";

"Watch throughout the state of expenses, and unnecessary, and especially in vain, leave";

"Money, as perhaps, to collect, go to the money of the war of the war."

The members of the Senate were appointed king. It was originally nine people who solved business collectively. The acquisition of the Senate was noted not the principle of acquaintance, but competences, driers and proximity to the king.

From 1718 to 1722 Senate became a meeting of the presidents of the colleges. In 1722, he was reformed by the three decrees of the emperor. The composition is changed, including both the presidents of the colleges and senators, the colleges of alien. Decree "On the post of Senate" Senate received the right to issue his own decrees.

The range of issues that were in his jurisdiction was quite wide: questions of justice, expenses of treasury and taxes, trade, control over the administration of different levels. Immediately the newly created institution received a stationery with numerous departments - "tables", where the fishery worked. The reform of 1722 turned the Senate to the highest central government body, having risen over the entire state apparatus.

The originality of the era of Petrovsky reforms was in strengthening bodies and means of state control. And for the supervision of the activities of the administration, the Senate established the position of Ober-Fiscal, which must be subordinated to the provincial fiscal (1711). Insufficient reliability of the fiscalitet led in turn to the emergence in 1715 with the senate of the post of the general auditor, or the warden of decrees. The main case of the auditor is "so that everything was fulfilled." In 1720, there was a stronger pressure on the Senate: it was prescribed to observe that here "everything was done decently, and there were no futing conversations, the screaming and otherwise." When it did not help, after a year the duties and the general prosecutor and
the Ober-Secretary laid on the military: one of the headquarters of the army officers was on duty in the Senate monthly to observe the order, and "who of the senators scolded or ignorantly flowed, that the officer's duty officer was arrested and took to the fortress, giving, of course, to know the sovereign.

Finally, in 1722, these functions laid these functions on a specially appointed General of the prosecutor, which "was supposed to loosen, so that the Senate was righteous and unlimited in his rank," to have supervision of prosecutors and fiscals and in general to be "Ok Sovereign" and "Straight state. "

Thus, the tsar reformer was forced to constantly expand the special system of organized distrust created by them, complementing the existing control bodies with new ones.

However, the creation of the Senate could not complete the reforms of the Office, since there was no intermediate link between the Senate and the provinces, many orders continued to operate. In 1717 - 1722. On shift 44 orders of the end of the XVII century. Coming colleges. Unlike orders, the collegial system (1717-1719) provided for the systematic separation of the administration on a certain number of departments, which in itself created a higher level of centralization.

Senate appointed presidents and vice-presidents, identified the states and order of work. In addition to managers, the colleges included four advisors, four assistors (assessor), secretary, actuatus, recorder, translator and fits. Special decions were prescribed from 1720 to begin production of cases of new order.

In 1721, a faithful board was created, replacing the plane order, which was carried out by noble land tenure. The rights of the colleges were the main magistrate, which was ruled by the city estate, and the Holy Governing Synod. His appearance testified to the liquidation of the autonomy of the Church.

In 1699, the Burmister Chamber, or Town Hall, was established to improve the entry into the treasury direct taxes. By 1708, it turned into a central treasury, replacing the order of a large treasury. It includes twelve old financial orders. In 1722, a manufactory-collegium was released from the Unified Berg Manufactory-College, which, in addition to the industrial management functions, the tasks of economic policies and financing were assigned. The Berg-Collegium remains the functions of mining and a mintage.

Unlike orders acting on the basis of custom and precedent, the Board should be guided by clear legal norms and job descriptions. The general legislative act in this area was the General Regulations (1720), which was the charter of the activities of the State Board, the Office and the Office and the composition of their members, competence, functions, and order of activity. The subsequent development of the principle of the official, bureaucratic service was reflected in the Petrovsk "table of ranks" (1722). The new law divided the service for civil and military. It has produced 14 classes, or ranks, officials. Every 8th grade ranging from the 8th grade became an offacarious nobleman. Ranks from the 14th to the 9th were also given the nobility, but only personal.

The adoption of a "table of ranks" indicated that the bureaucratic start in the formation of the state apparatus, undoubtedly won the beginning of the aristocratic. Professional qualities, personal dedication and length are becoming defining for promotion. The sign of the bureaucracy as the management system is the insidency of each official in a clear hierarchical structure of power (vertically) and leadership in their activities are strict and accurate prescriptions of the law, regulations, instructions. Professionalism, specialization, regulativity, negative - its complexity, high cost, work on herself, inflexibility became positive features of the new bureaucratic apparatus.

3.2. Local reform

Peter I, at the beginning of his reign, tried to use the previous local government system, gradually introducing instead of the Zemstvo, elected controls. So, by decree on March 10, 1702, participation was guided in management with the main traditional administrators (gravifers) of elected representatives of the nobility. In 1705, this order was mandatory and widespread, which was to strengthen control over the old administration.

December 18, 1708 was issued a decree "On the establishment of the provinces and on the painting of cities to them." It was a reform that completely changed the local government system. The main goal of this reform is to ensure the army with everything necessary: \u200b\u200bwith the army shelves distributed to the provinces, a direct connection between the provinces was established through the Specially Created Institute of Krigomissarians. According to this decree, the entire territory of the country was divided into eight provinces:

Moscow included 39 cities in its composition,

Ingermanland (later S.-Petersburg) - 29 cities (two more cities of this province - Yam-Burg and Coporye were given to possession of the prince Menshikov),

56 cities were attributed to the Kiev province,

To Smolensk - 17 cities,

To the Archangelogo city (later Arkhangelsk) - 20 cities,

To Kazan - 71 urban and rural settlements,

On the Azov province, except 52 cities, 25 cities are attributed to ship affairs

26 cities were attributed to the Siberian province, "yes to Vyatka 4 suburbs."

In 1711, a group of cities of the Azov province, ascribed to ship affairs in Voronezh, became Voronezh province. The provinces became 9. In 1713-1714. The number of provincial increased to 11.

So the reform of the regional governance began. In final form, it was formed only by 1719, on the eve of the second regional reform.

According to the second reform, eleven provinces were divided into 45 provinces, headed by governors, vice-governors or governors. The provinces were shared on the county - Districts. The provincial administration was subordinate directly to the Boards. Four colleges (cameras, states-office, justice and faithful) have places on the places with their own apparatus from Camemenista, commandants and treasurers. In 1713, a collegial start was introduced into the regional government: the governors were established under the governors of the Landrartov College (from 8 to 12 people in the province) elected by the local nobility.

Regional reform, responding to the most relevant needs of the autocratic power, was at the same time a consequence of the development of a bureaucratic trend characteristic of the previous period. It was through the strengthening of the bureaucratic element that Peter intended to solve all state issues. The reform has led not only to the concentration of financial and administrative powers in the hands of several governors - representatives of the central government, but also to the creation of bureaucratic institutions with a large state of officials on the places of an extensive hierarchical network. The previous system "Order-County" was doubled: "Order (or office) - province - province - county."

The governor was subordinate to the four direct subordinates:

ober Commandant - answered military affairs;

ober Commissioner for cash fees;

ober-Rantester - for bread fees;

landrichter - for court cases.

At the head of the province, the province was usually awarded, in the county, the financial and police department was entrusted to the Zemstvo Commissioners, partially elected by the county nobles partially appointed from above.

Governors crossed part of the functions of orders (especially territorial), their number was reduced.

Decree on the establishment of the province has completed the first stage of local management reform. The provincial administration was carried out by the governors and vice governors who were mainly carried out by military and financial management functions. However, this division turned out to be too large and did not allow to implement the management of provinces in practice, especially with communications that existed then. Therefore, in each province there were major cities in which the Office carried out the former city administration.

3.3. Urban control reform

Around the newly educated industrial enterprises, manufactories, deposits, mines and shipyards appeared new urban-type settlements, which began to form self-government bodies. Already in 1699, Peter I, wanting to provide urban estate, complete self-government in the Type of West, ordered the establishment of the Burmister Chamber. Municipal authorities began to form in the cities: landing gatherings, magistrates. It became taken to take a legally urban estate. In 1720, the main magistrate was established in St. Petersburg, which was entrusted to "to conduct all the city estate in Russia".

According to the regulations of the main magistrate, 1721, it began to be divided into regular citizens and "bottomal" people. Regular citizens, in turn, were divided into two guilds:

The first guild - bankers, merchants, doctors, pharmacists, skippers merchant ships, painters, icon painters and silver masts of the master.

The second guild is artisans, joiners, tailors, shoemakers, small merchants.

Guilds were managed by guilden gatherings and elders. The lower layer of the urban population ("Naywa, in black works and the like") chose their elder and the Ten, who could convey the magistrate about their needs and ask them about satisfaction.

For the European sample, shop organizations were created in which masters, apprentices and students led by the elders were created. All other citizens in the guild were not included and were subject to a magnitude check in order to identify their runaway peasants among them and return them to their former accommodations.

The division in the guild turned out to be a purest formality, since he conducted his military auditors, first of all, the concerned about increasing the number of payers of the pitchpieces, arbitrarily included in the members of the guilds and persons who do not have relation to them. The appearance of guilds and workshops meant that corporate began were opposed to the feudal principles of the economic organization.

3.4. Results of the reform of public administration

As a result of Petrovsky reforms by the end of the first quarter
XVIII century The following system of authorities and management has developed.

The whole full of legislative, executive, and the judiciary focused in the hands of Peter, who after the completion of the Northern War received the title of Emperor. In 1711 A new senior executive and judiciary was created - the Senate, who had significant legislative functions. He was fundamentally different from his predecessor - Boyarskaya Duma.

Council members were appointed by the emperor. In the implementation of the executive authority, the Senate issued decrees that had the power of the law. In 1722, a prosecutor general was raised at the head of the Senate, which he had control over the activities of all government agencies. The prosecutor general was to perform the functions of the "Oka State". He carried this control through prosecutors appointed to all government agencies. In the first quarter of the XVIII century. The prosecutors system added a fiscal system headed by Ober-Fiscal. The duties of Fiscal was the report of all the abuse of institutions and officials who violated "treasury interest."

In no way corresponded to the new conditions and objectives of the order system, which established at the Boyar Duma. The orders arising at different times were greatly different in nature and functions. Orders and decrees of orders often contradicted each other, creating an unimaginable confusion and for a long time delaying the decision of emergency issues.

In exchange, an outdated system of orders in 1717 - 1718. 12 colleges were created.

The creation of the board system completed the process of centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. A clear distribution of departmental functions, the delimitation of the areas of public administration and competence, uniform standards of activity, focusing finance management in a single institution - all this significantly distinguished the new apparatus from the order system.

Foreign lawyers were attracted to the development of regulations, the experience of state institutions of Sweden and Denmark was taken into account.

The subsequent development of the principle of the official, bureaucratic service was reflected in the Petrovsk "table of ranks" (1722).

The adoption of a "table of ranks" indicated that the bureaucratic start in the formation of the state apparatus, undoubtedly won the beginning of the aristocratic. Professional qualities, personal dedication and length are becoming defining for promotion. The sign of the bureaucracy as the management system is the insidency of each official in a clear hierarchical structure of power (vertically) and leadership in their activities are strict and accurate prescriptions of the law, regulations, instructions. Professionalism, specialization, regulativity, negative - its complexity, high cost, work on herself, inflexibility became positive features of the new bureaucratic apparatus.

Training for new state apparatus has been carried out in special schools and academies in Russia and abroad. The degree of qualifications was determined not only by hein, but also to education, special training.

In 1708 - 1709. The restructuring of the authorities and field management was launched. The country was divided into 8 provinces that differed across the territory and the number of population. At the head of the province stood the governor appointed by the king, focusing in his hands an executive and judiciary. Governor existed the provincial office. But the situation was complicated by the fact that the governor was subordinate not only to the emperor and Senate, but also to all boards, orders and decrees of which were often contrary to each other.

The provinces in 1719 were divided into provinces, the number of which was 50. The province was headed by the province with the Office with him. The provinces, in turn, were divided into distributors (counties) with the governor and the county office. For some time, in the reign of Peter, the county administration was replaced by the elected Zemstvo Commissioner from local nobility or retired officers. Its functions were limited to collecting pillow by grade, observing the performance of governmental duties, detention of fugitive peasants. Submitted to the Zemsky Commissioner of the Provincial Office. In 1713, the local nobility was granted to choose 8-12 landrs (advisers from the Dobye district) to help the governor, and after the introduction of the pillow, the regimental distributions were created. Armored military units were observed for the collection of filters and stopped manifestations of discontent and antipodeal performances.

As a result, administrative transformations in Russia completed the design of the absolute monarchy. The king was able to unlimitedly and uncontrollably manage the country with the help of fully dependent officials. The unlimited power of the monarch found the legislative expression in the 20th article of the military charter and the spiritual regulation: the power of monarchs is autocratic, which God himself command himself.

The external expression of absolutism approved in Russia is the adoption
In 1721, by Peter I of the title of Emperor and the name "Great".

The most important signs of absolutism include the bureaucracy of the Office of the Office and its centralization. The new state car as a whole worked much more efficiently old. But it was laid down by "Mina slow motion" - the domestic bureaucracy. E.V. Anisimov in the book "Time of Petrovsky Times" writes: "Bureaucracy is the necessary element of the structure of the state of the new time. However, in the context of the Russian autocracy, when anyone is not limited to the will of the monarch - the only source of law, when the official is not responsible for anyone except his boss The creation of a bureaucratic car has become a kind of "bureaucratic revolution", during which the Eternal Bureaucracy Engine was launched. "

The reforms of the central and local governance created an externally slender hierarchy of the institutions from the Senate - in the center to the Voivodskoye Office - in counties.

4. Reform of the class device

4.1. Server

The fight against the Swedes demanded a regular army device, and Peter gradually transferred to the regular service of all nobles and serve people. The service for all servants has become the same, they served the magnificently, indefinitely and began service from the lower ranks.

All previous discharges of serve people were connected together, in one estate - a gentleman. All lower ranks (both noble and from "simple people") were equally eliminated to the highest ranks. The order of such a service was accurately defined by the "Tabel about ranks" (1722). In the "table" all the ranks were distributed on 14 ranks or "ranks" on their official seniority. Each who achieved the lower 14 rank could hope the highest position and take the highest rank. The "Tabel about ranks" replaced the principle of triviality by the principle of driving and service suitability. But Petr made out of the highest old nobility one concession. He allowed noble youth to receive the advantage of his favorite Guards shelves Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky.

Peter demanded that nobles be sure to learn a diploma and mathematics, and the untrained nobles deprived the right to marry and get an officer rank. Peter limited the landowner rights of the noble. He stopped giving them the estate from the treasury when entering the service, and provided them with monetary salary. The noble faiths and the estates forbade crushing in the transfer of sons (the law "On Mayorate", 1714). Peter's measures relative to the nobility aggravated the position of this class, but did not change his relationship to the state. The nobility and before and now had to pay for the right to land ownership by the service. But now the service has become harder, and land tenure is more constant. Noborism Roptalo and tried to relieve his burden. Peter also brutally punish attempts to avoid service.

4.2. Urban class (possession and urban people)

To Peter, the urban estate was a very small and poor class. Peter wanted to create an urban economically strong and active class in Russia, similar to what he saw in Western Europe. Petr expanded urban self-government. In 1720, the main magistrate was created, which was supposed to take care of the city estate. All cities were divided into the number of residents to classes. Residents of the cities shared on "regular" and "irregular" ("bit") citizens. Regular citizens constituted two "guilds": the first was the representatives of capital and intelligentsia, in the second - small merchants and artisans. Craftsmen shared on "Come" on the crafts. Irregular people or "sleeves" were called a black-worker. The city was managed by a magistrate from the burgomistra elected by all regular citizens. In addition, urban affairs were discussed on landing sites or advice from regular citizens. Each city was subordinate to the main magistrate, bypassing any other local bosses.

Despite all the transformations, Russian cities remained in the same pathetic position, in which were before. The reason for this is far from the commercial and industrial system of Russian life and heavy wars.

4.3. Peasantry

In the first quarter of the century, it turned out that the foundation principle of taxation did not bring the expected increase in the receipt of filters.

In order to increase their income, the landowners were tired of several peasant families on one courtyard. As a result, during the census in 1710 it turned out that the number of courtyards from 1678 decreased by 20%. Therefore, a new principle of taxation was introduced. In 1718 - 1724 The census of the entire supply population of the male floor is carried out regardless of age and efficiency. All persons entered in these lists ("audit fairy tales") were to pay the pillow. In the event of the death of the recorded file, the family of the deceased or community in which he entered the next revision was continued to pay. In addition, all the consulting classes, with the exception of the peasants, were paid to the state of 40 kopecks "Lake," which was to balance their duties with the insistentness of the peasants.

The transition to the cushion increases the number of direct taxes from 1.8 to 4.6 million, making up more than half of the budget arrival (8.5 million). To file was distributed to a number of categories of the population that did not pay it before: the hills, the "walking people", the monodvorstsev, the protected peasantry of the North and Siberia, the Neruquain Peoples of the Volga region, the Viuraly and others. All these categories were the estate of state peasants, and submail For them was a feudal rent, which they paid to the state.

The introduction of the pillow of Podachi increased the power of landowners over the peasants, as the representation of the audit fairy tales and the collection of Podachi was instructed by the landowners.

Finally, in addition to pillow, the peasant paid a huge number of all sorts of taxes and fees designed to replenish the treasury, empty as a result of wars, creating a cumbersome and expensive apparatus of power and management, regular army and fleet, the construction of the capital and other expenses. In addition, state peasants were obliged: road - on the construction and maintenance of roads, Yamskaya - for the transportation of mail, government orders and officials, etc.

5. Church reform

An important role in the statement of absolutism was played by the church reform of Peter I. In the second half of the XVII century. The positions of the Russian Orthodox Church were very durable, it retained administrative, financial and judicial autonomy towards the royal power. The last Patriarchs Joachim (1675-1690) and Adrian (1690-1700). Conducted policies aimed at strengthening these positions.

The church policy of Peter, as well as its policies in other areas of state life, was aimed primarily at the most efficient use of the Church for the needs of the state, and if more specifically, it is for squeezing from the church of money to state programs, primarily on the construction of a fleet. After the travel of Peter as part of his great embassy, \u200b\u200bhe also occupies the problem of complete submission of the Church of His power.

Turn to the new policy occurred after the death of Patriarch Adrian. Peter disposes to conduct an audit for the census of the property of the patriarch. Taking advantage of information on the identified abuses, Peter cancels the election of a new patriarch, charging the Metropolitan of Ryazan Stefan to the Yavorsky post "Location of the Patriarcharchy Patriarch". In 1701, the monastic order is formed - a secular institution - to manage the church affairs. The church begins to lose its independence from the state, the right to dispose of his property.

Peter, guided by the educational idea of \u200b\u200bpublic good, for which the productive work of all members of society is needed, unfolds an offensive for monks and monasteries. In 1701, the Tsarsky Decree limits the number of monks: for the resolution of the posture, it was now necessary to contact the monastery order. Subsequently, the king appeared the idea of \u200b\u200busing monasteries as shelters for retired soldiers and beggars. In decree of 1724, the number of monks in the monastery is put into direct dependence on the number of people, followed by.

The established relationship between the church and the authorities demanded a new legal design. In 1721, a prominent figure of the Petrovskaya era of Feofan Prokopovich is a spiritual regulation, which provided for the destruction of the Patriarchate Institute and the formation of a new body - the spiritual board, which was soon renamed the "Holy Government Synod", officially equalized in the rights with the Senate. The president was Stefan Yavorsky, Vice-Presidents - Theodosius Yanovsky and Feofan Prokopovich. The creation of Synod was the beginning of the absolutist period of Russian history, as now all the power, including church, was concentrated in the hands of Peter. The contemporary reports that when Russian church figures tried to protest, Peter pointed it to the spiritual regulation and stated: "Here is a spiritual patriarch, and if you don't like it, then you (throwing the dagger on the table) a bouquet patriarch."

The adoption of the spiritual regulation actually turned Russian clergymen in government officials, especially since a secular face was supplied to the sync supervision - Ober Prosecutor.

The reform of the church was carried out in parallel with the applied reform, recorded and classification of priests were recorded, and the lower layers were translated into the first salary. According to the consolidated statements of the Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod and Astrakhan provinces (formed as a result of the membership of the Kazan province), only 3044 priests from 8709 (35%) were released from Podachi. A violent reaction among the priests was caused by the decision of the Synod of May 17, 1722, in which the priests were charged to break the secret of confession if they had the opportunity to report any important information for the state.

As a result of the church reform, the church lost a huge part of its influence and turned into part of the state apparatus, strictly controlled and managed by secular power.

6. Economic transformations

In the Petrovsk era, the Russian economy, and above all the industry accomplished a giant jump. At the same time, the development of the economy in the first quarter of the XVIII century. went by ways planned by the previous period. In the Moscow State of the XVI XVII century. There were large industrial enterprises - a cannonor, a printed courtyard, weapon plants in Tula, shipyard in Dedin. The policy of Peter I regarding economic life was characterized by a high degree of application of command and protectionist methods.

In agriculture, the possibility of improvement was drawn from the further development of fertile lands, the cultivation of technical crops that gave raw materials for the industry, the development of animal husbandry, agriculture promotion to the East and South, as well as more intensive exploitation of peasants. The increased needs of the state in raw materials for the Russian industry led to the widespread extension of such cultures as Len and hemp. Decree of 1715 encouraged the cultivation of flax and cannabis, as well as tobacco, tute trees for silkworms. Decree of 1712, prescribed to create horse breeders in the Kazan, Azov and Kiev provinces, also encouraged sheep.

In the Petrovsk era there is a sharp difference between the country into two zones of the feudal farm - the farewell north, where the feudalles translated their peasants to monetary marks, often holidaying them into the city and other agricultural areas for earnings, and fertile south, where the nobles of the landowners were striving for the expansion of the Barechina.

Also strengthened the state's authorities of the peasants. The cities were built by their forces (40 thousand peasants worked on the construction of St. Petersburg), manufactory, bridges, roads; Annual recruit sets were held, old cash fees increased and new ones were introduced. The main goal of Peter's policies all the time was obtaining as much money and human resources as possible for state needs.

Two censuses were held - in 1710 and 1718. According to the census of 1718, the unit of the draft became the "soul" of the male, regardless of the age with which the pillow was charged in the amount of 70 kopecks per year (from state peasants - 1 rub. 10 kopecks per year). This ordered the applying policies and sharply raised the revenues of the state (about 4 times; by the end of the board of Peter, they accounted for up to 12 million rubles per year).

In industry there was a sharp reorientation from small peasant and craft farms on manufactory. With Peter, at least 200 new manufactories were founded, he strongly encouraged their creation. The state policy was also aimed at the fencing of the young Russian industry from competition from Western Europeanly by introducing very high customs duties (customs charter of 1724)

The Russian manufactory, although there have had capitalist features, but the use of predominantly the labor of the peasants - the possession, assigning, workers, etc. - made it a serfdom. Depending on whose property they were, manufactory were shared on state, merchant and landlords. In 1721, industrialists were granted the right to buy peasants to consolidate them for the enterprise.

State casual factories used the labor of state peasants, assigned peasants, recruits and free hired masters. They mainly served heavy industry - metallurgy, shipyard, mines. At the mercenary manufactures that produced consistent consumption predominantly, and recreational peasants, as well as a winsted working force were worked. Protection enterprises were fully provided with the forces of the owner's serfs.

The protectionist policy of Peter led to the emergence of manuffs in various industries, often appeared in Russia for the first time. The main ones were those who worked for the army and fleet: metallurgical, weapons, shipbuilding, cloth, linen, leather, etc. Entrepreneurial activities were encouraged, preferential conditions were created for people who created new manufactories or took public.

Manufactory occurs in many industries - glass, powder, papermaking, cansight, linen, silkobyk, cloth, leather, cable, hat, colorful, sawmill, and many others. A huge contribution to the development of the Metallurgical Industry of the Urals introduced Nikita Demidov, who used the special location of the king. The emergence of the foundry industry in Karelia on the basis of the Ural Ruds, the construction of the Novnevolotsky Canal, contributed to the development of metallurgy in new areas and brought Russia to one of the first places in the world in this industry.

By the end of the reign of Peter in Russia, there was a developed diversified industry with centers in St. Petersburg, Moscow, in the Urals. The largest enterprises were the Admiralty shipyard, Arsenal, St. Petersburg Powered Plants, Metallurgical Plants of the Urals, Hamovny Yard in Moscow. There was a strengthening of the All-Russian market, the accumulation of capital thanks to the mercantilistic policy of the state. Russia has supplied competitive goods to world markets: iron, canvas, yuft, sweat, path, caviar.

Thousands of Russians passed in Europe training in various specialties, and in turn foreigners - weapon engineers, metallurgists, the wizard of the gateway hired to Russian service. Thanks to this, Russia is enriched with the most advanced European technologies.

As a result of Petrovskiy policies in the economic field for the ultrashort period, a powerful industry was created, capable of fully ensuring military and state needs and in anything independent of imports.

7. Reforms in the field of culture and life

Important changes in the life of the country strongly demanded training qualified personnel. The scholastic school who was in the hands of the Church could not ensure this. Secular schools began to open, education began to acquire a secular character. This required the creation of new textbooks that came to the change of church.

Peter I in 1708 introduced a new civil font that came to replace the old Kirillov semi-supersay. For the printing of secular educational, scientific, political literature and legislative acts, new printing houses were created in Moscow and St. Petersburg.

The development of a typography was accompanied by the beginning of organized bookcore, as well as the creation and development of the library network. In 1703, the first issue of the newspaper "Vedomosti" is coming out in Moscow - the first Russian newspaper

The most important stage in the conduct of reforms was a visit to Peter as part of the Great Embassy of a number of European countries. Upon return, Peter sends many young nobility to Europe to study various specialties, mainly for making marine sciences. The king took care of the development of education in Russia. In 1701 in Moscow, a school of mathematical and naval sciences opened in the Sukhareva Tower headed by Professor Aberdeen University by Scottish Forerson. One of the teachers of this school was Leontius Magnitsky - the author of "arithmetic ...". In 1711, an engineering school appears in Moscow.

The logical outcome of all activities in the field of the development of science and education was the foundation in 1724 of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg.

Peter sought to ensure that the disunity of Russia and Europe emerged as soon as possible as soon as possible since the time of Tatar-Mongolian yoke. One of its manifestations was a different summer, and in 1700 Peter translates Russia to the new calendar - 7208 becomes 1700, and the new year's celebration is postponed from September 1 at 1 jar.

With the development of industry and trade, the study and development of the territory and the depths of the country were related, which found its expression in organizing a number of major expeditions.

At this time, large technical innovations and inventions appeared, especially in the development of mining and metallurgy, as well as in the military field.

During this period, a number of important works on history were written, and by Peter Kunstkamera initiated the collection of collections of historical and memorial items and rarers, weapons, materials on natural sciences, etc. At the same time, they began to collect ancient written sources, remove copies of chronicles, diploma, decrees and other acts. It was the beginning of the museum business in Russia.

From the first quarter of the XVIII century. The transition to urban planning and regular layout of cities was carried out. The appearance of the city began to determine no longer a cult architecture, and palaces and mansions, houses of government agencies and aristocracy. In painting on changing icon painting comes portrait. To the first quarter of the XVIII century. Attempts to create the Russian theater, at the same time the first dramaturgical works were written.

Changes in everyday life affected the mass of the population. Old habitual long-sleeved long-sleeved clothing forbade and replaced new. Camoles, ties and jabs, widespread hats, stockings, shoes, wigs quickly outed in cities old Russian clothing. Western European overhead clothing and women's dress spread faster. It was forbidden to carry a beard, which caused discontent, especially the suppressed estates. A special "beard tax" and a mandatory copper sign about its payment was introduced.

From 1718, Peter established the Assembly with the obligatory presence of women on them, which reflected serious changes in their position in society. The establishment of the Assemblies marked the beginning of the statement in the Russian nobility of the "Rules of Good Tone" and "noble behavior in society", the use of foreign, mostly French, language.

It should be noted that all these transformations proceed exclusively on top, and therefore were quite painful for both the highest and lower layers of society. The violent nature of some of these transformations inspired a disgust for them and led to the sharp rejection of the rest, even the most progressive, undertakings. Peter sought to make Russia a European country in all the senses of this word and attached great importance to even the smallest detail of the process.

Changes in the life and culture that occurred in the first quarter of the XVIII century, had a great progressive value. But they further emphasized the allocation of nobility into a privileged estate, turned the use of the goods and culture achievements into one of the noblest privileges, and was accompanied by a wide spread of Galomet, a contemptuous attitude towards Russian language and Russian culture in the noble environment.

Conclusion

The main outcome of the entire totality of Petrovsky reforms was the establishment of a regime of absolutism in Russia, whose crown was the change in the title of Russian monarch - Peter declared himself an emperor, and the country became known as the Russian Empire. Thus, it was issued what Peter was all the years of his reign - the creation of a state with a slim control system, a strong army and a fleet, a powerful economy that influence international policies. As a result of Petrovsky reforms, the state was not connected with anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal of the state device - a military ship, where everything and the whole subordinate to the will of one person - Captain, and managed to remove this ship from the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and melels.

Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, the central role in which belonged to the noble estate. At the same time, the backwardness of Russia was not completely overcome, and reforms were carried out mainly due to the most severe operation and coercion.

The complexity and inconsistency of Russia's development during this period was determined by the inconsistency of Peter's activities and the reforms implemented by him. On the one hand, they had a huge historical meaning, as they contributed to the progress of the country, were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by serfs, serfs and were aimed at strengthening their domination. Therefore, the progressive transformations of Petrovsky time from the very beginning carried conservative features, which in the course of the further development of the country performed more and more and could not provide the elimination of socio-economic retardation. As a result of Petrovsky transformations, Russia quickly caught up with those European countries where the domination of feudal-serfdom preserved, but she could not catch up with those countries that rose to the capitalist path of development.

Peter's conversion activity was distinguished by indomitable energy, unprecedented scope and purposefulness, courage in the breakdown of suspended institutions, laws, lows and lifestyle and life.

The role of Peter the Great in the history of Russia is difficult to overestimate. As if not to relate to the methods and the styling of the transformations, it is impossible not to recognize - Peter the Great is one of the most notable figures of world history.

In conclusion, I would like to bring the words of the contemporary Peter - Nartov: "... And although there is no more Peter the Great with us, however, His Spirit in our souls lives, and we, we had happiness to be with the Sea Monarch, I will die faithful to him and hot love to our earthly God cellar with me. We are laughing at our father without fear for the fact that noble fearlessness and truth studied from him. "

Bibliography

1. Anisimov E.V. Time of Petrovsky reforms. - L.: Lenzdat, 1989.

2. Anisimov E.V., Kamensky A.B. Russia in the XVIII - the first half of the XIX century: history. Historian. Document. - M.: Miros, 1994.

3. Buganov V.I. Peter the Great and his time. - M.: Science, 1989.

4. History of public administration in Russia: a textbook for universities / ed. prof. A.N. Markova. - M.: Law and Law, Unity, 1997.

5. History of the USSR from ancient times until the end of the XVIII century. / Ed. B.A.Rebakova. - M.: Higher School, 1983.

6. Malkov V.V. Handbook on the history of the USSR for entering universities. - M.: Higher School, 1985.

7. Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great. - M.: Thought, 1990.

8. Soloviev S.M. About the history of new Russia. - M.: Enlightenment, 1993.

9. Solovyov S.M. Reading and stories on the history of Russia. - M.: True, 1989.

Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

Komi Republican Academy of Public Service

And management at the head of the Komi Republic

Faculty of State and Municipal Administration

Department of Public Administration and Public Service

Test

Peter I. reform

Russia in the first quarter of the XVIII century

Executor:

Motorkin Andrei Yuryevich,

group 112.

Teacher:

art. Lecturer I.I. Lastunov

Syktyvkar

Introduction 1.

1. Historical conditions and prerequisites of Peter I 3 reforms

2. Military reforms 4

3. Public Administration Reform 6

3.1. Central control reform 8

3.2. Local Control Reform 11

3.3. Urban control reform 13

3.4. Public Administration Reform Results 14

4. Reform of the class device 16

4.1. Server 16.

4.2. Urban class (Posad and urban people) 17

4.3. Peasantry 17.

5. Church reform 18

6. Economic transformations 20

7. Reforms in the field of culture and life 22

Conclusion 24.

References 26.

Rating 1 Rating 2 Rating 3 Rating 4 Rating 5

Peter 1. Start of reform

Change the foundations and orders in Russia Peter 1 began, as soon as he returned from Europe in 1698, where he traveled in the Great Embassy.

Literally the next day, Peter 1 began to crop beard from Boyar, decrees were issued demanding the beard to all citizens of the Russian king, the decrees did not concern only the lowest estate. Unwilling beard should have paid tax, which reduced the ropes of classes, and was profitable for treasury. Following the beards it came to reform traditional Russian clothing, long-oil and long sleeve clothing began to change on short Camsoles of the Polish and Hungarian sample.

Until the end of the century, Peter 1 created a new printing house in Moscow, launched textbooks on arithmetic, astronomy, literature and history. The education system was completely reformed and developed by Peter 1, the first mathematical schools were opened.

It was reformed and calendar, the new year, calculated from the creation of the world and celebrated on September 1, began to celebrate on January 1, for the Christmas of Christ.

Peter approved by his decree the first Russian order, the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called. All meetings with foreign ambassadors Peter 1 began to spend personally, he signed all international documents.

According to Personal Decree Peter 1, a civilian system was reformed, the central manager of the town hall was created in Moscow, in the rest of the cities in 1699, Zemskie horses were created to manage. Peter 1 reformed a system of orders, for September 1699 there were more than 40 orders - ministries. Peter 1 alone orders eliminated, others began to merge under control of one boss. The reforms and the church underwent, at the head of the monastery order of the regional church property were raised by I.A. Musin-Pushkin, a man is secular. Due to the holding of church reform in 1701-1710, more than a million rubles received at the expense of church taxes was received in KazNU.

The reforms were brewed for a long time, but to the very Poltava battle Peter 1 solved pressing problems as they appear, giving orders to solve problems with their direct occurrence. Instead of state acts regulating certain parties to the life of the state, Peter 1 for each problem wrote a written order, pointing to whom and how to decide it. Not systemic management led to problems in the Russian state, money was missing for the most necessary, arrears increased, the army and the fleet could not fully obtain the supplies necessary for warfare.

Prior to Poltava Battle, Peter 1 released only two acts, the first act of January 30, 1699, Zemskie institutions were restored, the second act dated December 18, 1708, the state was divided into provinces. Only after the defeat of the Swedish army under Poltava, Peter 1 has time, and the opportunity to do reforms and the arrangement of the state. As the time has shown, the reforms carried out by Peter 1 put Russia into Russia with European states not only in a military plan, but also economic.

Reforms were vital for the survival and development of the state, but will be a mistake to think that Peter 1 conducted reforms of individual industries and directions. Starting to create an army and fleet, Peter 1 was supposed to link changes with the public, economic and political parties to the country's life.

Peter 1. Military reforms

In the Azov campaign of 1695, made by Perth 1, 30 thousand people participated, only 14 thousand of which were organized on the European manner. The remaining 16 thousand were militia, attracted to the rated work only during the conduct of hostilities. The unsuccessful siege of Narva in 1695 showed the complete inability of the militia to conduct offensive fighting, and with defense they did not cope with the defense, constantly leadership and not always submitting to the chiefs.

The reforms and transformations in the army and the fleet began. Performing Petra Decrees 1, November 19, 1699, 30 infantry regiments are created. These were the first infantry regular troops to replace the Streletsky militia, the service became indefinite. Only for the Malorosiysk and Don Cossacks, an exception was made, they were called only if necessary. The reforms did not exceed the cavalry, many officers recruited from Inomers were not suitable for the service, they had a hurry changed and taught new frames from their own, from the Russians.

To maintain the Northern War with the Swedes, the army of Peter 1 is already formed on a set of free people and serfs, with landowners, depending on the number of peasant yards, gain recruits. The officers trained in Europe, trained in Europe, the army of Peter 1, reporting ingenious diplomats, was a pitiful spectacle.

But gradually, passing through battles, the soldiers acquired military experience, the shelves become more combatable, long-term in battles and campaigns, the army becomes constant. Recruits, previously stitched unsystematic, are now ordered, the kit comes from all classes, including noble and clergy. Training of new recruits was retributed by the military service and retired by injury and disease. Recruits were trained in the national teams of 500 - 1000 people, from where they were sent to the troops when there was a need to replenish the army. In 1701, before military reform, russian army There have been up to 40 thousand people, of which more than 20 thousand militias. In 1725, shortly before the end of the Board of Peter 1, after the reform, the composition of the regular troops of the Russian Empire consisted of up to 212 thousand regular troops and up to 120 thousand militia and the Cossacks.

The first military ships, Peter 1 builds in Voronezh for the siege and take Azov, who were later abandoned in connection with the change in politics and transfer hostilities from the south to the north against the new enemy. The defeat under the rod in 1711, and the loss of Azov, made the ships built in Voronezh, and they were abandoned. The construction of a new squadron on the Baltic begins, in 1702, up to 3 thousand people were recruited into the sailors. At the shipyard in Lodeinopolsk in 1703, 6 frigates were launched on the water, which made the first Russian squadron in the Baltic Sea. At the end of the reign of Peter 1, the Baltic squadron consisted of 48 linear ships, further consisted of about 800 gallers and other vessels, the number of crews was 28 thousand people.

For the control of the fleet and the army, military, artillery and admiralty colleges were created, which were engaged in recruits, distributing them on the shelves, the supply of army with weapons, ammunition, horses, distributed a salary. For the management of troops, the General Headquarters was created, numbering two General - Field Marshal, Prince Menshikov and distinguished in the Northern War of Circa Sheremetev, the generals numbered 31 people.

The voluntary set in the army was replaced by a constant recruit set, the army goes to the treasury content, the amount of infantry begins to prevail over the Connection. The content of the army and the fleet accounted for 2/3 of the country's budget.

Peter 1. Reforms in social policy

Peter 1, engaged in conducting the reform of the state, requested associates that are able to bear not only the burden of war, but also able to participate in state transformations, to enforce reforms, conceived by Peter 1. The nobility, the initial function of which was the protection of the state, did not always satisfy the requirements of the time And very many of their companions Peter 1 acquired from simple estates, thereby giving the opportunity to smart and talented to fully serve the Fatherland and seek the provisions for their own merit.

In 1714, Peter 1 was issued a decree on uniaconcedy, prescribing to transfer property to any of the sons, on choosing a nobleman or landowner, the rest was prescribed to look for an occupation on military or civil service, where they started the service from the lowest. Introducing reforms in the inheritance of property and estates, Peter 1 defeated the farms belonging to the nobles and landowners from crushing and ruin, and at the same time stimulated the rest of the heirs to enter public service Looking for food to achieve the situation in society and in the service.

The next stage, regulating the service, was a rank beabel, published in 1722, who divided civil service to military, Stat and the court, providing for 14 ranks. The service had to start from the very beginning, to advance as their abilities. Not only nobles, but also people from any social estate. Having reached 8 rank received a lifetime nobility, which ensured the influx into the ruling class of people of smart and talented capable of performing government functions.

The population of Russia, except the clergy and the nobles, has been taxed, the peasants paid 74 kopecks per year, residents of the southern colors paid for 40 kopecks more. Conducting the reform and replacement of the stomachous taxation tax, and following him the residential, on a pioneer tax, from each resident of the Russian Male Empire, led to an increase in arable land, the size of which no longer affected the amount of tax. The population was established by the census of the population conducted 1718 - 1724. Urban residents were attributed to the place of residence and were also taxed. In 1724, Peter 1 was issued a decree prohibiting serfs to go on earnings without a written permission of the landowner, which marked the beginning of the passport system.

Peter 1. Industry and Trade Reforms

The most time consuming was to conduct reform in the industry, which was in the infancy. To change the situation, money, specialists, human resources were required. Peter 1 invited specialists from abroad, trained their workers at the factories attributed to Earth, they could not be sold differently as the earth and the plant. In 1697, by order of Peter 1, the construction of blast furnaces, foundry shops for the manufacture of guns began in the Urals, a year later, the first metallurgical plant was built. New juice, powder, metallurgical, sailing, leather, rope and other factories and plants are being built, up to 40 enterprises were built over several years. Among them, plants under the leadership of Demidov and Batashov can be distinguished, ensuring the demand of Russia in iron and copper. Armory rebuilt in Tula supplied the entire army with a weapon. To attract K. industrial production Boyar and nobles, and the development of the skill of entrepreneurship, Peter 1 introduces the system of benefits, government subsidies and loans. Already in 1718, almost 200 thousand pounds (1 pood \u003d 16 kilograms) of copper, and cast iron, 6.5 million pounds were added in Russian factories.

Inviting foreign specialists, Peter 1 created them the most convenient conditions for work, severely punishing any official noticed in their oppression. In return, Peter 1 demanded only one thing, to teach Russian workers to the craft without taking professional techniques and secrets from them. IN different countries European students were sent, Russian disciples were sent, learning and adopted various skills and professions, spread ovens from skill, to the ability to heal people.

Introducing reforms and achieving the development of trade, Peter 1 encourages trading people, freeing them from duties, government and city services, allowing to trade duty-free for several years. One of the obstacles to trade was the distance and condition of the roads, even the path from Moscow to Petersburg sometimes held up to five weeks. Peter 1, conducting reforms in industry and trade, first of all engaged in the problem of cargo delivery paths. Deciding to adapt to the delivery of goods and goods River paths, Peter 1 disposes of the construction of the channels, not all of his undertakes were crowned with success, Ladoga and Vyshnevolotsky canals were built during his life connecting the Neva River with the Volga.

Petersburg becomes shopping center, annually receiving several hundred shopping ships. For foreign merchants, duties are introduced, giving the Russian merchants to have an advantage in the domestic market. The monetary system is developing and improved, they begin to be minted and copper coins come into circulation.

The next year, after Peter 1, as a result of the trade reform, the export of goods from Russia is twice the import of foreign goods.

The reforms and transformations were unsystematic and chaotic character, Peter 1 had to first be implemented to implement those reforms that were rapidly mounted, while in a state of permanent wars he did not have time and the ability to develop a country on any particular system. Many reforms Peter 1 had to be introduced by a whip, but as shown time, all together were taken, Peter's first reforms were inserted into a certain system, which provided to the State Russian compliance with national interests in the present and future, the preservation of national sovereignty and prevented a lag from European countries.

Peter 1. State administrative reforms

By organizing the ordering and simplification of the bulky and tangled bureaucracy, Peter 1 held a number of reforms that allowed to replace the system of orders and a boyars of the Duma, which were not effective in managing the state that changed under the influence of wars and reforms, and which required a new approach to their needs.

The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate in 1711, decisions previously taken by the boyars began to accept and approve the nearest associates of Peter 1, which enjoy him confidence. Since 1722, the work of the Senate began to lead the general - the prosecutor, the members of the Senate, starting the position, brought oath.

Previously, the system of orders for the management of the state was replaced by the Boards, each of which was engaged in the area allocated to it. The college of foreign affairs was solely by external intercourse, the military board was engaged in all issues related to the ground forces. In addition to the above, colleges were created: Admiralteyskaya, faithful, states - office - board, cameras - College, Commerce - College, Berg - College, Manufactory - College, Justice - College, Revision - College. Each board was engaged in its area, the fleet, noble lands, state expenses, the collection of income, trade, the metallurgical industry, the rest industry, the proceedings and budget execution, respectively.

The reforms of the church led to the formation of the spiritual board, or the Synod, which subjugated the church by the state, the Patriarch was no longer elected, "The Patriarchal Prestola" was appointed. From 1722, the states were approved for the choleschitors, according to which one priest was fixed for 150 yards, the priesthood remained at the staff was taxed on the general basis.

The huge territory of the Russian Empire was divided into eight provinces: Siberian, Kazan, Azov, Smolensk, Kiev, Arkhangelogodskaya, St. Petersburg, Moscow. Further administrative crushing went on the province, the provinces were crushed into the counties. In each province, a soldier regiment was put on a post, who performed police functions during rebellion and rebellion.