Mountains bordering the East European Plain. East European Plain: Main Characteristics

the East European Plain occupies an area of about 4 million km 2, which is about 26% of the territory of Russia. In the north, east and south, its borders run along natural boundaries, in the west - along the state border. In the north, the plain is washed by the Barents and White Seas, in the south - by the Caspian, Black and Azov seas, in the west - by the Baltic Sea. From the east, the plain is bordered by the Ural Mountains.

Large tectonic structures - the Russian platform and the Scythian plate - lie at the base of the plain. In most of the territory, their basement is deeply submerged under thick strata of sedimentary rocks of various ages, lying horizontally. Therefore, flat relief prevails on the platforms. In a number of places, the foundation of the platform has been raised. Large hills are located in these areas. The Dnieper Upland is located within the Ukrainian Shield. The relatively elevated plains of Karelia and the Kola Peninsula, as well as the low mountains of the Khibiny, correspond to the Baltic shield. The raised foundation of the Voronezh Anticlise is the core of the Central Russian Upland. The same rise of the foundation is located at the base of the heights of the High Trans-Volga region. A special case is the Volga Upland, where the foundation lies at great depths. Here, during the entire Mesozoic and Paleogene, there was a subsidence of the earth's crust, the accumulation of thick strata of sedimentary rocks. Then, during the Neogene and Quaternary time, this section of the earth's crust rose, which led to the formation of the Volga Upland.

A number of large uplands were formed as a result of repeated Quaternary glaciations, accumulation of glacial material - moraine loams and sands. Such are the heights of Valdai, Smolensk-Moscow, Klinsko-Dmitrovskaya, Northern Uvaly.

Between the large hills there are lowlands, in which the valleys of large rivers - the Dnieper, Don, Volga - were laid.

On the outskirts of the East European Plain, where the platform foundation is lowered very deeply, there are large lowlands - the Caspian, Prichernomorskaya, Pechora, etc. In these territories, the sea has repeatedly advanced, including recently in the Quaternary, so they are covered by sea sediments of great thickness and are distinguished by a leveled relief. The average height of the Russian Plain is about 170 m, some elevations reach 300-400 m and more.

On the territory of the East European Plain, there are rich deposits of various minerals. Iron ores of the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly are associated with the platform basement. The Kola Peninsula is especially rich in minerals, where there are significant reserves of iron, copper, nickel, aluminum ores, huge reserves of apatite. The sedimentary cover of the platform is associated with such minerals as oil shale, mined in the Ordovician and Silurian strata in the Baltic region. The deposits of the Carboniferous are associated with the deposits of brown coals of the Moscow region, Permian - coal of the Pechora basin, oil and gas of the Urals and Volga regions, salt and gypsum of the Urals. In the sedimentary layers of the Mesozoic, phosphorites, chalk and manganese are mined.

The East European Plain is located in temperate latitudes. It is open to the north and west and as a result is exposed to the air masses that form over the Atlantic and North Arctic oceans... Atlantic air masses bring a significant amount of precipitation to the East European Plain, so forests grow over most of its territory. The amount of precipitation decreases from 600-900 mm per year in the west to 300-200 mm in the south and southeast. As a result, in the south of the East European Plain there are dry steppes, and in the extreme southeast, in the Caspian lowland, there are semi-deserts and deserts.

Atlantic air masses have a softening effect on the climate throughout the year. In winter, they bring warming up to thaws. Therefore, in the western regions of the plain is much warmer than in the eastern. Average January temperatures drop from -4 ° C in the Kaliningrad region to -18 ° C in the Urals. As a result, winter isotherms in most of the plain (except for the extreme south) stretch almost meridionally, from north-north-west to south-south-east.

Arctic air in winter spreads over the entire territory of the East European Plain up to the extreme south. It brings with it dryness and coldness. In summer, the invasion of Arctic air is accompanied by cold snaps and droughts. The alternating invasion of Atlantic and Arctic air masses leads to the instability of weather phenomena and the dissimilarity of the seasons different years... Summer temperatures regularly increase from north to south: average temperatures in the north are +8 ... + 10 ° С, in the south +24 ... + 26 ° С, and isotherms stretch almost in a latitudinal direction. In general, the climate in most of the East European Plain is temperate continental.

Unlike other large parts of Russia, the largest rivers of the East European Plain flow southward. These are the Dnieper, Dniester, Southern Bug, Don, Volga, Kama, Vyatka, Ural. This allows their water to be used to irrigate the arid lands of the south. Large irrigation systems have been created in the North Caucasus, which use the water of the Volga, Don and local rivers. Extensive irrigation systems have been created in the lower Don, they also exist in the Volga region.

To the north, such abounding, but relatively short rivers, such as the Pechora, the Northern Dvina, Onega, carry their water, to the west - Western Dvina, Neva and Neman.

The upper reaches and channels of many rivers are often located close to each other, which in the conditions of a flat relief contributes to their connection by canals. These are channels to them. Moscow, Volgo-Baltic, Volgo-Don, White Sea-Baltic. Thanks to the canals, ships from Moscow can sail along rivers, lakes and reservoirs to the Caspian, Azov, Black, Baltic and White seas. Therefore, Moscow is called the port of the five seas.

In winter, all the rivers of the East European Plain freeze over. In spring, when the snow melts, most of the floods occur. Numerous reservoirs and hydroelectric power plants have been built on the rivers to retain and use spring water. The Volga and the Dnieper have turned into a cascade of reservoirs used both for generating electricity and for shipping, irrigation of lands, water supply to cities and industrial centers.

A characteristic feature of the East European Plain is a bright manifestation of latitudinal zoning. It is expressed more fully and clearly than on other plains of the world. It is no coincidence that the law of zoning, formulated by the famous Russian scientist Dokuchaev, was primarily based on his study of this particular territory.

Flatness of the territory, abundance of minerals, relatively mild climate, enough precipitation, variety natural landscapes favorable for various industries agriculture - all this contributed to the intensive economic development of the East European Plain. Economically, this is the most important part of Russia. More than 50% of the country's population lives on it and two-thirds of the total number of cities and workers' settlements are located. The plain is home to the densest network of highways and railways. Most of the largest rivers - Volga, Dnieper, Don, Dniester, Zapadnaya Dvina, Kama - have been regulated and transformed into a cascade of reservoirs. In vast areas, forests have been cleared and forest landscapes have been transformed into a combination of forests and fields. Many woodlands are now secondary forests, where coniferous and broad-leaved species have been replaced by small-leaved ones - birch, aspen. Half of the country's arable land is located on the territory of the East European Plain, about 40% of hayfields, 12% of pastures. Of all the large parts, the East European Plain is the most developed and changed by human activity.

North Caucasus

The North Caucasus occupies a vast area between the Black, Azov and Caspian Seas. In the north of this large part of Russia, the Kumo-Manych depression stretches, and in the south there is a state border. The North Caucasus consists of the Ciscaucasia and the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus Mountains.

In the Ciscaucasia there are vast lowlands, which are separated Stavropol Upland... By origin and natural features they are associated with the Caucasus Mountains. The rivers Kuban, Terek, Kuma and others carry a large amount of loose material from the mountains, which is deposited on the plains. As a result, the rivers flow in their own sediments above the surrounding plains. Therefore, despite the aridity of the climate in the Ciscaucasia, in the lower reaches of the rivers there are vast swampy areas - floodplains. Due to the fact that the river beds are uplifted, the most favorable opportunities open up for the development of irrigated agriculture. In the Kuban valley, there are vast flooded fields where a lot of rice is grown.

The climate of the Ciscaucasia is arid. Annual precipitation in the west is 550 mm, in the east - about 200 mm. With such a small amount of moisture, productive agriculture is possible only with the use of irrigation. Therefore, a number of irrigation systems have been created that use the waters of the Volga, Don, Kuban, Kuma, Manych and other rivers.

Stavropol Upland is located in the axial part of the Ciscaucasia. As a result of intense tectonic uplifts of the earth's crust, it was raised to a height of 800 m. On the relatively high slopes of the hill, a large amount of precipitation falls - about 800 mm per year.

Chernozems dominate in the western part of the Ciscaucasia. In the past, feather grass-forb steppes grew here, now almost completely plowed up and occupied with crops of wheat, sugar beet and sunflower. To the east of the Stavropol Upland, where it is much drier, there are dry steppes on chestnut soils and semi-desert. They are used mainly for pastures for numerous flocks of sheep.

To the south of the Stavropol Upland, along the faults of the earth's crust, the laccolith mountains rose above the plains. The largest of them are Beshtau and Mashuk. At their foot are sources of healing mineral waters- Narzan and Essentuki and a number of others. They are used in numerous sanatoriums and resorts of Pyatigorsk, Zheleznovodsk, Essentuki, Kislovodsk, etc.

In tectonic foothill troughs, oil and gas reserves have been formed. Oil fields are located near the city of Grozny. Gas is produced in the Stavropol Territory.

Main Dividing, or Greater Caucasian, ridge stretches from northwest to southeast, rising up to 5000 m in huge anticlinal folds. The highest is its central part, where hard crystalline rocks are broken by numerous tectonic cracks. In the past geological epochs, lava poured out and volcanoes formed along the cracks. The largest of them are Elbrus (5642 m) and Kazbek (5033 m). The snow-capped peak of Elbrus is the highest peak in the Caucasus. Near high mountains The Greater Caucasus has a lot of snow and there are numerous glaciers (Table VIII.9). They are the source of rivers that carry rushing waters to the plains (Kuban, Terek, Kuma, etc.). The rivers of the Caucasus have large reserves of hydropower resources.

The mountains of the Greater Caucasus are located on the border of the temperate and subtropical zones. They serve as a barrier to the movement of cold air masses southward. Under the cover of high mountains, the subtropics in this area have moved far to the north (areas of Anapa, Sochi). The southwestern part of the mountains receives the largest number precipitation (from 2600 to 4000 mm). Throughout the year, cyclones move from west to east over the Black Sea. When humid air masses rise along the slopes of mountains, moisture condensation occurs and precipitation falls. So, in the vicinity of Sochi, there is a large amount of precipitation - up to 2500 mm per year. On the southeastern slope of the mountains, the picture is reversed. Air masses flowing down from the mountains are heated and dried up, which is why there are arid areas in this area.

Changes in the amount of precipitation and air temperatures are directly reflected in the nature of the soil and vegetation cover, in the features of the vertical zonation along the slopes of the mountains. The highest peaks of the central part of the Caucasus Range are covered with snow and glaciers.

Below there are lush alpine and subalpine meadows with thickets of the Caucasian rhododendron. These meadows are used as excellent summer pastures. Between the heights of 2000 and 1300 m, spruce-fir forests grow, which are replaced by broad-leaved oak forests from top to bottom. Evergreen shrubs and lianas are common in the lower parts of the southwestern slopes. In the eastern part of the Caucasus Mountains, both on the northern and southern slopes, due to a decrease in precipitation, forests occupy much smaller areas. They are replaced by thickets of thorny bushes - shiblyak.

The bowels of the Greater Caucasus are rich in minerals. Oil and gas fields are located at the eastern foot of the mountains on the Absheron Peninsula.

Ural

Ural stretches in the meridional direction for 2000 km from north to south - from the Arctic islands of Novaya Zemlya to the sun-scorched deserts of the Turan plain. A conditional geographical border between Europe and Asia is drawn along the Cis-Urals. The Ural Mountains are located in the inland border zone of the earth's crust between the ancient Russian platform and the young West Siberian plate. The folds of the earth's crust at the base of the Ural Mountains were formed during the Hercynian mountain building. Mountain building was accompanied by intensive processes of volcanism and metamorphism of rocks, therefore, in the bowels of the Urals, numerous minerals were formed - iron ores, polymetals, aluminum, gold, platinum. Then, for a long time - in the Mesozoic and Paleogene - the processes of destruction and leveling of the Hercynian mountains took place. Gradually the mountains sank and turned into a hilly hill. In the Neogene-Quaternary period, the ancient folded structures lying at its base split into blocks that rose to different heights. Thus, the former folded mountains turned into folded-block ones. The ancient destroyed mountains were rejuvenated. Nevertheless, the modern ridges of the Urals are mostly low. In the north and south, they rise to 800-1000 m. The highest peak in the Urals is Mount Narodnaya (1894 m). In the middle part, the height of the ridges does not exceed 400-500 m. Through the low passes of this part of the Urals pass railways, along which trains move between the European and Asian parts of Russia.

The uneven uplift of blocks of the earth's crust led to differences in the height of the mountain ranges, their external forms. According to the features of the relief, the Ural is subdivided into several parts. The Polar Urals stretches through four ridges, gradually rising from the Pai-Khoi hills to 1500 m. The Subpolar Ural ridges have many sharp peaks. The Northern Ural consists of two elongated parallel ridges that rise up to 800-1000 m. The western of these two ridges has flat peaks. The eastern slope of the Urals drops abruptly towards the West Siberian Lowland. The Middle Ural is the lowest part of the entire Urals: heights of about 500 m dominate. However, individual peaks here rise up to 800 m too. The South Ural is the widest, dominated by foothill plateaus. Mountain tops are often flat.

The distribution of minerals in the Urals is determined by the peculiarities of its geological structure. In the west, in the Cis-Ural trough, there was an accumulation of sedimentary strata of limestone, gypsum and clay, to which significant deposits of oil, potassium salts and coal are confined. In the central part of the Urals, metamorphic rocks of the inner folds of the mountains - gneisses, quartzites and shales, broken by tectonic faults, appeared on the surface. Igneous rocks intruded along the faults led to the formation of ore minerals. Among them, the most important role belongs to the ores of iron, polymetals, and aluminum. A large iron ore plant and the city of Magnitogorsk were built on the basis of iron ore deposits during the first five-year plans. The eastern slope of the Urals is composed of a variety of geological rocks - sedimentary, metamorphic and volcanic, therefore minerals are very diverse. These are ores of iron, non-ferrous metals, aluminum, deposits of gold and silver, precious and semiprecious stones, asbestos.

The Urals is a climatic division between the temperate continental climate of the East European Plain and the continental climate of Western Siberia. Despite their relatively low height, the Ural Mountains have an impact on the peculiarities of the climate of our country. Throughout the year, humid air masses, brought by cyclones from the Atlantic Ocean, penetrate into the Urals. As the air rises along the western slope, the amount of precipitation increases. The sinking of air along the eastern slope is accompanied by its drying. Therefore, the eastern slopes of the Ural Mountains receive 1.5-2 times less precipitation than the western ones. The western and eastern slopes differ both in temperature and in the nature of the weather. Average January temperatures range from -22 ° C in the north to -16 ° C in the south. On the western slope, winters are relatively mild and snowy. Little snow falls on the eastern slope, and frosts can reach -45 ° С. Summers are cool and rainy in the north, warm in most of the Urals, and hot and dry in the south.

Many rivers originate in the Urals. The largest among them flow to the west. These are Pechora, Kama, Belaya, Ufa. Ishim flows to the east, the Urals to the south. On the meridional stretches, rivers flow calmly along wide valleys in hollows between ridges. In latitudinal sections, they rush rapidly across ridges along tectonic faults along narrow rocky gorges with many rapids. The alternation of narrow gorges and wide sections of valleys gives the rivers an amazing variety and beauty, and favors the construction of reservoirs. In the Urals, the need for water is very high, which is needed in large quantities for numerous industrial enterprises and cities. However, many rivers are heavily polluted by wastewater from industrial enterprises and cities and need to be treated. The economic significance of the rivers of the Urals and the Urals is great and diverse, although their role in shipping and energy is not so great. Hydropower reserves of the Ural rivers are below the national average. The average annual capacity of the middle rivers of the Urals is about 3.5 million kW. The Kama basin is the richest in hydropower. A number of large hydroelectric power plants have been built here. Among them are the Kamskaya and Votkinskaya hydroelectric power stations. The largest reservoir of the Kamskaya HPP stretches for 220 km. A hydroelectric power station of significant capacity was built on the river. Ufa. Despite the abundance of rivers in the Urals, only a few of them are suitable for navigation. These are, first of all, Kama, Belaya, Ufa. In the Trans-Urals, ships sail along Tobol, Tavda, and in high waters along Sosva, Lozva and Tura. The Urals below Orenburg are also navigable for shallow-draft vessels.

To improve water supply, ponds and reservoirs have long been built on the rivers of the Urals. These are the Verkhne-Isetsky and city ponds in Yekaterinburg, Nizhne-Tagilsky and others. Reservoirs have also been created: Volchikhinskoe on Chusovaya, Magnitogorskoye and Iriklinskoye in the Urals.

For industrial, agricultural purposes, recreation and tourism, numerous lakes are used, of which there are more than 6 thousand.

The Urals are crossed by several natural zones. Along its tops and upper slopes, they are shifted to the south. Mountain tundras are widespread in the Polar Urals. To the south, on the western slopes, in conditions of high moisture, dark coniferous spruce-fir forests dominate, on the eastern slopes, pine and cedar forests. In the Southern Urals, on the western slope, there are coniferous-deciduous forests, to the south they are replaced by linden and oak forest-steppe. On the eastern slope of the Southern Urals there is a birch-aspen forest-steppe. In the extreme south of the Urals and in the low Mugodzhary mountains, there are dry steppes and semi-deserts.

Western Siberia

Western Siberia- the largest plain in the world. It stretches from the Kara Sea to the northern slopes of the Kazakh Upland for 2.5 thousand km. In the northern part, the plain stretches from the Urals to the Yenisei for 1000 km, and in the southern part - for almost 2 thousand km. The entire plain lies on the West Siberian plate with a deeply submerged folded basement of the Paleozoic age. It is overlain by sedimentary strata of the Mesozoic, Paleogene and Quaternary ages of enormous thickness, reaching 6 thousand meters. They are represented by clays, sandstones, sands and shales. Quaternary strata consist of marine, river and glacial deposits: loams, sands and clays. During the revival of the Ural and Altai mountains, loose sedimentary strata of the West Siberian plate were slightly deformed. Folds appeared in them, which led to the formation of underground domes. In such domes, composed of sands, overlapped by impermeable dense clays, the accumulation of oil and gas took place. The largest fields are in the Surgut region, gas - in the Urengoy region and on the Yamal peninsula. In the south of the plain, where the folded foundation is raised, there are deposits of iron ore. The largest of them is Sokolovsko-Sarbayskoe.

A thick horizontally lying sedimentary rock stratum determines the flatness of the modern relief. The northern and central parts of Western Siberia are lowlands located at an altitude of up to 100 m above sea level. The southern part of the plain rises slightly higher. In general, Western Siberia has the shape of a huge bowl, rising slightly to the south, west and east and tilting to the north. The northern most lowered part of the plain is separated from the rest by a narrow elevation stretching in the latitudinal direction Siberian Uvaly.

Rivers flow slowly over the slightly sloping plain. They are shallowly incised and form extensive meanders and channels with an unstable channel. During spring floods, they spread widely.

The flat surface of the northern half of the territory, poor drainage associated with shallow incision of rivers, excessive moisture, abundance groundwater coming from the elevated edges of the plain, all of which led to the formation of vast swamps. Western Siberia is the most swampy plain in the world. Swampiness is 38%.

The inland position of Western Siberia determined the continentality of its climate, especially in the south of the plain. Average January temperatures vary from -25 ° C in the north to -18 ° C in the south. Middle July - from + 2 ° С on the coast of the Kara Sea to + 22 ° С in the extreme south. In the second half of winter, an area of increased pressure extends to Western Siberia. At this time, calm, sunny frosty weather sets in. There is little snow (with the exception of the northeast), but since there are practically no thaws in Western Siberia, it accumulates and a stable snow cover forms. In the south of the plain, its thickness is 30 cm, in the northeast, in front of the Putorana mountains, - 80 cm. In summer, the arctic air rushes to the heated surface of the plain, which meets the heated southern air currents. As a result of their interaction, cyclones arise and precipitation falls.

In Western Siberia, latitudinal zoning is clearly expressed. The extreme north on the Yamal, Tazovsky and Gydansky peninsulas is occupied by the tundra zone. The forest-tundra descends to the south almost to the Siberian Uvaly. It features larch and birch crooked forests. In the south of the forest-tundra, pine and cedar appear in larch forests. Forests go far to the north along the rivers, as the river valleys are drier because of better drainage, and heat comes from the south with river water. In the tundra and forest-tundra zone, there are pastures where herds of reindeer many thousands graze. Rich prey is provided by commercial hunting (fox skins) and fishing. Gas production is in progress.

Sixty percent of the territory of Western Siberia occupied by a forest-bog zone... The interfluvial areas are dominated by swamps. Taiga forests grow mainly on the slopes of river valleys and narrow sandy rises in the interfluve - the manes. Pine forests prevail in the western Ural part of the zone. In the northern and middle parts of the plain, spruce-cedar and larch forests dominate, in the southern - taiga of spruce, cedar, fir, birch. In the taiga, they hunt sable, squirrel, marten, muskrat and mink. To the south, the taiga is replaced by birch-aspen forests, which turn into the forest-steppe. It consists of grassy steppes with numerous birch-aspen groves in depressions (pegs). The extreme south of Western Siberia is occupied by the steppe zone, where chernozems and dark chestnut soils have formed in an arid climate. They are almost completely plowed up. On vast tracts of former virgin lands, there are fields of spring wheat. The plowing of the steppes led to dust storms. At present, in the vast expanses of the south of Western Siberia, special methods of non-moldboard tillage are used, in which the stubble of grain crops is preserved. It promotes the accumulation of snow, protects the soil from being blown out. There are many salt lakes in the steppes, where soda and table salt are mined.

The East European Plain covers an area of about 4 million km 2, which is about 26% of the territory of Russia. In the north, east and south, its borders run along natural boundaries, in the west - along the state border. In the north, the plain is washed by the Barents and White Seas, in the south - by the Caspian, Black and Azov seas, in the west - by the Baltic Sea. From the east, the plain is bordered by the Ural Mountains.

The Dnieper Upland is located within the Ukrainian Shield. The relatively elevated plains of Karelia and the Kola Peninsula, as well as the low mountains of the Khibiny, correspond to the Baltic shield. The raised foundation of the Voronezh Anticlise is the core of the Central Russian Upland. The same rise of the foundation is located at the base of the heights of the High Trans-Volga region. A special case is the Volga Upland, where the foundation lies at great depths. Here, during the entire Mesozoic and Paleogene, there was a subsidence of the earth's crust, the accumulation of thick strata of sedimentary rocks. Then, during the Neogene and Quaternary time, this section of the earth's crust rose, which led to the formation of the Volga Upland.

Between the large hills there are lowlands, in which the valleys of large rivers - the Dnieper, Don, Volga - were laid.

On the outskirts of the East European Plain, where the platform foundation is lowered very deeply, there are large lowlands - the Caspian, Prichernomorskaya, Pechora, etc. In these territories, the sea has repeatedly advanced, including recently - in the Quaternary, therefore they are covered by sea sediments of great thickness and are distinguished by a leveled relief. The average height of the Russian Plain is about 170 m, some elevations reach 300-400 m and more.

The East European Plain is located in temperate latitudes... It is open to the north and west and as a result is exposed to air masses that form over the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. Atlantic air masses bring a significant amount of precipitation to the East European Plain, so forests grow over most of its territory. The amount of precipitation decreases from 600-900 mm per year in the west to 300-200 mm in the south and southeast. As a result, in the south of the East European Plain there are dry steppes, and in the extreme southeast, in the Caspian lowland, there are semi-deserts and deserts. Atlantic air masses throughout the year have a softening effect on the climate. Therefore, in the western regions of the plain is much warmer than in the eastern. Average January temperatures drop from -4 ° C in the Kaliningrad region to -18 ° C in the Urals. As a result, winter isotherms in most of the plain (except for the extreme south) stretch almost meridionally, from north-north-west to south-south-east.

Summer temperatures regularly increase from north to south: average temperatures in the north are +8 ... + 10 ° С, in the south +24 ... + 26 ° С, and isotherms stretch almost in a latitudinal direction. In general, the climate in most of the East European Plain is temperate continental.

To the north such abounding but relatively short rivers as Pechora, Northern Dvina, Onega carry their water, to the west - Western Dvina, Neva and Neman.

All rivers of the East European Plain freeze in winter... In spring, when the snow melts, most of the floods occur. Numerous reservoirs and hydroelectric power plants have been built on the rivers to retain and use spring water. The Volga and the Dnieper have turned into a cascade of reservoirs used both for generating electricity and for shipping, irrigation of lands, water supply to cities and industrial centers.

A characteristic feature of the East European Plain is a bright manifestation of latitudinal zoning... It is expressed more fully and clearly than on other plains of the world. It is no coincidence that the law of zoning, formulated by the famous Russian scientist Dokuchaev, was primarily based on his study of this particular territory.

The flatness of the territory, the abundance of minerals, a relatively mild climate, sufficient rainfall, a variety of natural landscapes favorable for various branches of agriculture - all this contributed to the intensive economic development of the East European Plain. Economically, this is the most important part of Russia. More than 50% of the country's population lives on it and two-thirds of the total number of cities and workers' settlements are located .. Most of the largest rivers - Volga, Dnieper, Don, Dniester, Western Dvina, Kama - are regulated and transformed into a cascade of reservoirs. In vast areas, forests have been cleared and forest landscapes have been transformed into a combination of forests and fields.

Many woodlands are now secondary forests, where coniferous and broad-leaved species have been replaced by small-leaved ones - birch, aspen. Half of the country's arable land is located on the territory of the East European Plain, about 40% of hayfields, 12% of pastures. Of all the large parts, the East European Plain is the most developed and changed by human activity.

The East European Plain is one of the largest plains on the planet. It covers four million square kilometers, fully or partially affecting the territories of ten states. What relief and climate are typical for the East European Plain? You will find all the details about her in our article.

Geography of the East European Plain

The relief of Europe is very diverse - there are mountains, plains and swampy lowlands. Its largest orographic structure in terms of area is the East European Plain. From west to east, it stretches for about a thousand kilometers, and from north to south - more than 2.5 thousand kilometers.

Due to the fact that most of the plain is located on the territory of Russia, it received the name Russian. With an eye to the historical past, it is also often called the Sarmatian Plain.

It starts from the Scandinavian Mountains and the Baltic Sea coast and stretches to the foothills of the Ural Mountains. Its southern border of the plain runs near the South Carpathians and Stara Planina, the Crimean Mountains, the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea, and the northern edge runs along the shores of the White and Barents Seas. A significant part of Russia, Ukraine, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Moldova, Belarus is located on the territory of the East European Plain. It also includes Kazakhstan, Romania, Bulgaria and Poland.

Relief and geological structure

The outlines of the plain almost completely coincide with the ancient East European platform (only a small area in the south lies on the Scythian plate). Due to this, there are no significant uplifts in its relief, and the average height is only 170 meters. The highest point reaches 479 meters - this is the Bugulma-Belebey Upland, which is located in the Cis-Urals.

The tectonic stability of the plain is also associated with the platform. She never finds herself in the epicenter of volcanic eruptions or earthquakes. All the vibrations of the earth's crust that occur here are low-ball and are only echoes of the unrest of the mountainous regions nearby.

However, this area was not always calm. The relief of the East European Plain is formed by very old tectonic processes and glaciations. In the south, they happened much earlier, so their traces of the consequences have long ago smoothed out active climatic processes and water erosion... In the north, traces of past glaciation are most visible. They are manifested by sandy lowlands, winding bays of the Kola Peninsula, which cut deeply into the land, as well as in the form of a large number of lakes. In general, the modern landscapes of the plain are represented by a number of hills and lacustrine-glacial lowlands, alternating with each other.

Minerals

The ancient platform underlying the East European Plain is represented by crystalline rocks, which are overlain by a sedimentary layer of different ages, lying in a horizontal position. In the area of the Ukrainian and rocks come out in the form of low rocks and rapids.

The territory of the plain is rich in various minerals. Its sedimentary cover contains deposits of limestone, chalk, shale, phosphorite, sand and clay. Oil shale deposits are located in the Baltic region, salt and gypsum are mined in the Urals, and oil and gas are mined in Perm. Large deposits of coal, anthracite and peat are concentrated in the Donbass basin. Brown and bituminous coal is also mined in the Dnipropetrovsk basin of Ukraine, in the Perm and Moscow region in Russia.

The crystalline shields of the plain are composed mainly of metamorphic and igneous rocks. They are rich in gneisses, schists, amphibolites, diabase, porphyrite, and quartzite. Here, raw materials are mined for the production of ceramics and stone building materials.

One of the most "fertile" areas is the Kola Peninsula - a source of a large amount of metal ores and minerals. Iron, lithium, titanium, nickel, platinum, beryllium, various micas, ceramic pegmatites, chrysolite, amethyst, jasper, garnet, iolite and other minerals are mined within its limits.

Climate

Geographical position The East European Plain and its low-lying relief largely determine its climate. The Ural mountains near its outskirts do not allow the passage of air masses from the east, therefore, throughout the year it is under the influence of winds from the west. They form over the Atlantic Ocean, bringing moisture and warmth in winter and precipitation and coolness in summer.

Due to the absence of mountains in the north, winds from the south of the Arctic also easily penetrate deep into the plain. In winter they bring cold continental air masses low temperatures, frost and light snow. In the summer they bring drought and cold spells with them.

In the cold season, temperatures are highly dependent on the incoming winds. In summer, on the contrary, solar heat has the most powerful effect on the climate of the East European Plain, so temperatures are distributed in accordance with the geographical latitude of the area.

In general, the weather conditions in the plain are very unstable. Atlantic and Arctic air masses above it often replace each other, which is accompanied by a constant alternation of cyclones and anticyclones.

Natural areas

The East European Plain is located mainly within the temperate climatic zone. Only a small part of it in the far north lies in the subarctic belt. Due to the flat relief, latitudinal zoning is very clearly traced on it, which manifests itself in a smooth transition from the tundra in the north to arid deserts on the coast of the Caspian Sea.

Tundra covered dwarf trees and shrubs, is found only in the extreme northern territories of Finland and Russia. Below it is replaced by taiga, the zone of which expands as it approaches the Urals. Here grow mainly coniferous trees such as larch, spruce, pine, fir, as well as herbs and berry bushes.

After the taiga, the zone of mixed and deciduous forests begins. It covers the entire Baltic region, Belarus, Romania, part of Bulgaria, a vast part of Russia, north and north-east of Ukraine. The center and south of Ukraine, Moldova, north-east of Kazakhstan and the southern part of Russia are covered by a zone of forest-steppe and steppe. The lower reaches of the Volga and the shores of the Caspian Sea are covered with deserts and semi-deserts.

Hydrography

The rivers of the East European Plain flow both north and south. The main watershed between them runs along Polesie, and some of them belong to the basin of the Arctic Ocean, and flow down to the Barents, White and Baltic Seas. Others flow southward into the Caspian Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The longest and deepest river in the plain is the Volga. Other significant watercourses are the Dnieper, Don, Dniester, Pechora, Northern and Western Dvina, Southern Bug, Neva.

There are also many swamps and lakes in the East European Plain, but they are not evenly located. They are very densely distributed in the northwestern part, but in the southeast they are practically nonexistent. On the territory of the Baltic States, Finland, Polesie, Karelia and the Kola Peninsula, water bodies of glacial and moraine type have formed. In the south, in the area of the Caspian and Azov lowlands, there are estuary lakes and salt marshes.

Despite the relatively gentle relief, there are many interesting geological formations within the East European Plain. Such, for example, are the "Sheep foreheads" rocks, which are found in Karelia, on the Kola Peninsula and in the Northern Ladoga area.

They are protrusions on the surface of rocks that were smoothed out during the descent of an ancient glacier. The rocks are also called "curly". Their slopes, where the glacier moved, are polished and smooth. Opposite slopes, on the contrary, are steep and very uneven.

Zhiguli are the only mountains on the plain that were formed as a result of tectonic processes. They are located in the southeastern part, in the region of the Volga Upland. These are young mountains that continue to grow, increasing by about 1 centimeter every hundred years. Today their maximum height reaches 381 meters.

The Zhiguli mountains are composed of dolomites and limestones. They also contain oil deposits. Their slopes are covered with forests and forest-steppe vegetation, among which there are also endemic species. Most of it is included in the Zhigulevsky Reserve and is closed to the public. The site, which is not under protection, is actively visited by tourists and amateurs of alpine skiing.

Bialowieza Forest

There are many nature reserves, sanctuaries and other protected areas within the East European Plain. One of the oldest formations is the Belovezhskaya Pushcha National Park, located on the border of Poland and Belarus.

A large area of the relict taiga, an indigenous forest that existed in this area since prehistoric times, has been preserved here. It is assumed that this is what the forests of Europe looked like millions of years ago.

Within the territory of Belovezhskaya Pushcha two vegetation zones meet, and coniferous forests closely adjoin mixed broadleaf. The local fauna is represented by fallow deer, mouflons, reindeer, tarpan horses, bears, minks, beavers and raccoon dogs. The pride of the park is the bison, which is being rescued here from complete extinction.

The East European Plain is part of the East European Platform. It is an ancient and stable block, bordered by the Ural in the east. The tectonic structure of the East European Plain is such that in the south it is adjacent to the Mediterranean fold belt and the Scythian plate, which occupies the area of the Ciscaucasia and Crimea. The border with it runs from the mouth of the Danube, along the Black and Azov seas.

Tectonics

The older and harder Permian and Carboniferous limestones come to the surface on the banks of the Samarskaya Luka. Hard sandstones should also be distinguished among the deposits. The crystalline basement of the Volga Upland is lowered on great depth(about 800 meters).

The closer to the Oka-Don lowland, the more the surface decreases. The Volga slopes are steep and dissected by numerous ravines and gullies. Because of this, a very rugged terrain was formed here.

and the Oksko-Don lowland

Common Syrt is another important component relief that distinguishes the East European Plain. Photos of this region on the border of Russia and Kazakhstan show the area of chernozem, chestnut soils and saline soils prevailing on watersheds and in river valleys. Common Syrt begins in the Trans-Volga region and extends 500 kilometers eastward. Basically, it is located in the interfluve of the Big Irgiz and Small Irgiz, adjacent to the South Urals in the east.

The Oksko-Don lowland is located between the Volga and Central Russian uplands. Its northern part is also known as Meschera. The northern border of the lowland is the Oka. In the south, its natural boundary is the Kalach Upland. An important part of the lowland is the Oksko-Tsninsky shaft. It stretches through Morshansk, Kasimov and Kovrov. In the north, the surface of the Oka-Don lowland was formed from glacial deposits, and in the south, it is based on sands.

Valdai and Northern Uvaly

The huge East European Plain is located between the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. The basins of the rivers flowing into them begin at its highest point - 346 meters. Valdai is located in the Smolensk, Tver and Novgorod regions. It is distinguished by hilly, ridge and moraine relief. There are many swamps and lakes (including Seliger and Upper Volga lakes).

The northernmost part of the East European Plain is the Northern Uvaly. They occupy the territory of the Komi Republic, Kostroma, Kirov and Vologda regions. The upland, which consists of hills, gradually decreases in a northerly direction until it abuts against the White and Barents Seas. Its maximum height is 293 meters. Northern Uvaly is a watershed of the Northern Dvina and Volga basins.

Black Sea lowland

In the southwest, the East European Plain ends with the Black Sea Lowland, located on the territory of Ukraine and Moldova. On the one hand, it is bounded by the Danube delta, and on the other, by the Azov river Kalminus. The Black Sea lowland consists of Neogene and Paleogene deposits (clays, sands and limestones). They are covered with loams and loess.

The lowland is crossed by the valleys of several rivers: the Dniester, the Southern Bug and the Dnieper. Their shores are characterized by steepness and frequent landslides. There are many estuaries on the sea coast (Dniester, Dnieper, etc.). Another recognizable feature is the abundance of sand spits. In the Black Sea lowland, a steppe landscape with dark chestnut and chernozem soils prevails. This is the richest agricultural barn.

NATURAL ZONES OF RUSSIA

EASTERN EUROPEAN (RUSSIAN) PLAIN

See also (with geographical and biological captions to photographs) from the section Natural landscapes of the world:

other...

The East European (Russian) Plain is one of the largest plains in the world in terms of area. Among all the plains of our Motherland, only it comes out to two oceans. Russia is located in the central and eastern parts of the plain. It stretches from the coast of the Baltic Sea to the Ural Mountains, from the Barents and White Seas to the Azov and Caspian Seas.

The East European Plain has the highest density rural population, big cities and many small towns and urban-type settlements, various Natural resources... The plain has long been mastered by man.

The following signs serve as the justification for its determination to the rank of a physico-geographical country: 1) an uplifted stratal plain formed on the plate of the ancient East European platform; 2) Atlantic-continental, predominantly moderate and insufficiently humid climate, formed largely under the influence of the Atlantic and Arctic oceans; 3) natural zones are clearly expressed, the structure of which was greatly influenced by the flat relief and neighboring territories - Central Europe, North and Central Asia. This led to the interpenetration of European and Asian species of plants and animals, as well as a deviation from the latitudinal position of natural zones in the east to the north.

Relief and geological structure

The East European elevated plain consists of elevations with heights of 200-300 m above sea level and lowlands along which large rivers flow. The average height of the plain is 170 m, and the highest - 479 m - on Bugulma-Belebey Upland in the Urals part. Maximum elevation Timan ridge slightly less (471 m).

According to the peculiarities of the orographic pattern, three stripes are clearly distinguished within the East European Plain: central, northern and southern. Through the central part of the plain runs a strip of alternating large uplands and lowlands: Central Russian, Volga, Bugulma-Belebey Uplands and Common Syrt divided Oksko-Don lowland and the Low Trans-Volga region, along which the Don and Volga rivers flow, carrying their waters to the south.

To the north of this strip, low plains prevail, on the surface of which, here and there, smaller uplands are scattered here and there in garlands and singly. From west to east-northeast, they stretch here, replacing each other, Smolensk-Moscow, Valdai Uplands and Northern Uvaly... They are mainly used for watersheds between the Arctic, Atlantic and internal (closed-drain Aral-Caspian) basins. From the Northern Ridges, the territory goes down to the White and Barents Seas. This part of the Russian Plain A.A. Borzov called the northern slope. Large rivers flow along it - Onega, Northern Dvina, Pechora with numerous high-water tributaries.

The southern part of the East European Plain is occupied by lowlands, of which only the Caspian region is located on the territory of Russia.

Rice. 25. Geological profiles across the Russian Plain

The East European Plain has a typical platform relief, which is predetermined by the tectonic features of the platform: the heterogeneity of its structure (the presence of deep faults, ring structures, aulacogens, anteclises, syneclises and other smaller structures) with unequal manifestation of the latest tectonic movements.

Almost all large uplands and lowlands of the plain are of tectonic origin, with a significant part inherited from the structure of the crystalline basement. In the course of a long and complex path of development, they formed as a single territory in the morphostructural, orographic and genetic relations.

At the base of the East European Plain lie Russian plate with Precambrian crystalline basement and north edge in the south Scythian plate with a Paleozoic folded basement. The boundary between the slabs is not expressed in the relief. On the uneven surface of the Precambrian basement of the Russian Plate, there are strata of Precambrian (Vendian, in places Riphean) and Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks with slightly disturbed bedding. Their thickness is not the same and is due to the unevenness of the basement relief (Fig. 25), which determines the main geostructures of the slab. These include syneclises - areas of deep basement (Moscow, Pechora, Caspian, Glazovskaya), anteclises - areas of shallow bedding of the basement (Voronezh, Volga-Ural), aulacogenes - deep tectonic ditches, in the place of which syneclises subsequently appeared (Kresttsovsky, Soligalichsky, Moskovsky, etc.), protrusions of the Baikal basement - Timan.

The Moscow syneclise is one of the oldest and most complex internal structures of the Russian plate with a deep crystalline basement. It is based on the Central Russian and Moscow aulacogens filled with thick Riphean strata, above which the sedimentary cover of the Vendian and Phanerozoic (from the Cambrian to the Cretaceous) lies. In the Neogene-Quaternary, it experienced uneven uplifts and is expressed in relief by rather large uplands - Valdai, Smolensk-Moscow and lowlands - Verkhnevolzhskaya, North-Dvinskaya.

The Pechora syneclise is wedge-shaped in the northeast of the Russian plate, between the Timan ridge and the Urals. Its uneven block foundation is lowered to various depths - up to 5000-6000 m in the east. The syneclise is filled with a thick stratum of Paleozoic rocks overlain by Meso-Cenozoic sediments. In its northeastern part there is the Usinsky (Bolshezemelsky) vault.

In the center of the Russian plate there are two large anteclises - Voronezh and Volga-Ural separated by Pachelm aulacogen... The Voronezh anteclise slopes gently to the north into the Moscow syneclise. The surface of its basement is covered with thin Ordovician, Devonian and Carboniferous deposits. On the south steep slope the rocks of the Carboniferous, Cretaceous and Paleogene occur. The Volga-Ural anteclise consists of large uplifts (arches) and depressions (aulacogenes), on the slopes of which flexures are located. The thickness of the sedimentary cover here is not less than 800 m within the highest vaults (Tokmovsky).

The Caspian marginal syneclise is a vast area of deep (up to 18-20 km) subsidence of the crystalline basement and belongs to structures of ancient origin, almost from all sides of the syneclise it is bounded by flexures and faults and has angular outlines. From the west it is framed by the Ergeninskaya and Volgograd flexures, from the north - flexure of Obshchy Syrt. In some places they are complicated by young faults. In the Neogene-Quaternary time, further subsidence (up to 500 m) and the accumulation of a thick layer of marine and continental sediments took place. These processes are combined with fluctuations in the level of the Caspian.

The southern part of the East European Plain is located on the Scythian epigercyn plate, lying between south edge Russian plate and alpine folded structures of the Caucasus.

Tectonic movements of the Urals and the Caucasus have led to some disruption in the occurrence of plate sediments. This is expressed in the form of dome-shaped uplifts, significant in length ridge ( Oksko-Tsniksky, Zhigulevsky, Vyatsky and others), individual flexural bends of layers, salt domes, which can be clearly traced in the modern relief. Ancient and young deep faults, as well as ring structures, determined the block structure of the plates, the direction of river valleys, and the activity of neotectonic movements. The predominant direction of the faults is northwest.

A brief description of the tectonics of the East European Plain and a comparison of the tectonic map with the hypsometric and neotectonic maps allow us to conclude that the modern relief, which has undergone a long and complex history, is in most cases inherited and dependent on the nature of the ancient structure and manifestations of neotectonic movements.

Neotectonic movements on the East European Plain manifested themselves with different intensity and direction: in most of the territory they are expressed by weak and moderate uplifts, low mobility, and the Caspian and Pechora lowlands experience weak subsidence (Fig. 6).

The development of the morphostructure of the north-west of the plain is associated with the movements of the marginal part of the Baltic shield and the Moscow syneclise; therefore, there are developed monoclinal (inclined) bed plains, expressed in orography in the form of hills (Valdai, Smolensk-Moscow, Belorusskaya, Northern Uvaly, etc.), and stratal plains occupying a lower position (Verkhnevolzhskaya, Meshcherskaya). The central part of the Russian Plain was influenced by the intense uplifts of the Voronezh and Volga-Ural anteclises, as well as the subsidence of neighboring aulacogens and troughs. These processes contributed to the formation layer-tiered, stepped elevations(Central Russian and Volga) and the Oksko-Don plain. The eastern part developed in connection with the movements of the Urals and the edge of the Russian plate; therefore, a mosaic of morphostructures is observed here. Developed in the north and south accumulative lowlands edge syneclises of the plate (Pechora and Caspian). Alternating between them stratal-tiered uplands(Bugulminsko-Belebeevskaya, General Syrt), monoclinal-bed uplands (Verkhnekamskaya) and intra-platform folded Timansky ridge.

In the Quaternary, a cooling of the climate in the northern hemisphere contributed to the spread of ice sheets. Glaciers had a significant impact on the formation of relief, Quaternary sediments, permafrost, as well as on changes in natural zones - their position, floristic composition, fauna and migration of plants and animals within the East European Plain.

Three glaciations are distinguished on the East European Plain: Okskoe, Dnieper with the Moscow stage, and Valdai. Glaciers and fluvioglacial waters created two types of plains - moraine and outwash. Permafrost processes prevailed in the wide periglacial (preglacial) belt for a long time. Snowfields had an especially intense effect on the relief during the period of reduced glaciation.

Morena of the most ancient glaciation - Oksky- was studied on the Oka, 80 km south of Kaluga. The lower, heavily washed-out Oka moraine with Karelian crystalline boulders is separated from the overlying Dnieper moraine by typical interglacial deposits. In a number of other sections to the north of this section, under the Dnieper moraine, the Oka moraine was also found.

Obviously, the moraine relief that arose in the Oka glacial epoch has not survived to our time, since it was first washed out by the waters of the Dnieper (Middle Pleistocene) glacier, and then it was covered by its bottom moraine.

Southern boundary of maximum spread Dniprovsky integumentary glaciations crossed the Central Russian Upland in the Tula region, then descended with a tongue along the Don valley - to the mouth of the Khopra and Medveditsa, crossed the Volga Upland, then the Volga near the mouth of the Sura River, then went to the upper reaches of the Vyatka and Kama and crossed the Ural in the area of 60 ° N. latitude. In the basin of the Upper Volga (in Chukhloma and Galich), as well as in the basin of the Upper Dnieper above the Dnieper moraine, the upper moraine occurs, which is attributed to the Moscow stage of the Dnieper glaciation *.

Before the last Valdai glaciation in the interglacial epoch, the vegetation of the middle zone of the East European Plain had a more thermophilic composition than the modern one. This testifies to the complete disappearance of its glaciers in the north. During the interglacial epoch, peat bogs with Brazen flora were deposited in lacustrine basins formed in depressions of the moraine relief.

In the north of the East European Plain, the boreal ingression arose during this epoch, the level of which was 70-80 m above the present-day sea level. The sea penetrated along the river valleys of the Northern Dvina, Mezen, Pechora, creating wide branching bays. Then came the Valdai glaciation. The edge of the Valdai ice sheet was located 60 km north of Minsk and went to the northeast, reaching Nyandoma.

In the climate of the more southerly regions, due to glaciation, there have been changes. At this time, in the more southern regions of the East European Plain, remnants of seasonal snow cover and snowfields contributed to the intensive development of nivation, solifluction, and the formation of asymmetric slopes in erosional landforms (ravines, gullies, etc.).

Thus, if ice existed within the distribution of the Valdai glaciation, then in the periglacial zone a nival relief and sediments (boulderless loams) were formed. The non-glacial, southern parts of the plain are overlain by thick strata of loess and loess-like loams, synchronous with ice ages. At this time, in connection with the humidification of the climate, which caused glaciation, and also, possibly, with neotectonic movements in the basin of the Caspian Sea, marine transgressions took place.

Natural processes of the Neogene-Quaternary time and modern climatic conditions on the territory of the East European Plain have determined various types of morphosculptures, which are zonal in their distribution: on the coast of the seas of the Arctic Ocean, sea and moraine plains with cryogenic relief forms are widespread. To the south lie moraine plains, transformed at various stages by erosion and periglacial processes. Along the southern periphery of the Moscow glaciation, a strip of outwash plains is observed, interrupted by remnant elevated plains covered with loess-like loams, dissected by ravines and gullies. To the south, there is a strip of fluvial ancient and modern landforms in the highlands and lowlands. On the coast of the Azov and Caspian Seas, there are Neogene-Quaternary plains with erosional, depression-subsidence and aeolian relief.

The long geological history of the largest geostructure - the ancient platform - predetermined the accumulation of various minerals on the East European Plain. The basement of the platform contains the richest deposits of iron ores (Kursk magnetic anomaly). The sedimentary cover of the platform is associated with deposits of coal (the eastern part of the Donbass, the Moscow basin), oil and gas in the Paleozoic and Mesozoic deposits (the Ural-Volga basin), and oil shale (near Syzran). Building materials (songs, gravel, clay, limestone) are widespread. The sedimentary cover is also associated with brown iron ore (near Lipetsk), bauxite (near Tikhvin), phosphorites (in a number of areas) and salts (Caspian region).

* A number of scientists consider the Moscow glaciation to be an independent Middle Pleistocene glaciation.

see also nature photography of the East European Plain(with geographic and biological captions for photographs)
from section