Any living organism is adapted (adapted) to certain environmental conditions. Changing its parameters, their output for some borders suppresses the life of organisms and can cause their death. The requirements of this or that organism to environmental factors of the medium are caused by the area (the borders of the distribution) of the kind to which the body belongs, and within the range - specific habitats.

Havory - Spatially bounded set of conditions of medium (abiotic and biotic), providing the whole cycle of development and reproduction of individuals (or group of individuals) of one species. This, for example, hedge, pond, grove, rocky shore, etc. At the same time, within the limits of habitat, places with special conditions may be allocated (for example, under the crust of the trunk of the tree in the grove), in some cases is called microelectrics.

For the aggregate characteristics of the physical space occupied by the organisms of the form, their functional role in the biotic habitat, including the method of nutrition (trophic status), lifestyle and relationship with other species, American scientist J. Greennell in 1928. The term "ecological niche" is introduced. Its current definition is such.

Ecological niche - This is a combination

· All organism requirements for habitat conditions (composition and modes environmental factors) and the place where these requirements are satisfied;

· Total sets of biological characteristics and physical parameters of the medium that determine the conditions for the existence of a particular type, the transformation of energy to them, the exchange of information with the environment and themselves like.

Thus, the ecological niche characterizes the degree of biological specialization of the species. It can be argued that the habitat of the body is his "address", while the ecological niche is his "occupation", or "lifestyle", or "profession". For example, the habitat of the thrush includes forests, parks, meadows, gardens, gardens and yards. Its ecological niche includes factors such as nesting and hatching of chicks on trees, insect food, earthworms and fruits, transfer of fruit-berry seeds with their excrement.

Environmental specificity of species is emphasized axom of environmental adaptation: Each type is adapted to a strictly defined, specific set of existence conditions - ecological niche.

Since the types of organisms are environmentally friendly, they have specific environmental niches.

Thus, as in the land of the types of living organisms - as many ecological niches.

Organisms leading a similar lifestyle, as a rule, do not live in the same places due to interspecific competition. According to established in 1934. Soviet biologist G. F. Gauz (1910-1986) the principle of competitive mutual exclusion: Two types do not occupy the same ecological niche.

In nature also acts the rule is obligatory to fill ecological niches: The empty ecological niche is always completed.

Folk wisdom formulated these two postulates as follows: "Two bear can not get along in one burgher" and "Nature does not tolerate emptiness."

These systemic observations are implemented in the formation of biotic communities and biocenoses. Environmental niches are always filled, although this sometimes requires considerable time. The encountered expression "Free Ecological Niche" means that in a certain place is weak competition for any kind of feed and there is an insufficiently used amount of other conditions for a certain type in similar natural systems, but not in those considered.

It is especially important to take into account natural patterns when trying to intervene in the existing (or undergoing in a certain place) the situation in order to create more favorable conditions For a person. Thus, the following are proved by biologists: in cities, with increasing pollution of the territory, the number of raven is increasing. When you try to improve the situation, for example, by means of their physical destruction, the population may encounter the fact that the ecological niche in the urban environment liberated by the corners will be quickly occupied by the view having a close ecological niche, namely, rats. Such a result can hardly be recognized as a victory.

Everyone biological view Plays a role in its ecosystem. Ecologically proved that some species called key species, radically affect many other organisms in the ecosystem. The disappearance of the key type from the ecosystem can provoke a whole cascade of sharp drops of population numbers and even extinct those species that depended on it in one form or another.

An example of a key species can be considered an earthy turtle. Earthy turtle lives on sandy hills in Florida and other southern United States. It is slow, the size of a dining plate, the animal pulls out a hole with a depth of 9 meters. In the hot, non-sensuous ecosystems of the south of the USA, such holes become asylums from heat for nearly 40 other species of animals, such as gray fox, opossum, snake indigo and many insects. In those places where the earthen turtle was exterminated or brought to the verge of extincting with numerous hunters for its exquisite meat, many tests that depend on the turtle ceased to exist.

Environmental niches of all living organisms are divided into specialized and general. This division depends on the main sources of nutrition of the respective species, sizes of habitat, sensitivity to abiotic factors medium.

Specialized niches. Most of the types of plants and animals are adapted to existence only in the narrow range of climatic conditions and other environmental characteristics, feed on a limited set of plants or animals. Such species have a specialized niche, defining their habitat in the natural environment.

So, a gigantic panda has a narrowly specialized niche, for 99% is powered by leaves and bamboo shoots. Mass destruction of certain types of bamboo in the areas of China, where Panda dwells, led this animal to extinction.

A variety of species and forms of plant and animal world, existing in wet tropical forests, is associated with the presence of a number of specialized ecological niches in each of the well-pronounced forest vegetation tiers. Therefore, the intensive cutting of these forests caused the extinction of millions of specialized species of plants and animals.

Common niches. Types with shared niches are characterized by light adaptability to changes in environmental habitat factors. They can successfully exist in a variety of places, feed on various foods and withstand sharp fluctuations in natural conditions. Common ecological niches are available in flies, cockroaches, mice, rats, people, etc.

For species having common environmental niches, there is a significantly less threat of extinction than those with specialized niches.

While the ecosystem has sufficient number General resources, different types consume them together. However, if two or more species in one ecosystem will begin to consume one and the same scarce resource, they will be in relationships interspecific competition.

The species gets an advantage in interspecific competition if it is characteristic

More intense reproduction;

Adaptation to a wider range of temperature, illumination, water salinity or

concentration of certain harmful substances;

Depriving a competitor to access to the resource.

Methods for reducing interspecific competition:

Relocation to another area;

Transition to more hard-to-reach or difficult to digest food;

Change of time and location of feed.

The most characteristic form of interaction of species in food chains and networks is the predation, in which a particular individual of one species (predator) is powered by organisms (or parts of organisms) of another species (victim), and the predator lives separately from the victim. These two types of organisms are involved in relationship type predator - victim.

Types of stories use a number of protective mechanisms so as not to become easy prey for predators:

The ability to run quickly or fly;

Possession of thick skin or shell;

Possession of protective color or way to change color;

The ability to highlight chemicals with a smell or taste that scare up a predator or even poisoning it.

Predators also have several ways to prey the victim:

The ability to quickly run (for example, a cheetah);

Hunting flocks (for example, spotted hyenas, lions, wolves);

Calves as victims of predominantly ill, wounded and other defective individuals;

The fourth way to ensure itself with animal food is the way for which a man has gone reasonable, the way of the invention of the guns of hunting and traps, as well as animal domestication.

It often happens that two different types of organisms directly interact in such a way that they bring mutual benefits to each other. Such mutually beneficial interspace interactions are called mutualism. For example, flowers and insect pollinators.

Commminasalism is characterized by the fact that one of two types will benefit from interspecific interaction, whereas on the other it practically does not affect (neither positively nor negatively). For example, whales in the Chinese jaws.

The concept of the so-called saturated and unsaturated biocenosis is closely connected with the concept of ecological niches. The first are ecosystems in which life resources at each stage of biomass and energy transformation are used most fully. When life resources are disposed of partly, biocenoses can be called unsaturated. They are characterized by the presence of free ecological niches. However, it is extremely conditional, since environmental niches cannot exist in themselves, regardless of their species.

Unused reserves, unrealized possibilities of intensifying the flow of substances and energy are available in virtually any biogeocenosis (otherwise they could not be carried out in time and space!), All biocenoses can be considered unsaturated. The smaller the saturation of the biocenosis is, the easier it is introduced into its composition and new species are acclimatized.

Very important property of biogeocenoses, as biological systems, is their self-regulation - the ability to withstand high loads of adverse external influences, the ability to return to the conditionally initial state after significant violations of their structure (the principle of leschatel). But above a certain threshold impact mechanisms of self-healing are not triggered, and biogeocenosis is irreversibly destroyed.

During the evolutionary process, the global ecological niche of the biosphere expanded. When any kind was exhausting the genetically determined potential for the development of an ecological niche, where he was born, he either pushed out other species, conquering their environmental niches, or reassigned a lifeless niche, rebuilding under it genetically, possibly generating at the same time the new kind organisms.

At some stage of the development of the biosphere, there was a reason for a reasonable person, whose representatives are all humanity, despite all the variety of races, peoples, peoples, tribes.

The potential for the development of adults of each biological species on all qualities of individuals is genetically determined, although it may not be revealed, not filled with real content if the conditions of habitat do not have. In relation to the population, genetic conditionality and the potential of its development are subordinate to probabilistic predestinations reflected in the statistical laws of the accomplished. This fully applies to a person - the biological species carrying the largest absolute and relative volume (compared to other types of living organisms of the Earth's biosphere) of extrelectically determined behavioral information that ensures the greatest flexibility of behavior in a rapidly changing environment.



Introduction

In this paper, I want to introduce you to such concepts as an ecological niche, limiting factors, more about the law of tolerance.

Environmentalists? Českaya nig - a place occupied by the type of biocenosis, including the complex of its biosotic ties and requirements for the factors of the medium.

The concept of an ecological niche was introduced to designate the role that one or another plays the community. Under the ecosisha should be understood the lifestyle and, above all, the method of nutrition of the body.

Environmental niche is an abstract concept, this is a combination of all environmental factors, within which the existence of a species in nature is possible. This term was introduced in 1927 by Charles Elton. It includes the chemical, physical and biotic factors needed by the body for life, and is determined by its morphological adaptability, physiological reactions and behavior. IN different parts Lights and in different territories there are species that are unequal in systematic relations, but similar to ecology - they are called environmentally equivalent.

Environmental niche is a place occupied by the view (more precisely, its population) in the community (biocenosis). The interaction of this species (population) with the community partners in which it is included in the quality is articulated, determines its place in the cycle of substances caused by food and competitive biocenosis. The term "ecological niche" is proposed by the American scientist J. Grinell (1917). The interpretation of an ecological niche as the position of the type of supply chains of one or more biocenoses was given by the English ecologist C. Elton (1927). A similar interpretation of the concept of an ecological niche allows the quantitative characteristic of an ecological niche for each type or for its individual populations.

The limiting factor is a factor of the medium that goes beyond the endurance of the body. The limiting factor limits any manifestation of the body's vital activity. With the help of limiting factors, the state of organisms and ecosystems is regulated.

The law of tolerance of Shelford - in ecology - the law, according to which the existence of the species is determined by the limiting factors that are not only in a minimum, but also at the maximum. The law of tolerance expands the law of the minimum of the libid.

The law of the minimum of Y.Libiha - in ecology is a concept that the existence and endurance of the body is determined by the weakest link in the chain of its environmental needs.

According to the law of a minimum, the vital possibilities of organisms limit those environmental factors, the amount and quality of which are close to the necessary organism or ecosystem minimum.

Ecological niche

Any kind of organisms is adapted for certain conditions existence and cannot arbitrarily change the habitat, food diet, power time, place of breeding, asylum, etc. The whole complex of relations to such factors determines the place that nature has identified this body, and the role he has to play in a universal process. All this is united in the concept environmental niche.

Under the environmental niche, the body of the body is in nature and the whole image of its livelihoods, its life status, enshrined in his organization and adaptations.

IN different time The concept of an ecological niche attributed different meaning. At first, the word "niche" was designated the main unit of the distribution of the form within the space of the ecosystem, dictated by the structural and instinctive limitations of this species. For example, proteins live on trees, moose - on Earth, some species of birds nest on the branches, others in the duplach, etc. Here, the concept of ecological niche is interpreted mainly as habitats, or a spatial niche. Later, the term "niche" was given the meaning of the "functional status of the body in the community." Basically, it concerned the place of this species in the trophic structure of the ecosystem: the type of food, time and place of food, who is a predator for a given organism, etc. Now it is called a trophic niche. It was then shown that niche can be considered as a hyperobility in a multidimensional space, built on the basis of habitat factors. This hyperoballing limited the range of factors in which it may exist this species (hyperpriced niche).

That is, in a modern understanding of the ecological niche, at least three aspects can be distinguished: the physical space occupied by the body in nature (habitat), its attitude towards the factors of the medium and to the living organisms adjacent to it (communications), as well as its functional role in the ecosystem. All these aspects are manifested through the structure of the body, adaptation, instincts, life cycles, life "interests", etc. The body's right to choose its ecological niche is limited by a rather narrow framework, fixed by him from birth. However, his descendants can claim other environmental niches if appropriate genetic changes have occurred.

Using the concept of an ecological niche, the Rule of Competitive Exception Gause can be rephrased as follows: two different types can not for a long time occupy one ecological niche and even enter into one ecosystem; One of them should either die or change and take a new ecological niche. By the way, the intraspecific competition is often strongly reduced precisely because at different stages life cycle Many organisms occupy different environmental niches. For example, a tadpole is a vegetative animal, and adult frogs living in the same pond are predators. Another example: insects at the stage of the larvae and an adult individual.

On one territory in the ecosystem can live a large number of organisms of different types. These may be nearby species, but each of them is obliged to take its unique ecological niche. In this case, these species do not enter into competitive relations and in a certain sense become neutral to each other. However, often environmental niches of different types can overlap at least one of the aspects, for example, by habitat or nutrition. This leads to an interspecific competition, which is usually not a rigid nature and contributes to the clarity of the distinction of environmental niches.

Thus, the Ecosystems are implemented in the ecosystems, a similar ban on Pauli's ban in quantum physics: in this quantum system in the same quantum state, more than one fermion can be located (particles with a half-spin, type of electrons, protons, neutrons, etc. ). The ecosystems also quantize environmental niches, which seek to clearly localize in relation to other environmental niches. Inside this environmental niche, that is, inside the population, which occupies this niche, the differentiation of more private niches continues, which occupies each particular part, which determines the status of this individual in the life of this population.

Does such differentiation occur at lower levels of the systemic hierarchy, for example, at the level of a multicellular organism? It is also possible to distinguish various "types of" cells and smaller "Taurus", the structure of which determines their functional purpose inside the body. Some of them are stationary, their colonies form organs, the purpose of which makes sense only in relation to the body as a whole. There are also the moving simplest organisms living, seemingly their "personal" life, which nevertheless fully satisfies the needs of the entire multicellular organism. For example, the red blood calves make only the fact that they "know how": oxygen is associated in one place, and in another place it is released. These are their "ecological niche". The vital activity of each cell cell is built in such a way that, "living for yourself", it is at the same time working for the benefit of the whole organism. This work is not at all tired, just as we do not tire the process of food intake, or a beloved business (if, of course, all this is in moderation). Cells are arranged so that in a different way they simply cannot live, just as the bee cannot live without collecting nectar and pollen (probably it brings her some pleasure).

Thus, the whole nature "from the bottom of the back" seems to be permeated with the idea of \u200b\u200bdifferentiation, which in the ecology has undertaken to the concept of an ecological niche, which in a certain sense is similar to the organ or subsystem of a living organism. These "organs" are formed under the action of an external environment, that is, their formation is subordinated to the requirements of the overseystem, in our case - the biosphere.

Content:
Introduction ...................................................................................... 3.
1. Ecological niche ............................................................ ..... 4
1.1. The concept of an ecological niche ........................................... four
1.2. Width and overlapping niche .............................................. five
1.3. Differentiation of niche ...................................................... eight
1.4. Evolution Nish ............................................................... 10
2. Aspects of an ecological niche ....................................................12
3. Modern concept of ecological niche ........................... .... 13
4. Individuality and uniqueness of environmental niches ......... ... 13
5. Types of ecological niches ......................................................... 14
6. Space Niche .................................................................. fifteen
Conclusion .............................................................................. 16
List of literature used ............................................. ... 19

2
Introduction
This data is considered the topic "Environmental Niche". Environmental niche is a place occupied by the type (more precisely by its population) in the community, the complex of its biosotic ties and the requirements for abiotic factors of the medium. This term was introduced in 1927 by Charles Elton.
Environmental niche is the sum of the factors of the existence of this species, the main of which is its place in the food chain.
The purpose of the work is to identify the essence of the concept of "ecological niche".
The objectives of the study leak out of the goal:
- to give the concept of an ecological niche;
- analyze the features of environmental niches;
- Consider environmental niches of species in communities.
Environmental niche is a place occupied by the community. The interaction of this species (population) with the community partners in which it is included in the quality is articulated, determines its place in the cycle of substances caused by food and competitive biocenosis. The term "ecological niche" is proposed by the American scientist J. Greennell (1917). The interpretation of an ecological niche as the position of the form of one or several biocenoses was given by the English ecologist C. Elton (1927). A similar interpretation of the concept of an ecological niche allows the quantitative characteristic of an ecological niche for each type or for its individual populations. This is compared in the coordinate system an abundance of the view (the number of individuals or biomass) with
3
indicators of temperature, humidity or any other environmental factor. In this way, the optimum zone and the limits of the deviations submitted by the view are maximum and minimum of each factor or the set of factors. As, the rule, each species occupies a certain environmental niche, to the existence in which it is adapted to all the progress of evolutionary development. A place occupied by the view (its population) in space (spatial ecological niche) is more often called habitat.
Consider more ecological niches.

1. Ecological niche
Any type of organisms is adapted for certain conditions of existence and cannot arbitrarily change the habitat, food diet, power, time of reproduction, asylum, etc. The whole complex of relations to such factors determines the place that nature has identified this body, and the role he has to play in a universal process. All this is united in the concept environmental niche.
1.1. The effect of an ecological niche.
Under the environmental niche, the body of the body is in nature and the whole image of its livelihoods, its life status, enshrined in his organization and adaptations.
At different times, a different meaning was attributed to the concept of an ecological niche. First, the word "niche" was designated the main unit of the distribution of the form within the space of the ecosystem dictated by structural and
4
instinctive constraints of this species. For example, proteins live on trees, moose - on Earth, some species of birds nest on the branches, others in the duplach, etc. Here, the concept of ecological niche is interpreted mainly as habitats, or a spatial niche. Later, the term "niche" was given the meaning of the "functional status of the body in the community." Basically, it concerned the place of this species in the trophic structure of the ecosystem: the type of food, time and place of food, who is a predator for a given organism, etc. Now it is called a trophic niche. It was then shown that niche can be considered as a hyperobility in a multidimensional space, built on the basis of habitat factors. This hyperoballing limited the range of factors in which this species may exist (hyperpriced niche).
That is, in a modern understanding of the ecological niche, at least three aspects can be distinguished: the physical space occupied by the body in nature (habitat), its attitude towards the factors of the medium and to the living organisms adjacent to it (communications), as well as its functional role in the ecosystem. All these aspects are manifested through the structure of the body, adaptation, instincts, life cycles, life "interests", etc. The body's right to choose its ecological niche is limited by a rather narrow framework, fixed by him from birth. However, his descendants can claim other environmental niches if appropriate genetic changes have occurred.
1.2. Width and overlapping niche.
Using the concept of an ecological niche, the rule of competitive exclusion Gause can be rephrased as follows: two different types cannot occupy one ecological niche and even enter into one ecosystem; one of them should either die or
5
change and take a new ecological niche. By the way, the intraspecific competition is often greatly reduced, precisely because at different stages of the life cycle, many organisms occupy various ecological niches. For example, a tadpole is a vegetative animal, and adult frogs living in the same pond are predators. Another example: insects at the stage of the larvae and an adult individual.
On one territory in the ecosystem can live a large number of organisms of different types. These may be nearby species, but each of them is obliged to take its unique ecological niche. In this case, these species do not enter into competitive relations and in a certain sense become neutral to each other. However, often environmental niches of different types can overlap at least one of the aspects, for example, by habitat or nutrition. This leads to an interspecific competition, which is usually not a rigid nature and contributes to the clarity of the distinction of environmental niches. For the characteristic of the niche, two standard measurements are used - the width of the niche and overlapping the niche with neighboring niches.
Under the width of the niche is understood as gradients or the range of action of any environmental factor, but only within the limits of this hyperspace. The width of the niche can be determined by the intensity of lighting, along the length of the trophic chain, by the intensity of the action of any abiotic factor. Under the overlap of ecological niches, the overlap of the width of niches is also implied, and the overlap of hyperoblos.The width of the ecological niche is a relative parameter that is assessed by comparing with a width of an ecological niche of other species. Evuribionts usually have broader environmental niches than the uncoobion. However, the same ecological niche may have different widths of different
6
directions: For example, according to spatial distribution, food relations, etc.
The overlapping of an ecological niche occurs if various types of habitat use the same resources. The overlapping can be complete or partial, one or more of the parameters of the ecological niche.

If the ecological niches of the organisms of two species are very different from each other, then these species having the same habitat will not compete with each other (Fig. 3).

If environmental niches partially overlap (Fig. 2), their joint coexistence will be possible due to the presence of specific devices.

If an ecological niche of one species includes an ecological niche of another (Fig. 1), there is intensive competition, the dominant competitor will displace his opponent to the periphery of the adaptability zone.
Competition leads to important environmental consequences. In nature, each species is simultaneously exposed to interspecific and intraspecific competition. Interspecific in their consequences
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the opposite of intraspecifications, as it narrows the area of \u200b\u200bhabitats and the quantity and quality of the necessary medium resources. Internal competition contributes to the territorial distribution of species, that is, the expansion of the spatial ecological niche. The end result is the ratio of interspecific and intraspecific competition. If interspecific competition is greater, the area of \u200b\u200bthis species decreases to the territory with optimal conditions and at the same time increases the specialization of the species.

1.3. Differentiation of niche.
Thus, the Ecosystems are implemented in the ecosystems, a similar ban on Pauli's ban in quantum physics: in this quantum system in the same quantum state, more than one fermion can be located (particles with a half-spin, type of electrons, protons, neutrons, etc. ). The ecosystems also quantize environmental niches, which seek to clearly localize in relation to other environmental niches. Inside this environmental niche, that is, inside the population, which occupies this niche, continues differentiation to more private
8
niche, which occupies every specific person, determining the status of this individual in the life of this population.
Does such differentiation occur at lower levels of the systemic hierarchy, for example, at the level of a multicellular organism? It is also possible to distinguish various "types of" cells and smaller "Taurus", the structure of which determines their functional purpose inside the body. Some of them are stationary, their colonies form organs, the purpose of which makes sense only in relation to the body as a whole. There are also the moving simplest organisms living, seemingly their "personal" life, which nevertheless fully satisfies the needs of the entire multicellular organism. So, for example, red blood calves make only the fact that they are "able": in one place is binding oxygen , and in another place it is released. These are their "ecological niche". The vital activity of each cell cell is built in such a way that, "living for yourself", it is at the same time working for the benefit of the whole organism. This work is not at all tired, just as we do not tire the process of food intake, or a beloved business (if, of course, all this is in moderation). Cells are arranged so that in a different way they simply cannot live, just as the bee cannot live without collecting nectar and pollen (probably it brings her some pleasure).
Thus, the whole nature "from the bottom of the top" seems to be permeated by the idea of \u200b\u200bdifferentiation, which in the ecology has undertaken to the concept of an ecological niche, which in a certain sense is similar to the organ or subsystem of a living organism. These "organs" are formed under the action of an external environment, that is, their formation is subordinated to the requirements of the overseystem, in our case - the biosphere.

9
1.4. Evolution Nish.
It is so known that in similar conditions, similar to each other ecosystems with the same set of ecological niches are formed, even if these ecosystems are located in different geographic areas separated by irresistible obstacles. The most vivid example of this regard demonstrates the living world of Australia, for a long time Developed apart from the rest of the world of sushi. In Australia's ecosystems, functional niches can be distinguished equivalent to the corresponding ecosystem niches on other continents. These niches are occupied by the biological groups that are available in the fauna and the flora of the region, but in a similar way specialized on the same functions in the ecosystem, which are characteristic of this environmental niche. Such types of organisms are called environmentally equivalent. For example, large kangaroo Australia is equivalent to bison and antilopams of North America (on both continents now these animals are replaced mainly cows and sheep). Similar phenomena in the theory of evolution are called parallelism. Very often, parallelism is accompanied by convergence (aid) of many morphological (from the Greek word Morph - a form) of signs. So, despite the fact that the whole world has gained planker animals, in Australia for some reason, almost all mammals are, with the exception of several species of animals, brought much later than finally, there was a living world of Australia. However, there is also a sumparal mole, and a silent protein, and a sore wolf, etc. All these animals are not only functional, but also morphologically similar to the relevant animals of our ecosystems, although there is no kinship between them. All this testifies to the presence of a certain "program" formation of ecosystems in these specific
10
conditions. As "genes" storing this program, all matter, each particle of which gallogramo keeps information about the entire universe in itself. This information is implemented in the current world in the form of the laws of nature, which contribute to the fact that various natural elements canit is not possible to develop in ordered structures at all, and the only possible, or at least several possible methods. For example, the water molecule, obtained from one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms, has the same spatial form, regardless of whether the reaction occurred with us, or in Australia, although on the calculations of Isake Azimov, only one chance is implemented Of 60 million. Probably something similar happens in the case of ecosystem formation.
Thus, in any ecosystem there is a certain set of strictly linked to each other potentially possible (virtual) ecological niches, designed to ensure the integrity and stability of the ecosystem. This virtual structure is a kind of "biopol" of this ecosystem containing the "standard" of its relevant (real) structure. And by and large, it does not even matter what the nature of this biofield is: electromagnetic, informational, ideal or some other. The very fact of its existence is important. In any naturally generated ecosystem, which did not experience the impact of man, all environmental niches are filled. This is called the rule of mandatory environmental niche. Its mechanism is built on the property of life tightly fill out all the space affordable to it (under the space in this case it is understood as hyperoblization of environmental factors). One of the main conditions ensuring the implementation of this rule is the presence of sufficient species diversity. The number of environmental niches and their intercourse is subordinate to the Unified Target
11
the functioning of the ecosystem as a single whole, having mechanisms of homeostasis (stability), binding and release of energy and cycle of substances. In fact, the subsystems of any living organism are focused on the same goals that once again speaks of the need to revise the traditional understanding of the term "living creature". In the same way as a living organism cannot normally exist without any organ, and the ecosystem cannot be stable if all its ecological niches are not filled.
2. Aspects of an ecological niche.

E.cOLOGICAL NICH - CONCEPT, according to Y. Oduma , more capacious. Environmental niche, as the English scientist, Ch. Elton (1927) showed, includes not only the physical space occupied by the organism, but also the functional role of the body in the community. Elton distinguished the niche as a position of the species depending on other types of community. The view of C. Elton that Niche is not synonymous with habitats, gained wide recognition and distribution. The body is very important its trophic position, lifestyle, connection with other organisms, etc. and its position relative to the gradients of external factors as the conditions of existence (temperature, humidity, pH, composition and type of soil, etc.).
These three aspects of the environmental niche (space, functional role of the body, external factors) are conveniently denoted as a space niche (niche of the place), a trophic niche (functional niche), in understanding C. Elton, and a multidimensional niche (the entire volume and a set of biotic and abiotic characteristics is taken into account. , hyperoballing). The ecological niche of the body depends not only on where it lives, but also includes the total amount of its environmental requirements.
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The body not only has the effect of environmental factors, but also makes its demands on them.

3. Modern concept of ecological niche.

Formed on the basis of the model proposed by J. Hutchinson (1957). According to this model, the ecological niche is part of the imaginary multidimensional space (hyperoblum), the individual dimensions of which correspond to the factors necessary for the normal existence and reproduction of the body. Niche Hutchinson, which we will be called multidimensional (hyperpricted), can be described using quantitative characteristics and operate with it using mathematical calculations and models. R. Whitteker (1980) determines the environmental niche as the position of the community in the community, implying that the community is already associated with a specific biotope, i.e. With a certain set of physical and chemical parameters. Consequently, the ecological niche is the term used to designate the specialization of the population of the species within the community.
Group species in biocenosis, which have similar functions and niches of the same size, are called guilds. The species occupying the same niches in different geographic areas are called environmental equivalents.

4. Individuality and uniqueness of environmental niches.

Whatever close to the place of habitat would be organisms (or species as a whole), no matter how close their functional characteristics in biocenoses, they will never occupy the same ecological niche. Thus, the number of environmental niches on our planet is endless.
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It is imperative that you can imagine a human population, all the individuals of which only possess its unique niche. It is impossible to present two absolutely identical people with absolutely identical morphophysiological and functional characteristics, including such as mental, attitude towards themselves like, the absolute need for the type and quality of food, sexual relationship, behavior rate, etc. But individual niches of various people can overlap on individual environmental parameters. For example, students can be interconnected by one university, specific teachers and at the same time may differ in behavior in society, in choosing food, biological activity, etc.

5. Types of ecological niches.

Two main types of environmental niches are distinguished. First, it is
fundamental (formal) niche - the largest "abstract populated
hyperoballing, "where the effect of environmental factors without the influence of competition provides the maximum abundance and functioning of the species. However, the view is experiencing constant changes in environmental factors within its range. In addition, as we already know, the increase in the action of one factor can change the relation of the species to another factor (a consequence of the Libiha law), and its range may change. The action of two factors simultaneously can change the relationship of the species to each of them specifically. Always within ecological niches are biotic limitations (predation, competition). All these actions lead to the fact that the actual look occupies an ecological space, which is much smaller than the hyperspace of the fundamental niche. In this case, we are talking about the implemented niche, i.e. Real niche.

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6. Space niche.

Environmental niches of species are something more than the ratio of a species to some one gradient of the medium. Very many signs or axis of multidimensional space (hyperoballing) are very complex for measurement or cannot be expressed by linear vectors (for example, behavior, addiction, etc.). Therefore, it is necessary, as R.Uittereer (1980) said rightly, move from the concept of the niche axis (recall the width of the niche according to any one or several parameters) to the concept of its multidimensional determination, which will determine the nature of the species relationships in their full range of adaptive relationships .
If niche has a "place" or "position" of the species in the community according to the concept of Elton, then it is entitled to give it some measurements. According to Hutchinson Niche can be determined by a certain number of environment variable conditions within the community to which the types must be adapted. These variables include both biological indicators (for example, food size) and nebiological (climatic, orographic, hydrographic, etc.). These variables can serve as a axes for which a multidimensional space is reconstructed, which is called the environmentally spaced space of a niche. Each of the types can adapt or be resistant to a certain range of values \u200b\u200bof each variable. The upper and lower limits of all these variables are outlined by the ecological space that is capable of occupying the view. This is a fundamental niche in the sense of Hutchinson. In a simplified form, it can be imagined as a "n-sided drawer" with the parties corresponding to the limit of sustainability
views on the axes of the niche. By applying a multidimensional approach to the space of the community niche, we can figure out the position of species in space, the nature of the reaction of the impact of more than one variable, relative
15
dimensions of niches.
Conclusion.

18
Bibliography:

Chernova N.M., was A. M. Ecology. - M.: Enlightenment, 1988.
Brodsky A.K. Short course General Ecology, Tutorial for universities. - SPb.: "Dean", 2000.- 224 p.
etc.................

Ecological niche - A combination of all environmental factors, within which the existence of a species in nature is possible. Concept ecological niche It is usually used in the study of the relationship of environmentally friendly species relating to one trophic level. The term "ecological niche" is proposed by J. Greenlell (1917) to characterize the spatial distribution of species (i.e. ecological niche was defined as a concept close to havory).

Later, C. Elton (1927) identified an environmental niche as a position in the community, emphasizing the particular importance of trophic ties. Back in the late 19th - early 20th centuries, many researchers have noticed that two species, environmentally friendly and occupying a similar position in the community, cannot sustainably coexist on one territory. This empirical generalization has found confirmation in a mathematical model of competition of two types for one food (V. Volterra) and experimental works. Gause ( principle Gause).

Modern concept ecological niche Formed on the basis of a model of an ecological niche proposed by J. Hutchinson (1957, 1965). According to this model, an ecological niche can be represented as part of the imaginary multidimensional space (hyperoblization), the individual dimensions of which correspond to the factors necessary for the normal existence of the species.

The discrepancy between the ecological niches of different types by divergence takes place mostly due to the derision to different habitats, different food and the different time of use of the same habitat. Developed methods for estimating the width of the ecological niche and the degree of overlapping of environmental niches different species. LIT-RA: Giller P. Community Structure and Environmental Niche. - M.: 1988 (on BES, 1995).

In environmental modeling concept ecological niche It characterizes a certain part of the space (abstract) environmental factors, a hyperobility in which none of the environmental factors go beyond the tolerance of this species (population). Many of these combinations of values \u200b\u200bof environmental factors, in which theoretically, the existence of the form (population) is called fundamental ecological niche.

Imported ecological niche They call part of the fundamental niche, only those combinations of factors values \u200b\u200bunder which a sustainable or prosperous existence of a species (population) is possible. Concepts sustainable or prosperous The existence requires the introduction of additional formal limitations during modeling (for example, mortality should not exceed the birth rate).

If, with this combination of values \u200b\u200bof environmental factors, the plant can survive, but it is not possible to multiply, it is hardly possible to talk about well-being or stability. Consequently, such a combination of environmental factors belongs to the fundamental ecological niche, but not to the environmental niche realized.

Out of the framework of mathematical modeling, of course, there is no such rigor and clarity in determining concepts. In modern environmental literature, you can distinguish four main aspects in the submission of an ecological niche:

1) spatial niche, including a complex of favorable environmental conditions. For example, the insectivinal birds of the Ylannik-Cean-bird live, feed and nest in various forest tiers, which largely allows them to avoid competition;

2) trophic niche. It is highlighted especially due to the vastity of food as an environmental factor. The separation of food niches in the organisms of one trophic level living together, allows not only to avoid competition, but also contributes to the more complete use of food resources and, therefore, increases the intensity of the biological cycle of the substance.

For example, the noisy population of "bird bazaars" creates the impression of a complete absence of any order. In fact, each type of birds occupies a trophic niche defined by his biological characteristics: some feed on the shore, others - at a considerable distance, alone catch fish at the surface, others - at a depth, etc.

Trophic and spatial niches of various species can be partially overlapping (remember: the principle of environmental duplication). Niche can be wide (non-specialized) and narrow (specialized).

3) multidimensional niche, or niche as a hyperob. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe multidimensional ecological niche is associated with mathematical modeling. All many combinations of the values \u200b\u200bof environmental factors are considered as a multidimensional space. In this, a huge variety, we are interested only in such combinations of the values \u200b\u200bof environmental factors in which the existence of the body is possible - this hyperobility and corresponds to the concept of a multidimensional ecological niche.

4) functional An idea of \u200b\u200becological niche. This presentation complements the previous ones and is based on the functional similarity of a variety of environmental systems. For example, they speak the ecological niche of herbivore animals, or small predators, or animals that feed on plankton, or normal animals, etc. The functional idea of \u200b\u200becological niche emphasizes role Organisms in the ecosystem and corresponds to the usual concept of "profession" or even "position in society". It is in a functional plan that they talk about ecological equivalents - species that occupy functionally similar niches in various geographic regions.

"The habitat of the body is a place where he lives, or a place where it can usually find it. Ecological niche - The concept is more capacious, including not only the physical space occupied by the type (population), but also the functional role of this species in the community (for example, its trophic position) and its position relative to the gradients of external factors - temperature, humidity, pH, soil and other conditions of existence. These three aspects of the ecological niche are conveniently denoted as a spatial niche, a trophic niche and a multidimensional niche, or a niche as a hyperoball. Consequently, the ecological niche of the body depends not only on where he lives, but also includes the total amount of its environmental requirements.

Species that occupy the same niches in different geographic areas are called environmental equivalents"(Yu. Odum, 1986).

V.D. Fedors and T.G. Guilmans (1980, p. 118 - 127) celebrate:

"The study of the realized niches by describing the behavior of the function of well-being in the cross section of their direct and planes corresponding to some elected environmental factors is widely used in ecology (Fig. 5.1). At the same time, depending on the nature of the factors that the considered considered private function Well-being, you can distinguish the "climatic" niches, "trophic", "affic", "hydrahemical" and other, so-called private niches.

A positive conclusion from the analysis of private niches can serve as a conclusion from the opposite: if the projections of private niches on some (the more some) do not intersect from the axes, the niches themselves in the space of greater dimension do not intersect. ...

Logically three options are possible. mutual location niches of two species in the space of environmental factors: 1) separation (complete discrepancy); 2) partial intersection (overlapping); 3) Complete inclusion of one niche to another. ...

Nish's separation is a fairly trivial case, reflecting the fact of the existence of species adapted to various environmental conditions. Cases of partial intersection of niches are much more interest. As mentioned above, overlapping projections Even in several coordinates immediately, strictly speaking, does not guarantee the actual overlap of the multidimensional niche. Nevertheless, practical work The presence of such intersections and data on the occurrence of species in close conditions is often considered sufficient arguments in favor of overlapping the niche species.

For the quantitative measurement of the degree of bumps of the niches of two species, it is natural to use the value of the ratio of the intersection of sets ... to the volume of their association. ... In some special cases, the calculation of the measure of the intersection of NIS projections is of interest. "

Educational tests to the topic 5

Environmental niche can be:

• fundamental - determined by a combination of conditions and resources, allowing to support a viable population;
• implemented - The properties of which are due to competing species.

Advancement model:

1. The reaction to one factor does not depend on the effects of another factor;
2. Independence of factors from each other;
3. The space inside the niche is homogeneous with the same degree of favorable.

N-dimensional niche model

This difference emphasizes that interspecific competition leads to a decrease in fecundity and viability and that in the fundamental ecological niche may be such a part, which occupies the view as a result of interspecific competition is not able to live more and successfully multiply. This part of the fundamental niche of the species is absent in its implemented niche. Thus, the realized niche is always part of the fundamental or equal to it.

The principle of competitive exception

The essence of the principle of competitive exception, also known as principle Gause This is that each view has its own ecological niche. No two different types can take the same ecological niche. The Gause principle that was formulated in this way was criticized. For example, one of the well-known contradictions this principle is "planktonic paradox". All kinds of living organisms belonging to Plankton live in a very limited space and consume the resources of the same kind (mainly sunny energy and marine mineral connections). Modern approach To the problem of separating an ecological niche, several species indicate that in some cases two species can separate one ecological niche, and in some such combination leads one of the types to extinction.

In general, if we are talking about competition for a certain resource, the formation of biocenoses is associated with the discrepancy between environmental niches and a decrease in the level of interspecific competition: p.423. With this embodiment, the rule of competitive exception implies spatial (sometimes functional) disagreement of types in biocenosis. Absolute displacement, with a detailed study of ecosystems, fix it is almost impossible: p.423

The law of constant V. I. Vernadsky

The number of living substances of nature (for a given geological period) is a constant.

According to this hypothesis, any change in the number of living substances in one of the regions of the biosphere should be compensated in any other region. True, in accordance with the postulates of species depletion, highly developed species and ecosystems will most often be replaced by an evolutionary lower level objects. In addition, the process of ruderalization of the species composition of ecosystems will occur, and the "useful" types will be replaced by less useful, neutral or even harmful.

The consequence of this law is the rule of mandatory filling of environmental niches. (Rosenberg et al, 1999)

Rule of mandatory filling ecological niche

Environmental niche can not be empty. If niche is empty as a result of extinction of some kind, then it is immediately filled with another species.

The habitat usually consists of separate sites ("spots") with favorable and unfavorable conditions; These spots are often accessible only temporarily, and they arise unpredictably both in time and in space.

Free sites or "bars" in habitats arise unpredictably in many biotopes. Fires or landslides can lead to the formation of waste in forests; The storm can bargain open area Sea coast, and voracious predators anywhere can destroy potential victims. These liberated areas are invariably set out again. However, the most first settlers will not necessarily have those species that for a long time are able to successfully compete with other species and displace them. Therefore, the coexistence of transient and competitive species is possible for so long as uncomplicated areas appear with a suitable frequency. The transitional form is usually the first to populate a free plot, mastering it and multiplies. A more competitive species populates these areas slowly, but if the settlement began, over time, it wins the transitional appearance and multiplies. (Bigon, etc., 1989)

Ecological niche of man

Man as a biological view occupies its own ecological niche. A person can dwell in the tropics and subtropics, at altitudes up to 3-3.5 km above sea level. Currently, a person lives in significantly large spaces. The person expanded the free environmental niche due to the use of various devices: housing, clothes, fire, etc.

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