Roman cuisine from the time of the empire, which is reported by many sources, and later, already at the decline of the empire, quite fully described in the culinary book of Apicius (about 400 AD), at first glance seems incredibly distant from us. The distance, however, decreases when we realize that the main features of both medieval and Renaissance cuisine go back to it, and much in its development has come down to our days, becoming the basis of the generally recognized Mediterranean cuisine - the healthiest and healthiest in the world.

Diversity

By the 5th century BC, public bakeries began to appear in the wealthy cities of the ancient world. Barley bread (very healthy) was considered the food of the poor at that time. The wealthier preferred wheat bread.
Bread and cereals were staples in the ancient world. They were used to prepare stews and cereals, such as maza - a mixture of flour, honey, salt, olive oil and water; Turon is a mixture of flour, grated cheese and honey. Many foods are sprinkled with barley flour before cooking. Beans and other legumes were used abundantly.

Already in the Bronze Age, a large number of vegetables were known and used. They were usually seasoned with spices. Sometimes lamb or beef was added to vegetable dishes, but the meat of domestic animals was expensive, and hunting trophies were widely used - the meat of wild animals and birds, which were then found in abundance.

The national soup of the ancient Romans was borscht - a lot of cabbage and beets were grown especially for it. Even the great poet Horace considered the cultivation of cabbage his main business. Subsequently, this wonderful soup spread among many peoples of the world. (To attribute the invention of borscht to the Ukrainians or the pancakes to the Russians, or the shish kebab to the Caucasian peoples is the same as attributing the invention of the wheel to one of our contemporaries; these ancient dishes appeared long before the emergence of modern peoples).

The ancient Romans knew how to cook deep-fried products. In this way, the then very popular "globules" - balls of dough fried in olive oil or ghee, greased with honey and sprinkled with poppy seeds, as well as many other dough or seafood products were prepared.

Salads also came from ancient Rome to international cuisine. At the beginning, lettuce was understood as a single dish consisting of chopped endives, parsley and onions, seasoned with honey, salt, vinegar, sometimes with the addition of olive oil (and after the 1st century AD also with the addition of ground black pepper). Thus, salads were known 2500 years ago, although only at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century, salads went beyond the Apennine Peninsula and came to France, at first as an exquisite court dish, served with a roast. Enriched with French cuisine, a variety of salads quickly spread around the world, becoming an indispensable dish in international cuisine. In the second half of the 19th century, salads also became part of the Chinese imperial cuisine, and then became a common dish in the cuisines of all of Southeast Asia.

Ancient peoples loved dairy dishes and cheeses. Curiously, drinking whole milk was considered an excess, unhealthy for adults, and was always diluted with water. It was one of the common drinks, along with barley water (like modern kvass) and diluted wine.

Products made from minced meat were also widely used, from which flat round (about 8-10 cm in diameter and 2-3 cm thick) resemblances of modern minced steaks were fried on grates. These "cutlets" were the ancient Roman version of modern fast food - they were usually fried right on the street and sold, spread on a piece of bread.

Of course, in ancient Roman cooking, all the richness of fresh fish and seafood, which was generously supplied by the sea, was used in abundance. So even the food of the poor was varied and complete.

The menu was always completed with milk, cheese, honey and olive oil. In the 1st century BC. e. Oriental fruits appeared in the gardens of Italy: cherries, peaches and apricots. Lemons and oranges came to Italy much later - from Spain, where they were brought by the Arabs.

The Romans vigorously developed viticulture, and usually drank wine diluted with cold or hot water - hot this drink served them instead of tea, which they did not know. The Romans considered beer to be a drink of despicable barbarians ("Wine is the drink of heroes, beer is a drink of barbarians") and in their colonies on the Mediterranean coast they spread viticulture and winemaking. During Roman rule Gaul became a wine-making country (for which the modern French are very grateful to the ancient Romans). Both in Spain and in Gaul, the original drink of the local uncivilized peoples was beer, which fell out of use there only in the first centuries of our era, when the wild inhabitants of these provinces approached the level of development of the Romans and Greeks.

Spices, condiments and flavors

In ancient Rome, spices were called "salsu" - acrid, spicy, tasty. The Latin word "scitamente", the name of a family of herbs, has the same meaning. It means “delicious, selected, delicious food”. This applied to the spicy plants of the tropics - cardamom, ginger, galganta, etc.

The ancient Romans knew most of the exotic spices we now know and, in addition, some are now completely out of use, such as backgammon and costa. From South Asia they received black pepper, pipul, kubeba, cinnamon, cinnamon and cassia, cloves, ginger, from the Middle East - asafoetida, from Africa - myrrh and amomum, from Asia Minor - saffron, from the Mediterranean - bay leaves and libanotis (hyssop ).

Also, as a spice, Roman cuisine used "laser", a resin with a garlic taste and a pungent odor, which was extracted from the root of ferula, and later (this plant disappeared for unknown reasons already in the 1st century AD) - from the plant "asa foetida" , which is still used in the East today, as well as backgammon, tannic sumac, saussurea and myrtle berries.

In the 1st century, pepper was spreading rapidly, Pliny in his "Natural History" was amazed at the success of this seasoning. In the book of Apicia, pepper is included in almost all recipes, including sweets and even wines. Other spices are used almost exclusively for medicinal purposes and in perfume making.

The panorama of the use of spices is expanded already in Excepta, an appendix to Apicius' cookbook, presented as excerpts from the same text, but in reality written a century later (between the 5th and 6th centuries) by a certain Vinidarius, probably an Ostrogoth who lived in Northern Italy. New spices appear here, including ginger and saffron, the latter for the specific purpose of coloring, which would later become a typical feature of medieval cuisine. In one of the medieval manuscripts that preserved the text of the culinary book of Apicius, in the lists of products attached to it, cloves are also mentioned.

The acquisition of spices in ancient Rome was one of the most important items of expenditure, because they were highly valued. Pliny complained that up to 50 million sesterces (about 4 million rubles in gold) were spent annually on exotic aromatic medicines and that these goods were sold in the markets of the Empire at 100 times their original cost.

However, despite this, none of the Roman merchants dared to independently go to distant lands for spices, and intermediary trade, profitable for Eastern merchants, continued to flourish until the end of the Roman Empire.

Nevertheless, even through intermediary trade, slave-owning Rome for several centuries accumulated from all over the world not only treasures in the form of gold, silver and precious stones, but also untold quantities of spices from Asia and Africa at that time. It is interesting that when the hordes of barbarians of the Visigothic king Alaric I fell upon Rome in 408, they demanded as tribute not only 5000 pounds of gold, but also 3000 pounds of pepper - as an even greater jewel!

The famous spicy garum sauce, widely produced in the Roman Empire, was especially popular - it was prepared from fish giblets soaked in olive oil with various herbs and aged for 3-4 months. The Romans seasoned everything with garum. In the cities, making sauce was prohibited due to the spread of the smell. Across the empire, the sauce was distributed in small amphoras and completely replaced salt in some regions.

In the era of Rome, sour meant primarily vinegar, sweet meant honey. Many Apicius recipes involve the use of both of these products at the same time.

Sweet and salty are mixed in the same way, and in many dishes honey is next to garum. In most recipes, Apicius recommends it with a specific purpose - to salt the dish. He writes: “If the dish is bland, add garum; if salty - a little honey. "

The sweet and sour taste and generally the tendency to mix flavors has been passed down from generation to generation, adapting to the historical situation, but never completely disappearing. The same can be said for the use of spices, pungent and pungent flavors mixed with sweet, salty and sour: this is also a hallmark of the cuisine of the Middle Ages and Renaissance, whose origins can be found in the culinary traditions of ancient Rome. In other words, if German culture played a primary role in the formation of subsequent medieval preferences regarding resources and food, then at the level of taste perception, on the contrary, it did not introduce essentially new elements: here, as in other areas, the Roman tradition won out having conquered the Germanic conquerors.

Traces of the Roman culinary model are visible in the message "De observatione ciborum"written at the beginning of the 6th century by the Greek physician Antim, who arrived in Italy to the Ravenna court of Theodoric, the king of the Goths. This is the first treatise on dietetics and gastronomy in medieval Europe.

Mention of aromatic plants like backgammon and sumac, the custom of boiling in honey and vinegar, descriptions of typical Roman sauces, for example, "Ossimele" (based on honey and vinegar) or "Enogaro" (based on wine and garum), the use of honey as a seasoning for wine and water - all these are signs of a culture that is not just not buried, but firmly entrenched in everyday life.

It will last for many centuries: in the 8th century, merchants from Comacchio traded garum along the Po River; As early as the 9th century, inventory records of the monastery in Bobbio (in the Piacentino Apennines) register the acquisition of two vessels with garum on the market in Genoa for the needs of the brethren. Perhaps it was about imported products: this idea is suggested by the mention of Comacchio and Genoa, centers of maritime trade. In addition, garum production was definitely located in the Adriatic basin, in Istria - as we know from the letter of Cassiodorus (6th century) - and in Byzantium. In this way - through trade relations with Byzantium, directly inherited from Rome - the connection with the Roman gastronomic tradition was also maintained.

How to cook...

Caroenum (Karoenum)
Boiled grape must. Young wine or grape juice is boiled until half of the liquid has boiled away.

Defritum
A very thick fig syrup. (According to other sources, it was also prepared from grapes). The juice is boiled until it boils away two thirds.

Passum
Very sweet wine sauce. Even thicker than caroenum and defritum. Prepared from young wine or grape juice. It is boiled until it thickens.

Garum (Garum) - salty fish sauce. Here's a rough recipe:
Take small fish or mackerel, put in a tub, cover with salt at the rate of 9 parts of fish 1 part of salt (by volume). Stir everything well. Leave it overnight. Then put everything in an earthen vessel and put in the sun. Withstand, stirring occasionally for 2-3 months. You can add aged wine at the rate of 2 parts wine to one part fish.

Chapter "Gardens of Ancient Rome". "Gardens through the centuries". Randhava M.S. Translated from English: Ardashnikova L. D., publishing house "Knowledge", Moscow, 1981 (Mohindar Singh Randhawa, "Gardens Through the Ages", Macmillan Co. Delhi. India. 1976)

Italy, which was once the center of the Roman Empire, is one of the most beautiful countries in the world. It is a land of vineyards, olive groves, villas and gardens. The country's climate is mild, in winter it rains, in spring and summer there is an abundance of sunshine.

The men here are talkative and noisy, but by no means stupid. Italians with dark hair and ivory faces have become famous as the most beautiful women in the world. It was from them that the great artists of the Renaissance wrote their Madonnas.

800 to 600 BC e. the population of Italy was divided into three ethnic groups. In the north, between the Tiber and Po, lived the Etruscans, a people of Asian origin who conquered the Aryan tribes of northern Italy. The Etruscans were great masters of fresco painting, pottery, and skillfully performed metal work.

Greek settlements were located south of the Tiber and Po.

In the intermediate territories, various Romanesque peoples lived who were engaged in agriculture. They worshiped Jupiter and built a temple in his honor on Mount Alban.

Romanesque peoples and Etruscans were engaged in trade on the Tiber, where in 753 BC. e. Rome was founded.

The Etruscans suffered two calamities that greatly weakened them: the destruction of the fleet by the Greeks at the Battle of Syracuse in 474 BC. e. and the Gauls raid north. The Gauls also plundered Rome in 390 BC. e. By the end of the III century. BC e. the Romans conquered the Etruscans and Greeks and took possession of all of Italy.

Rome's rival was Carthage, a city founded by Phoenician merchants on the northern coast of Africa. With a strong fleet, Carthage controlled all trade in the Mediterranean. Rome and Carthage fought each other three times, as a result of which Carthage was completely destroyed, domination over the Mediterranean passed to Rome.

The history of the Roman Empire can be divided into four periods. The first is from 201 to 133 BC. BC is the birth of Rome, the century of expansion. Then there was the age of the Republic, which lasted from 133 to 31 BC. e. The third period is the century of the Empire, it lasted from 31 BC. e. to 211 AD e. And then came the period of decline and complete disintegration of the empire.

The Roman republic was socially similar to the aristocratic republic of Greece. Society, as well as there, was divided into plebeians (slaves, laborers, artisans) and patricians (rich landowners, merchants, priests and high officials). The latter held political power.

In rural areas, independent farmers owned small farms, each of which could be called a garden rather than a farm. The size of the land allotment averaged one to four acres. Farmers cultivated wheat, spelled and barley on their land and grazed livestock on public pastures. The main livestock products were milk and cheese. They loved meat of rabbits and poultry here. Bulls were used for plowing, and donkeys were used for carrying heavy loads. Vegetables were grown for beans, lettuce, garlic and cabbage. Figs, apples and pears were widely cultivated from fruits. Some farmers grew grapes and olives in small quantities. Arriving in Rome, farmers visited the temples of their gods, and then exchanged grain, oil, or wine for salt, household tools and other iron products.

The growing empire needed a large occupying army. The recruits for the Roman legions were mainly drawn from small farmers. Their farms fell into decay and were absorbed by large land holdings, in which slave labor was used. Small farms survived only in mountainous areas

With the emergence of the estate of large landowners, rich villas with parks and swimming pools appeared.

A great achievement of Roman agriculture is the cultivation of legumes, which replaced the wasteful fallow plowing system. Beans, peas, vetch, lupine and alfalfa alternated with non-leguminous crops such as wheat, rye, barley and oats, which made it possible to maintain soil fertility at a certain level. The Romans also well understood the importance of different types of fertilizers. The large farms that Roman colonists set up in the conquered provinces served as a model for the barbarians.

E. Hymes points out that the real art of creating gardens in Italy was born with the emergence of parks at the gymnasiums, which were created by Cicero, a contemporary of Julius Caesar. These parks were quite large, with grass curbs, galleries and statues, and groves of plane and cypress trees. The sycamore was brought from Asia Minor and served the Romans for protection from the sun.

In 27 BC. e. commander Octavian took the name of Augustus Caesar. The reign of Augustus is called the golden age of Rome. During these years, the great Roman writers Virgil, Ovid and Horace lived and worked. Inspired by his love for village life and nature, Virgil created Georgiki, a monograph consisting of four books (37-30 BC) devoted to the problems of agriculture, forestry, beekeeping, and animal breeding. Virgil believed that physical labor is necessary for a person, that this labor led a person to the path of chastity.

During the reign of Augustus, trade between India and Rome developed greatly. Trade was carried out both by sea and by land. India exported precious stones, perfumes, brocade, as well as peppers, cinnamon and other spices to Rome. The use of aromatic spices stimulated the development of the culinary arts.

Years passed, Roman emperors replaced one another. But none of them showed interest in gardening.

We can get some idea about the gardens that existed in the 1st century from the works of Pliny and Columella. Pliny (23-79) was a naturalist and served under the Emperor Vespasian. For some time he was the ruler of Spain. An energetic and talented person, he lived an intense spiritual life. When he ate, the servant read to him. Wherever he went, a scribe accompanied him. Even dressing after a bath, he dictated something to record.

The result of his life was "History of Natural Science" in 37 volumes. It summarizes the author's observations of nature, contains data on the origin and use of plants and animals, and draws on the richest materials from 146 Roman and 327 Greek authors. The book also deals with problems of geography, mathematics, physics and anthropology. Pliny's work was greatly favored by the calm atmosphere. His villa was set in a magnificent spacious garden. Pliny loved to walk barefoot under grape pergolas, in groves where figs and mulberries grew.

On his farm were grown grain plants, grapes, beehives and flowers, grazing for lambing.

Lucius Junius-Moderate Columella (1st century BC) - warrior and writer, owned vast lands. His monograph "Rural Affairs" is devoted to the organization and techniques of farming and consists of 12 volumes; The 10th volume is devoted to the problems of gardening. This book is written in verse, it seems to be a continuation of Virgil's Georgics. Columella attached great importance to the cultivation of grapes and olives.

Martialis (3rd century) wrote a book on agriculture and paid particular attention to tree breeding. Palladium Rutilius Taurus (IV century) wrote 14 books, one of which is a poetic textbook on plant grafting.

The Romans had a keen interest in agriculture and horticulture, which is widely reflected in their legends.

Ceres was the goddess of agriculture. Her daughter Proserpina is the goddess of vegetation crowned with flowers. Many temples in Italy were built in honor of Ceres and Proserpina.

In her leisure hours, the myth tells, Proserpina visited the island of Sicily, picked flowers on the green slopes of Mount Etna and danced with nymphs in the fields of Enyx. Once Pluto, the god of the underworld, who was passing by in a chariot, drew attention to her. Fascinated by the beauty of Proserpine, Pluto kidnapped her and took her home.

Ceres, upon learning of the disappearance of her daughter, suffered greatly. She abandoned her business and retired to a dark cave. The country was seized by hunger. People turned to Jupiter with a plea for the return of Proserpine. Jupiter allowed Proserpine to return, but on one condition: she should not touch food while in the underworld. Once upon learning that Proserpina ate several grains of pomegranate, Jupiter ordered for each grain eaten to keep Proserpina in the dark kingdom of Pluto for a month. Thus, Proserpine was sentenced to spend half of the year in the underground and the other half on the ground. As soon as she appeared, the skies were lit up with the sun, grass began to grow and gardens bloomed. And every six months, her departure from the ground served as a signal for the beginning of autumn and the following winter, when the vegetation freezes and goes into a state of dormancy.

According to another legend, Flora, who married Zephyr, the god of the south wind, was the goddess of flowers. Flora was worshiped by young girls; they brought fruits and garlands of flowers to her altar. The goddess' festivals were celebrated in May, and young girls adorned Flora's altars with ears of corn, roses, carnations, and violets.

Vertum and Pomona were patrons of ornamental and fruit orchards. Vertum was always depicted with pruning knives, scissors and other gardening tools, while Pomona was depicted with fruits and flowers. Vertum married Pomona and she allowed him to help her grow fruit. The images of Vertum indicate that the Romans attached great importance to the use of tools in gardening.

The surviving paintings give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe tastes and customs of the people of that time. The Romans loved beautiful women and gardens, and this was reflected in paintings and drawings. Frescoes of the 2nd century. BC e., found on the walls of houses and palaces in Rome, Herculaneum and Pompeii, indicate that the artists already had an idea of \u200b\u200bperspective.

This is confirmed by later works. One of them is the magnificent painting "The Marriage of Aldobrandini" (now in the Vatican Museum in Rome). She depicts a puffy, half-naked young woman with a sensual mouth and an unambiguous expression on her face, leaning against a pillar. This is the bride in preparation for the wedding ceremony. The picture shows that the ideal of a woman among the Romans was different from the Greek.

Some idea of \u200b\u200bthe Roman gardens is given by fresco painting of the period I in BC. e. - 50 AD BC, samples of which have been preserved in Pompey, buried under the lava of Vesuvius in 79 AD. e.

There were two types of gardens in this city: the first were created in courtyards, where plants were planted in pots, vases or small areas located around the pool; another type of garden involved planting plants in galleries leading from the house to the garden. In this case, the building and the garden seemed to continue each other.
The axial layout of such a garden should be noted. Later this method was used to create gardens in Italy and France.

In the gardens of Pompeii, the Italians grew almonds, peaches, pears, apples, pomegranates, quince and cherries. Cypress trees also grew here. Roses, lilies, violets were widely cultivated, as well as the common flowering plants of the early Greek gardens. They cultivated mauve Florentine iris, deep purple germanica, yellow water iris, daffodils, crocuses, yellow cornflower, aconite, anemones, marigolds, amaranth, cornflowers, cyclamens, carnations, digitalis, gladiolus and donniki, lavender. Acanite, periwinkle and maidenhair go well with dwarf sycamore and cypress to create miniature landscapes like topia (trimmed garden).

Roman civilization has been at its zenith since 27 BC. e. to 180 and. e. This time can be called the century of architecture. It was the Romans who first used cement in construction and built arches. All over Italy, beautiful cities have sprung up, supplied with running water and roads. Temples, amphitheaters, colonnades and markets were built in cities. The houses of the nobility were luxuriously decorated. Carpets for them were brought from Babylon. Some of the houses of the aristocrats were decorated with magnificent fresco paintings. For example, the villa of the Empress of Libya in Prima Porta contains murals that create the illusion of interruption in the garden. Some of the paintings of that time are erotic in nature and indicate that the search for sensual entertainment was one of the main activities of the ruling class.

Silk brought from Kitia was used by aristocrats for their clothes. The spices brought from India contributed to the development of the culinary art of the Romans, famous gourmets. It was an age of luxury, sensual pleasures and ... beautiful gardens, with walking paths fenced with skillfully trimmed hedges, bonsai and marble sculptures.

Bust sculpture was widely developed here, which was popular with the nobility.

Bust sculpture, the axial arrangement of plants, the art of curly shearing of garden trees - this is the main contribution of the Romans to gardening. These achievements were widely used later in the creation of gardens in France and the British Empire.

Urbi et Orbi - "City and Peace". I used this ancient Roman expression in the title of my story about the capital of the great ancient Empire, the Papal State, the Italian Kingdom and modern Italy. Despite such an ambitious phrase, in fact, my notes are very modest and fragmentary. I got to know Rome in total in just one day; naturally, this acquaintance was superficial and punctual. Figuratively speaking, from a large, complex and varied dish called "Rome" I tasted only a few small pieces. And he was extremely delighted. My admiration is based on an unusual complex perception of Rome as a city of epic monuments and at the same time light and comfortable.

I came to Rome as part of a group tour at the end of September 2013, which started in Rimini. The road takes about 5 hours in net time and passes through the territory of three Italian regions - Emilia-Romagna, Umbria and Lazio. I consider the Umbrian part the most picturesque - where the Apennines reached the highest heights. But it was too difficult to photograph there. Therefore, I will show several pictures taken already in the metropolitan region of Lazio:

These views are also beautiful, thanks to the undulating relief and abundance of forests.

In the afternoon we arrived in Rome - and immediately, as they say, from the ship to the ball, that is, from the bus to the excursion. The schedule was generally very busy, including a bus and walking tour of the night city. But more on that later. In my story, I divided the sights of Rome into several blocks, depending on the theme, history or geography.

Monuments of Ancient Rome

Using the chronological principle, I will first talk about Ancient Rome. Let me remind you that Rome was founded in 753 BC. (the date is controversial, but now, in principle, it does not matter). A large number of archaeological sites are due not only and not so much to the antiquity of Rome, as to its status as the capital of a giant power. Moreover, the "weight" of Rome was such that its population exceeded the population of all other cities of the Apennine peninsula taken together. More than a million people lived in Ancient Rome at the peak of its power!

Coliseum

The most representative and recognizable object of Ancient Rome is the Colosseum, a colossal (its name, according to one of the etymological versions, just comes from this word) amphitheater built in the second half of the 1st century A.D. This period just corresponds to the apogee of the power of the Roman Empire. The Colosseum is the material embodiment of the famous populist slogan "bread and circuses!"

The Colosseum was partially destroyed by an earthquake in the XIV century, after which it was actively dismantled for building material. But until now, this building retains a majestic scale. Of course, its purpose deserves condemnation: it is difficult and scary to imagine how many people and animals were killed and maimed in its arena over several centuries. But I would like to draw your attention to something else: the amphitheater with a capacity of more than 50 thousand spectators was organized in such a way that it was filled and emptied in just 15 minutes! This is a prime example of the Roman order, to which European civilization never reached. I have been to modern stadiums and I know how long it takes for all spectators to exit.

Big Circus

Not far (10 minutes walk) from the Colosseum are the ruins of the Grand Circus:

It was built back in 329 BC. and was the largest racetrack in the Empire. But its “zest” is different: in even more ancient times, at the dawn of the city's history, a remarkable legendary event called “the abduction of the Sabine women” took place at this place (hereinafter I will specially present this legend in a frivolous style). For some reason, the ancient Romans had a shortage of women in the long history of the city. Then they kidnapped women from the neighboring Latin tribe of the Sabines, whose men were drunk at a feast organized by the Romans. Having sober up, the Sabines got angry and set off on a campaign against Rome. During a stubborn battle, when victory was leaning towards the Sabines, women - the newly-minted Romans appeared on the battlefield, and begged their former fellow tribesmen to leave them. Well, if these women instinctively dreamed of a great future for their descendants, then this choice was optimal.

Forums

The next important object is Forums:

This word comes from the ancient Roman foris, that is, "outside". This refers to "outside your home", that is, a public place. There were temples, markets, squares, that is, elements of the political, religious and economic life of Rome. There was also the Great Cloaca, part of the city's vast sewage system; the name has become a household name. And I also note that there was a small temple (now in ruins) called the "Navel of the City" - the center of Rome. Given the mentality of the Romans, we can say that it was the Navel of the Earth.

Triumphal Arch

The Arc de Triomphe of Constantine is one of the key monuments of Ancient Rome, endlessly reproduced by subsequent European civilization in the 19th century:

The arch was erected under Emperor Constantine at the beginning of the 4th century and is notable for the fact that it is the only Roman triumphal arch built to commemorate the victory in the civil war. It can be considered a vivid indicator of the decline of an Empire torn apart by internal conflicts.

Pantheon

Finally, one more monument of Ancient Rome, which I will tell you about in my story, is a "bridge" between antiquity and the Christian era. This is the Pantheon.

An ancient Egyptian obelisk stands next to the Pantheon; there are 13 in total in Rome. Almost all of them are crowned with crosses as a sign of belonging to the new era. But back to the Pantheon. This temple structure was built in A.D. 125. under the Emperor Hadrian. A magnificent example of ancient Roman building art, which easily holds a dome with a diameter of 43 meters. Holds by means of concrete - a material that is an invention of the Romans. The dome is unusual in that there is a hole 9 meters in diameter in the middle. Thanks to him, in sunny weather, the center of the temple seems to be pierced by a column of light. As for the rain, if it is shallow, then the droplets are blown out due to the strong updraft. In case of heavy rain, water flows down the floor into special holes.

At the beginning of the 7th century, the Pantheon became the Christian Church of St. Mary and the Martyrs. According to legend, the bones of the martyrs are kept under the altar, brought here on 28 carts. Now there are memorials to Raphael and two Italian Kings - Victor Emmanuel II (the inscription "Father of the Nation" is dedicated to him, because during his reign the country was unified in 1861) and Umberto I. The walls of the temple are decorated with very rare red Verona marble.

Obelisk on an elephant pedestal

And at the end of the antique section, I will demonstrate another obelisk (not far from the Pantheon), which I liked thanks to the elephant pedestal:

It is located in the center of Piazza Minerva (this is the Roman name for the ancient Greek goddess Pallas Athena). And this monument is curious because it was he who served as the prototype of an elephant with thin long legs, which is visible in the background of one of the most famous paintings by Salvador Dali entitled "A dream caused by the flight of a bee around a pomegranate, a second before awakening." The monument itself was created in 1667 by the Italian sculptor Giovanni Bernini. It is assumed that the source of inspiration for the creation of the sculpture could have been a woodcut illustration from the anonymous novel of the end of the 15th century "Hypnerotomachia of Polyphilus". The obelisk was moved from the former temple of Isis. Locals call this sculptural composition il pulcin della Minerva, as the elephant resembles a pig.

Various sights of the center of Rome

In this section I will show several places in the center of Rome that I remember, which are not geographically related to each other.

Navona square

Piazza Navona is shaped like a stadium - and indeed it was used for sporting events in ancient times. The square was a favorite place for fairs, holidays and recreation of the Romans. The main decorations of the square are the Church of St. Agnes (mid-17th century) and three fountains. The picture shows the church and the fountain of the Moor:

The church building has an interesting feature - a curved facade. This is, one might say, the corporate identity of the architect Francesco Borromini. I do not really understand such subtleties, but I heard that the architect considered this curvature to be a manifestation of the Divine Spirit (he called it the Divine wave).

The second fountain is dedicated to Neptune:

And the third is the most outstanding. It is called the Fountain of the Four Rivers (Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi); symbolically depicts the main rivers of four parts of the world known in the middle of the 17th century - the Nile (Africa), the Ganges (Asia), the Danube (Europe) and La Plata (America). In the center there is an Egyptian obelisk. I will show you several fragments of the fountain.

The Ganges holds a long oar as a sign of the navigability of the river:

La Plata sits on a pile of silver coins (the word “fee” in Spanish means “silver”); on the right Danube:

The Danube, as the river closest to Rome, holds the Papal coat of arms in its right hand:

The Nile is identified by a characteristic feature - the face is covered with a cloth as a sign that no one knows the location of the source of this river.

Leo (apparently from Africa):

Piazza Venezia and the Monument to the Unification of Italy

Its name comes from the palace where the embassy of the Venetian Republic was located; you can guess this by its coat of arms above the portal. Benito Mussolini liked to speak from the balcony above the portal, whose theatrical and oratory skills are known to everyone.

Opposite the Venetian palace there is a monument dedicated to the unification of Italy:

The monument is truly grandiose (monstrous). It is called Vittoriano in honor of King Victor Emmanuel II, whose 12-meter bronze statue is in the center. The royal figure is surrounded by six 6-meter statues that embody Italian values: bronze Thought and Action and marble Sacrifice, Right, Strength and Consent.

Not far from the square there is a pretty church of the Most Holy Name of Mary at the Trajan Forum (I remember it, among other things, because of the unusually complex name):

Capitol Hill and the trees of Rome

After the Vittoriano memorial, we came to the Capitol Hill, to the Palazzo Senatorio. it city \u200b\u200bhall of rome , in front of which stands a bronze statue of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius:

It was there that I first drew emphasized attention to a symbol that can be found everywhere in Rome. This is perhaps the most famous abbreviation in European civilization with roots in Rome: S.P.Q.R., that is, probably Senatus Populusque Romanus (Senate and Citizens of Rome). Although the exact meaning is not known for certain. The influence of Rome on European and Russian history is enormous - through religions, state system (republic and Empire), language and writing, law, philosophy, technology, art and much, much more.

Compared to many European capitals, Rome cannot be called a city teeming with woody vegetation. Nevertheless, in many places (including on the roofs of houses) beautiful trees delight the eye. They say that the oak was the symbol of Ancient Rome - and now there are almost none in the city. The symbol of medieval papal Rome was elm, and there are almost none of them either. The plane tree was the symbol of Royal Rome, and the Mediterranean pine pine was the symbol of Mussolini's Rome (there is even a symphonic poem “The Pines of Rome” written in 1924). There are a lot of them in the city, as well as cypresses, oleanders and many other beautiful trees.

Walk along the Tiber

The next section of the description of Rome I will devote to a walk along the Tiber River. For me, such walks are a kind of ritual, accompanied by the inevitable toss of a coin.

Castle and Bridge of San Angelo

The walk started from the San Angelo Bridge, which is quite close to St. Peter's Square (10 minutes walk):

The bridge goes to the castle of the same name. The castle of San Angelo was built on the basis of the original building of the 2nd century, and in general it acquired its current appearance in the 14th century as a fortress. The castle is crowned with a statue of the Archangel Michael. During the Renaissance, there was a highly guarded prison here; only one prisoner escaped from it, and that was the famous sculptor and painter Benvenuto Cellini.

I go down the Tiber; however, for the time being, the flow of turbid green water is practically invisible. At first I intended to go down to the lower embankment, but I changed my mind. First, the surroundings are less visible from there; secondly, I noticed a lot of beggars there. In general, the retaining walls of the embankment do not look very beautiful, especially because of the graffiti. It is better to walk along the upper embankment, along the plane tree alley, from where the views are much more pleasant.

Bridges over the Tiber in the city center alternate one after another:

Then I picked up an image of a wall without graffiti; the green spaces of Rome are clearly visible:

Tiberina Island and Palatino Bridge

Further, the island of Tiberina appears before your eyes, in shape very similar to a boat. On the right in the picture is the Cescio Bridge, one of the oldest in Rome. It was built in the middle of the 1st century BC; the current look is naturally much younger. About 20 years older than the Fabricho Bridge, which connects the other side of the Tiberina with the embankment, where the main synagogue of Rome is located.

The island has an interesting history. Once upon a time, in the early days of Ancient Rome, Tiberine had a bad reputation. And once, according to legend, a snake emerged from a boat sailing along the Tiber, which was considered a symbol of the god-doctor Aesculapius. The Romans built a sanctuary for Aesculapius here, and gave the island the shape of a boat, encircling the “sides” of the shore with travertine. Since 1584 on Tiberine there is a large hospital of St. Bartholomew called Fatebenefratelli: this compound word consists of three - fate bene fratelli, that is, "do good, brothers." It is curious that this hospital, along with many sights of Rome, is present in the opening shot of the famous comedy The Incredible Adventures of Italians in Russia.

The Ponte de Cestio on the other side, where a small artificial threshold is built on the Tiber:

A little further away from Tiberina Island is the Palatino Bridge, where I finished my walk along the river:

Near this bridge there is a remnant of an older one, which seemed very picturesque to me:

Vatican - State of the Holy See

From Ancient Rome I am transferred to Papal Rome. Once upon a time, Rome was the capital of a fairly large and very influential Papal State. After the unification of Italy in 1870, the Holy See lost almost the entire territory and for quite a long time such a state did not exist; it was formally established as a result of a special concordat with the Mussolini government. The Vatican (subsidiary sovereign territory of the Holy See) is the smallest state in the world, with an area of \u200b\u200bonly 44 hectares. It is headed by the supreme hierarch of the Catholic Church - the Pope. By the way, the summer residence of the Popes is located in a town near the capital.

Visiting the Vatican for me consisted of two stages - museums and St. Peter's Basilica.

Vatican Museums

The museums are located in a huge architectural complex called the Apostolic Palace, or the Palace of Sixtus V. It houses the Papal apartments, the Vatican government offices, chapels, a library, and numerous inner palaces. We visited one of these inner palaces - the famous Belvedere, whose name naturally multiplied throughout Europe (for example, there are palaces with this name in) and Russia.

The inner area of \u200b\u200bthe Belvedere was named Cortile della Pigna for the corresponding decor element:

I liked this piece so much that I cannot deny myself the pleasure of bringing it up in a larger shot:

A giant bronze pine cone during the time of ancient Rome decorated the fountain near the great temple of Isis; water flowed abundantly from its top. In the Middle Ages, the pine cone was moved to the Old Basilica of St. Peter, where Dante saw it, who later used the image of the cone in the Divine Comedy "to describe the Old Testament King and hunter Nimrod. In the 15th century, the cone was moved to its present location. On the sides of the cone are two bronze peacocks taken from the Mausoleum of the Emperor Hadrian in the Castle of San Angelo. By the way, the IX region of Rome, Pigna (rione Pigna), was named in honor of this pine cone.

The Belvedere Palace houses the Pius-Clementine Museum dedicated to sculptures. Here you can see Roman copies of the famous Greek statues of Apollo (who received the "prefix" Belvedere) and Laocoon with his sons in the suffocating embrace of snakes. I was interested in the pictures of animals; although I must say right away that they are quite brutal. This, apparently, is the specificity of the Roman view of the world around us:

Next, we go to the Papal Palace, where we inspect two interesting rooms (actually more, but I remember exactly two). The first is a gallery of geographic maps. It was created in 1578-1580 by the Italian cartographer Ignazio Danti by order of Pope Gregory XIII - the patron saint of arts and sciences. The maps show the regions of Italy and the Papal States. I don't really like the Italian art-cartographic school (in comparison with the Dutch one), but a number of interesting subjects can be noted:

The ceiling of the gallery deserves special attention, although it is, in my opinion, physically quite difficult to view it:

At the end of the gallery above the door is the coat of arms of Pope Gregory XIII:

A very colorful combination of a dragon with a papal tiara and the keys to paradise. By the way, it was this Pope who introduced the new calendar of chronology, named in his honor.

The main attraction of the Papal Palace is the Sistine Chapel. Much has been written about her; I will only note that it is here that the conclave meets, at which the cardinals elect a new Pope. A place of exceptional importance to more than a billion people worldwide. The Sistine Chapel was painted by Michelangelo, and one of the figurative elements has his self-portrait. Saint Bartholomew holds in his hands his skin (which was torn off of him alive, but Bartholomew in the picture, of course, in normal form), and the face on this skin belongs to the artist himself.

I will also add an image of one of the fragments of the painting - the fresco "The Creation of Adam". The viewer's attention, as a rule, is concentrated on the contact between God and his first human creation - Adam. But who is depicted behind God? Who is this person that looks at Adam with such hostility, or at least with a daring challenge? ..

St. Peter's Square and Cathedral

This was followed by an inspection of St. Peter's Cathedral. But first, I mentally go outside, to St. Peter's Square, to show the building of the Cathedral:

Cathedral - one of the largest Christian churches in the world (capacity 60 thousand); its architecture set a widespread church style. In front of him stretches in the form of two symmetrical semicircles St. Peter's Square, where, according to legend, in 67 A.D. the apostle was executed, whose relics are kept under the altar of the Cathedral. The ancient Egyptian obelisk was brought to Rome by Caligula.

A huge number of articles have been written about the Cathedral, including on the Internet; I do not consider it necessary to repeat them. Personally, I remember most of all the dome of the Cathedral, which creates an incredibly light feeling. In general, the bright Cathedral made the impression on me of something like an aircraft, about to take off into the air. Under the dome is a 29-meter high bronze canopy, whose ceiling is decorated with a dove - the Holy Spirit. The pulpit of St. Peter is located under the canopy.

Of course, attention is drawn to the famous sculpture Pieta by Michelangelo (the only work signed by the master): the mournful Mother of God holds the body of the Son in her arms. Madonna's face and figure are strikingly alive. Unfortunately, the sculpture is covered with glass for security reasons, as it was attempted by a psychopath.

Finally, due to my worldview, I noted in my memory the memorial of the last representatives of the Scottish and British Royal family of Stuarts (the challenger of James III and his two sons):

There are no paintings in the Cathedral (graphics are represented by frescoes), so you can freely take pictures, including with a flash.

Rome by night and Trevi fountain

I conclude my fragmentary notes with a short story about Rome at night. More precisely, evening-twilight. I don't like looking at big cities in the dark, but Rome is an exception.

During an evening walk I saw the Baroque Spanish Steps - 138 steps leading from the French Trinity Church to the Spanish Square. By the way, this is a popular name; it is officially called the “staircase to Trinita dei Monti”. Unfortunately, I cannot show her photograph, as it was simply impossible to photograph the stairs without a huge number of people in a fairly close-up, and I would not like to show such an image. Finding a myriad of photographs of the Spanish Steps on the Internet is not difficult.

The most famous fountain in Rome is called Trevi: Baroque (or, to use the Portuguese source of the word, "irregular pearl") in its purest form. The name of the fountain comes from the fact that it was at the junction of three roads - tre vie. In the center of the fountain is Neptune. There is a belief that a person who threw a coin at him will come to Rome again. Two coins - a love meeting. Three is a marriage. Four coins are wealth. Five coins - separation. Before coming to Rome, I forgot the exact wording; and how many coins I threw in the end, I will not say.

And finally, just a view of Old Rome at Night. Here, the lighting of the historic center is treated with awe; no multi-colored neon lights. The soft yellow light gives the Eternal City an image of antiquity and tranquil grandeur.

The more we move away from the event, the more difficult it is to restore it. In addition, scientists learn the ancient history only from the surviving lists of retellings of previous generations. Passing through other hands, history is distorted, new myths appear, which are now accepted as truth. There are many stereotypes about Ancient Rome. Let's try to figure out some of them.

1. The most famous misconception that arose in subsequent centuries and was replicated by popular art is the signs of the murder or pardon of gladiators. We told the story of the appearance of this delusion in the article. And here we will only note that only the emperor could grant life to a gladiator. He extended his thumb, pointing to the heart and inviting the opponent to pierce it. Or he clenched his hand into a fist, as if hiding a sword - giving a sign of pardon.

2. By the way, not only men performed in the arena. Gladiatrix - female gladiators - were equally popular and even more spectacular. The women fought just as zealously, with mad passion and fury. Women most often came to gladiators from the lower strata, hoping to gain fame and money. They are mentioned for the first time in the time of Nero, and the last information scientists discover during the reign of Trajan and Flavius. Banned the appearance of women in the arena Severius, but ... The ban was, it seems, not very strict.

3. A popular myth speaks of the Romans' intemperance in food. It is generally accepted that they feasted constantly, consuming an incredible amount of food. Moreover, it was even customary to regularly retreat to a special room in the vomitorium, where vomiting was induced with the help of peacock feathers. And then with an empty stomach it was fashionable to continue the feast. It turned out that this was just a translation error, and the wide passages in the amphitheaters were called vomitorium.

4. The word plebeians has now received a negative, disparaging connotation. Although in reality it was just a certain class of citizens of Rome. Unlike the patricians, they already had a few rights. But on the other hand, the plebeians often had significantly more money and enjoyed no less respect. The only thing was that it was impossible for money to change your class. In addition, they were free and citizens, which was very important then. Especially considering that almost half of the population were slaves.

5. Speaking of slaves. In ancient Rome, special laws were even passed, ordering the owners to do everything so that their slaves did not stand out among the citizens. After all, they could have noticed then how many of them ... Therefore, slaves often looked better than many free people. They could also use public institutions such as thermal baths, stadiums and theaters, wear ordinary clothes, etc.

6. Clothing in Rome was very diverse. Much in this regard was borrowed from the Greeks. In particular, an ordinary tunic was the usual informal dress even for senators. This very practical piece resembled a blouse, worn over the head and tied at the waist. The length could vary somewhat, but most often it was up to the knee. The status of senators was confirmed by a red stripe - one or two - on the chest and back. The toga was a long piece of cloth, which had to be wrapped in a special way. Among other things, it was a terribly uncomfortable outfit. Then it was used only on holidays or official events. By the way, red was a great privilege, and purple robes were intended only for the emperor.

7. The famous phrase to Guy Julius Caesar was attributed by Shakespeare. Scientists believe that the betrayal of Brutus was not a surprise to Caesar, like the entire conspiracy as a whole. Caesar went to the Senate then deliberately. And his dying words were a warning that a similar fate would befall others ...

8. Another popular picture from stories about Ancient Rome. Nero sets fire to Rome and accompanies the fire on the violin from the hill. Research by historians has shown that at this time Nero was generally in his native Antium, where he received a message about the fire. Then he went to Rome, ordered an investigation, as a result of which he ordered to punish a certain sect, whose followers were called Christians. A fire broke out in warehouses with goods.

9. Despite the southern position, in ancient Rome there are cold seasons. In which the question of insulation becomes especially acute. Everything is used here - warm clothes, furs, hats, heated floors. Exactly! Rome already had warm floors and central heating. When building houses, they laid a small underground floor under them, in which the slaves maintained, if necessary, even burning of coals.

10. In Rome, concrete was used extensively. It consisted of sand, pumice, tuff, lime. There were many applications - both for pouring floors, and for decorating walls, filling walls. But there were also designs in a modern style. In this case, concrete was poured into the formwork, which was removed after solidification. This is how the Pantheon was built under Hadrian. The building, by the way, is still standing today! Although it is incorrect to say that concrete is a purely Roman invention, it was used 6 thousand years ago in Mesopotamia.

11. Apart from the famous roads, aqueducts became another feature of Rome. Their height was usually at least 20 meters. This made it possible to avoid theft of clean drinking water. And it was a good defense against enemies that could poison the water. By the way, many of the aqueducts have not only survived, they are also active today!

12. In Rome, for the first time, they began to register in a special book of marriages, giving young people to sign autographs under the record. The tradition of putting on rings as a sign of marriage was immediately born.

13. There was no soap in Rome. We used various herbal preparations and clays. Another popular method used in the thermal baths was cleansing with olive oil. The oil was applied to the skin and then scraped off with olive wood spatulas. At the same time, dirt and dead skin cells were removed, and it was also moisturized and nourished. And in Rome, aromatic substances were actively used. It is now easy to buy perfume in Minsk or Moscow, arrange delivery in Belarus or order it from France. The Romans were denied this service. At the same time, the prices for incense reached unrealistic heights, unlike today. It is worth rejoicing at the development of modern technologies that allow you to choose a product without leaving your home, make a payment, get it easily - and smell like a real patrician!

14. At the time of the heyday of Ancient Rome, about 50 million people lived on Earth. Of these, a million were Romans. Interestingly, London reached the same number of population only in the 19th century. And now the population of Rome is only 2.7 million.

15. The famous legend says that the emperor Alba had a vestal daughter. The priestesses of Vesta enjoyed special honor, but at the same time they were obliged to keep their virginity. Even violence was not considered a mitigating circumstance for breaking a vow followed by execution. But the Vestal seduced by Mars was not touched, although the twins she gave birth were thrown into the Tiber. They were picked up and fed by a she-wolf. Then the guys came to the place on the hills and laid Rome. And Romulus got rid of his brother Rem ... And the villains-scientists say that the name of the settlement was invented by the Etruscans. For them, this word simply meant a river, or strength ...

16. Emperor Trajan, during his reign in 97-117, ordered the construction of a building, where more than 150 shops and shops were located on several floors. This is how the first supermarket appeared, selling everything from buns to horses.

17. Stories about the cruelty of the Spartans to their children have become legends. But the Romans were not softer either. After birth, the child was brought to the alleged father. If he lifted the baby in his arms, he thereby recognized the child, took on certain responsibilities for education and maintenance. Otherwise, this meant a refusal, and the cub could even be carried out of the city and left to die.

18. Shameful crimes, for which they even deprived of citizenship, were escaping from the army, self-mutilation in order to "roll away" and tax evasion!

19. It is generally accepted that the main reason for the fall of Rome was the attack of the barbarians. In fact, the empire began to fall apart long before that. And the reasons were economic. In particular, the strongest inflation took place, during which over 80 years the price of grain rose from 16 drachmas per measure to 120,000!

20. In Rome, there was a concept of divorce. Moreover, it was accompanied by the division of property. The woman got everything that she brought to her husband's house, and also some compensation was paid. But the children always stayed with their father.

Italian cuisine is world renowned for its pasta and pizza. But, what was found on refectory tables in Italy several millennia ago, what did the ancient Romans eat for breakfast, lunch and dinner? The correspondent found out everything about the menu of the ancient Romans.

Each person more than once took part in solemn meals with plentiful food and drink. Roughly the same thing, only on a large scale the inhabitants of Ancient Rome did. Breakfast and lunch passed unnoticed, but dinner received great attention. Let's plunge into the atmosphere of an ancient Roman meal and find out what the solemn tables were crowded with? The active development of the culinary arts in Rome began as early as the 3rd century BC. Even then, the basic principles of healthy eating were developed, the traditional combinations of products and dishes unusual for those times were invented. By the way, we still use some of these ancient culinary discoveries today. The food of the poor inhabitants of ancient Rome was simple and practically did not change for centuries, but among the rich population there was a fashion for gourmet food and hours-long (!) Feasts.
The evening meal sometimes lasted up to ten hours, and the traditional feast in ancient Rome consisted of three parts. At the feasts, first appetizers were served, and then - a plentiful second, and only at the end it was time to enjoy dessert. In principle, everything is the same as now.

Food was brought to the capital of the Empire from all parts of a rich and powerful country, and tables were laden with aromatic dishes. Roasted python stuffed with wild ducks and swans, giraffe, elephant trunks, piles of candied flamingo tongues, baked storks and newborn mice baked in honey are just a small part of the exotic that was found on the rich tables of the ancient Romans. And, of course, all this was plentifully washed down with rivers of wine.

Ancient Roman cornucopia

Bread and various cereals are the main products of Ancient Rome, which were mostly used in the preparation of various stews and cereals. In addition, most foods were sprinkled with barley flour before cooking, and many of the dishes included beans and legumes.

The ancient Romans also used such a popular method of cooking in our time as deep fat. Deep-fried, they cooked the then favorite dish "globules" - original balls of dough, fried in olive oil, coated with honey and sprinkled with poppy seeds. Often cooked deep-fried and seafood.

It is Ancient Rome that can be considered the birthplace of our beloved salads. The prototype of modern salads was known two and a half thousand years ago. Initially, however, lettuce was a mixture of chopped endivels, onions, and parsley, seasoned with honey, sprinkled with salt, vinegar and sometimes olive oil.

In addition, the ancient Romans were very fond of minced meat dishes. The semblance of modern cutlets or steaks was fried on a wire rack right on the street. Then such cutlets were placed hot on a piece of bread and immediately served. Probably, this was the world's first fast food. First of all, pork and goat meat was valued, beef was used very rarely, only when bulls were sacrificed to the gods. In any case, the meat was very tough, it was rarely fried, but it was boiled for a long time in broths.

Game was also popular on the festive tables, which adorned the magnificent feast. Rich Romans bred pheasants, guinea fowls and even peacocks especially for feasts. By the way, under the emperor Augustus, meals were prepared from storks for feasts, and under the Roman emperor Tiberius, nightingale tongues were especially popular!

Of course, the abundance of ancient Roman cuisine used all the fresh fish and plenty of seafood. Fish was much more expensive than meat, so only wealthy Romans ate it. The most delicious and expensive fish was considered "mullus", because it was the only one of all that could not be fattened in captivity. We know this fish as "red mullet", however, its more colorful version.

The favorite national soups of the ancient Romans were various cabbage soup and borscht. A lot of cabbage, beets and onions were grown especially for this. The inhabitants of ancient Rome also loved dairy products and cheeses. Milk was added to various dishes, including baked goods. Over time, making cheeses became a common occupation, even the poorest Romans could afford them.

But drinking whole milk was considered a luxury, and harmful to the health of an adult, therefore it was always diluted with drinking water. It was a common everyday drink as well as diluted wine.