The main methodological principle of the systems approach. Systems approach and systems analysis. Realities, models, systems

A component of the concepts "system approach", "system analysis", "system problem", "system research" is "system". It is believed that this word appeared in Ancient Hellas 2000–2500 years ago and initially, depending on the context, meant: combination, organism, device, organization, structure, union. It also expressed certain acts of activity and their results (something put together, something put in order). That is, initially the word "system" was associated with the forms of socio-historical existence. The transfer of the meaning of a word from one object to another and at the same time the transformation of the word into a certain generalized concept was accomplished in stages.

Consistency has always, consciously or unconsciously, been the method of any science. The first question about the scientific approach to the management of complex systems was posed by the physicist André Marie Ampere... When constructing a classification of all kinds of sciences (1834-1843), he singled out the special science of government and called it cybernetics. He emphasized its main systemic features: “Incessantly, the government has to choose among various measures the one that is most suitable for achieving the goal ... and only thanks to an in-depth and comparative study of the various elements provided to it for this choice, knowledge of everything that concerns the people it controls , - character, views, history, religion, means of subsistence and prosperity, organizations and laws, - it can draw up general rules of behavior for itself, guiding it in each specific case. I call this science cybernetics from the word kybernetike, which at first, in a narrow sense, denoted the art of ship control, and then acquired a broader meaning of the art of control in general ”.

The ideas of consistency in relation to state governance were also developed in the works of the Polish scientist B. Trentovsky. In his work "The Attitude of Philosophy to Cybernetics as the Art of Managing the People", he emphasized that truly effective management should take into account all the most important external and internal factors affecting the object of management. In particular, the philosopher wrote: “Our successes are related to the systematic approach to solving problems, and our failures are caused by deviations from the systematic approach. A signal about the lack of consistency of existing activities is the emergence of a problem. "

Among the founders of the systemic approach are A lexander Alexandrovich Bogdanov... In 1911 the first volume of his book "General organizational science (tectology)" was published, and in 1925 - the third. It is based on the idea that all existing objects and processes have a certain degree, level of organization. Unlike specific natural sciences, which study the specific features of the organization of specific phenomena, tectology must study the general laws of organization for all levels of organization.

All phenomena were considered by A. Bogdanov as continuous processes of organization and disorganization. He did not give a strict definition of the concept of organization, but noted that the level of organization is the higher, the more the properties of the whole differ from the simple sum of the properties of its parts.

An important feature of tectology is that it focuses on the patterns of development of an organization, the importance of feedbacks, taking into account the organization's own goals (which can both contribute to the goals of the highest level of the organization, and contradict them), the role of open systems. A. Bogdanov emphasized the role of modeling and mathematics as potential methods for solving tectology problems. Later, the ideas of the theory of organization were developed in the works of the outstanding representatives of Russian natural science I.I.Shmalgauzen, V.N.Beklemishev.

As a necessary prerequisite for the emergence of a systematic approach, one can consider the idea of ​​a South African lawyer and commander Jan-Christian Smats about the integrity of various forms of life. In 1926, he outlined his synergistic view of the universe, noting that "an organism is made up of parts, but is not simply the sum of these parts."

The law of synergy, according to which in complex systems the properties and capabilities of the whole exceed the properties and capabilities of parts, introduced into scientific use I. Ansoff... Synergetics studies the mechanisms of interaction between the elements of a system in the process of its self-organization and self-development.

The practical value of studying the synergistic effect lies primarily in the use of the unique properties of large systems - self-organization and the possibility of determining a very limited number of parameters, the impact on which can be controlled by the system.

The development of the theory of general systems by L. Bertalanffy, A. Rapoport and K. Boulding, the creation by N. Wiener of the science of cybernetics and the development of information theory can be considered as the methodological prerequisites for the emergence of a systems approach.

Systems theory L. von Bertalanffy... The idea of ​​constructing a theory applicable to systems of any nature was put forward at the beginning of the 20th century. Ludwig von Bertalanffy.

Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901-1972) - Austrian biologist, Ph.D., professor at several universities in Austria, Canada and the United States. The main contribution of L. Bertalanffy to the emergence and development of a systems approach to management is associated with the introduction of the concept of "open system" and the creation of the "theory of general systems".

According to L. Bertalanffy, a living organism is something more than the sum of individual elements, since it uses the principle of synergy to organize their interaction. All organisms exist in close relationship with the external environment, their functions and structure are maintained through the continuous exchange of information with it. Therefore, any organism, and in relation to management, any organization can be considered as an open system.

The key concepts of the theory of open systems have become the concept of self-organization as a method of progressive differentiation, equifinality, reflecting the independence of the final state from the initial conditions, and teleology, which describes the dependence of the behavior of an organism on some "known to him in advance" goals in the future. Open systems theory views organizations as complex systems made up of parts that should be studied as a whole. The main task of the organization is to ensure survival by transforming external influences and adapting to ongoing changes. Since the elements of the organization are living people, the administration must take into account the peculiarities of the manifestation of human nature in the labor process.

In contrast to open systems, closed systems are based on the same fundamental principles and laws that operate in physics. Thinking in terms of closed systems corresponds to classical management theory. In accordance with this approach, closed organizations are managed by administrative and engineering personnel, operations in them are routine and repetitive and are reduced

to the solution of predetermined tasks. In these systems, there is a strict hierarchy of control, strict subordination of divisions, great attention is paid to ensuring the effectiveness of individual structural units.

According to Western scholars, the influence of L. Bertalanffy's theory of open systems on the theory of business and management was enormous, since it was she who helped formulate the theory of enterprise management in the 1950s – 1960s. In addition, it was invisibly present in those used in the 1990s. practical methods of management.

L. von Bertalanffy dealt a lot with the problem of generalizing the concept of open systems in order to apply it in other fields of knowledge. This work led him to develop a general theory of systems and a new understanding of the unity of science. Its main provisions were first presented at a scientific seminar in Chicago in 1937. During the 1940s and 1950s. L. Bertalanffy continued to work on the development of general systems theory, which aims to formulate and develop principles applicable to all systems.

Thus, L. Bertalanffy gave the first impetus to the development of a new systemic direction in science in general and management science in particular.

Cybernetics and the development of information theory... In 1948, the American mathematician Norbert Wiener published a book called Cybernetics.
According to A.I.Berg's definition, cybernetics is the science of optimal control of complex dynamical systems.

A. N. Kolmogorov proposed another definition: cybernetics is the science of systems that perceive, store, process and use information.

The subject of cybernetics is the study of systems. Cybernetics studies the problems of the formation and transmission of control actions to achieve a given state of a system of arbitrary nature, that is, to achieve a certain level of its organization.

Cybernetics of N. Wiener is associated with such advances in the development of system concepts as typification of models of systems, identification of the special value of feedbacks in a system, emphasizing the principle of optimality in control and synthesis of systems, awareness of information as a universal property of matter and the possibility of its quantitative description, development of modeling methodology in general, and especially the idea of ​​a mathematical experiment with the help of a computer.

Simultaneously with the research of N. Wiener, the information theory... Its subject was the coding, transmission and decoding of messages, channel capacities and the mathematical study of communication.

An attempt to combine the ideas of L. Bertalanffy, N. Wiener's cybernetics and information theory into a single system was made by Kenneth Boulding... At the same time, he assigns a special place to the theory of general systems, which, in his opinion, "is aimed at creating a framework (structure) on which certain disciplines and objects must be strung in the appropriate order."

The needs of practice almost simultaneously with the formation of systems theory led to the emergence of a direction called the study of operations. This direction arose in connection with military tasks, but thanks to a developed mathematical apparatus based on optimization methods, mathematical programming and mathematical statistics, it has become quite widespread in other applied areas, in economic problems, in solving problems of organizing production and managing enterprises.

In 1948, the so-called systems analysis first appeared in the works of the RAND corporation, which is engaged in the development of military doctrines, the problems of analysis and forecasting of the development of the US military potential, and the exploration of outer space. The first method of systems analysis was the PATTERN method, the creator of which is C. Davis. At present, the methodology of systems analysis is considered the most constructive of the areas of systems research.

In the 60s. XX century in the formulation and study of complex design and control problems, the term "systems engineering", proposed in 1962 by Fedor Evgenievich Temnikov, gained considerable popularity. It was used mainly in applications of systemic methods only to technical areas, and for other areas the term "systemology" was proposed (in 1965 by IB Novik).

Thus, by the 60s. XX century Through the efforts of scientists from various fields of science, a philosophical basis and the necessary theoretical and methodological tools for system research were formed, which became the basis for the development of a systematic approach to management.

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Systems theory and systems analysis: textbook. manual for distance learning. URL: http://fpi-kubagro.ru/teoriya-sistem-i-sistemnyj-analiz/10 (date of access: 05/14/2015).

Moiseev N. N. Bronislav Trentovsky and the emergence of cybernetics // Ecology and life. 2007. No. 8. P. 15–19.

The theory of systems analysis and decision making: a course of lectures. URL: http://www.studfiles.ru/dir/cat14/subj1300/file13254/view136036.html (date accessed: 05/14/2015).

Systems theory and systems analysis: textbook. manual for distance learning. URL: http://fpi-kubagro.ru/teoriya-sistem-i-sistemnyj-analiz/10 (date of access: 05/14/2015).

Kezin A.I., History of management doctrines. Kiev: VIRA-R, 2000.S. 227.

Synergy (from the Greek σύνἔργος - joint, coordinated) - the summing effect of the interaction of two or more factors, characterized by the fact that their action significantly exceeds the simple sum of the actions of individual components.

Knorring V.I. Theory, practice and art of management. Moscow: Norma, 2001. URL: http://www.i-u.ru (date of access: 13.12.2009).

Classics of Management: Translated from English. / ed. M. Warner. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001.S. 137.

Systems theory and systems analysis: textbook. manual for distance learning. URL: http://fpi-kubagro.ru/teoriya-sistem-i-sistemnyj-analiz/10 (date of access: 05/14/2015).

Cit. Quoted from: Kezin A.I., History of management doctrines. Kiev: VIRA-R, 2000.S. 228.

Tutorial Output:

Management history: textbook / E. P. Kostenko, E. V. Mikhalkina; South Federal University. - Rostov-on-Don: Publishing House of the Southern Federal University, 2014. - 606 p.

An essential place in modern science is occupied by a systemic research method or (as they often say) a systematic approach.

Systems approach- the direction of research methodology, which is based on the consideration of an object as an integral set of elements in a set of relations and connections between them, that is, consideration of an object as a system.

Speaking of a systematic approach, we can talk about a certain way of organizing our actions, such that it covers any kind of activity, identifying patterns and relationships in order to use them more efficiently. At the same time, the systematic approach is not so much a method for solving problems as a method for setting problems. As the saying goes, "A correctly asked question is half the answer." This is a qualitatively higher, than just objective, way of cognition.

The basic concepts of the systems approach: "system", "element", "composition", "structure", "functions", "functioning" and "purpose". We will reveal them for a complete understanding of the systems approach.

System - an object, the functioning of which, necessary and sufficient to achieve the goal facing it, is provided (under certain environmental conditions) by a set of its constituent elements, which are in expedient relations with each other.

Element - an internal initial unit, a functional part of the system, the own structure of which is not considered, but only its properties are taken into account, which are necessary for the construction and functioning of the system. The "elementality" of an element consists in the fact that it is the limit of division of a given system, since its internal structure in a given system is ignored, and it acts in it as such a phenomenon, which in philosophy is characterized as simple. Although in hierarchical systems, an element can also be considered as a system. And the element is distinguished from a part by the fact that the word "part" indicates only the internal belonging of something to an object, and "element" always denotes a functional unit. Every element is a part, but not every part - element.

Composition - a complete (necessary and sufficient) set of elements of the system, taken outside of its structure, that is, a set of elements.

Structure - the relationship between the elements in the system, necessary and sufficient for the system to achieve its goal.

Functions - ways to achieve the goal based on the appropriate properties of the system.

Functioning - the process of implementing the appropriate properties of the system, ensuring its achievement of the goal.

Target is what the system should achieve based on its functioning. The goal can be a certain state of the system or another product of its functioning. The importance of the goal as a system-forming factor has already been noted. Let's emphasize it again: an object acts as a system only in relation to its goal. The goal, requiring certain functions for its achievement, determines through them the composition and structure of the system. For example, is a pile of building materials a system? Any absolute answer would be wrong. Regarding the purpose of housing, no. But as a barricade, shelter, probably yes. A pile of building materials cannot be used as a house, even with all the necessary elements, for the reason that there are no necessary spatial relationships between the elements, that is, structure. And without a structure, they are only a composition - a collection of necessary elements.

The systematic approach focuses on the study not of the elements as such, but first of all the structure of the object and the place of the elements in it. In general main points of the systems approach the following:

1. Studying the phenomenon of integrity and establishing the composition of the whole, its elements.

2. Investigation of the laws governing the connection of elements into a system, i.e. the structure of the object, which forms the core of the systems approach.

3. In close connection with the study of the structure, it is necessary to study the functions of the system and its components, i.e. structural and functional analysis of the system.

4. Investigation of the genesis of the system, its boundaries and connections with other systems.

Methods of constructing and substantiating a theory occupy a special place in the methodology of science. Among them, an important place is occupied by explanation - the use of more specific, in particular, empirical knowledge to understand more general knowledge. The explanation could be:

a) structural, for example, how the motor works;

b) functional: how the motor works;

c) causal: why and how it works.

When constructing a theory of complex objects, an important role is played by the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete.

At the initial stage, cognition proceeds from the real, objective, concrete to the development of abstractions that reflect individual aspects of the object under study. While dissecting an object, thinking, as it were, mortifies it, presenting the object as a dissected, dismembered scalpel of thought.

The systems approach is an approach in which any system (object) is considered as a set of interrelated elements (components) that has an output (goal), input (resources), connection with the external environment, and feedback. This is the most difficult approach. The systems approach is a form of application of the theory of knowledge and dialectics to the study of processes occurring in nature, society, and thinking. Its essence lies in the implementation of the requirements of the general theory of systems, according to which each object in the process of its research should be considered as a large and complex system and, at the same time, as an element of a more general system.

The detailed definition of the systems approach also includes the obligatory study and practical use of the following eight aspects:

1. system-element or system-complex, consisting in identifying the elements that make up a given system. In all social systems, one can find material components (means of production and consumer goods), processes (economic, social, political, spiritual, etc.) and ideas, scientifically conscious interests of people and their communities;

2. systemic and structural, which consists in clarifying the internal connections and dependencies between the elements of a given system and allowing you to get an idea of ​​the internal organization (structure) of the object under study;

3. system-functional, involving the identification of functions for the performance of which the corresponding objects have been created and exist;

4. system-target, meaning the need for a scientific definition of the objectives of the study, their mutual coordination;

5. system-resource, which consists in a thorough identification of the resources required to solve a particular problem;

6. system-integration, consisting in determining the set of qualitative properties of the system, ensuring its integrity and peculiarity;

7. systemic and communication, meaning the need to identify the external relations of a given object with others, that is, its connections with the environment;

8. systemic-historical, which allows you to find out the conditions in the time of occurrence of the object under study, the stages it has passed, the current state, as well as possible development prospects.

The main assumptions of the systems approach:

1. There are systems in the world

2. The system description is true

3. Systems interact with each other, and, therefore, everything in this world is interconnected

The basic principles of the systematic approach:

Integrity, allowing to consider simultaneously the system as a whole and at the same time as a subsystem for higher levels.

Hierarchy of structure, i.e. the presence of a set (at least two) of elements located on the basis of the subordination of the elements of the lower level to the elements of the higher level. The implementation of this principle is clearly visible on the example of any particular organization. As you know, any organization is the interaction of two subsystems: managing and controlled. One obeys the other.

Structuring, allowing you to analyze the elements of the system and their relationship within a specific organizational structure. As a rule, the process of functioning of a system is determined not so much by the properties of its individual elements as by the properties of the structure itself.

Plurality, which allows you to use a variety of cybernetic, economic and mathematical models to describe individual elements and the system as a whole.

Systems approach levels:

There are several types of systems approach: integrated, structural, holistic. It is necessary to separate these concepts.

An integrated approach assumes the presence of a set of components of an object or applied research methods. In this case, neither the relationship between the components, nor the completeness of their composition, nor the relationship of the components with the whole are taken into account.

The structural approach involves the study of the composition (subsystems) and structures of an object. With this approach, there is still no correlation between subsystems (parts) and the system (whole). Decomposition of systems into subsystems is performed in more than one way.

In a holistic approach, the relationship is studied not only between parts of an object, but also between parts and the whole.

From the word "system" you can form others - "systemic", "systematize", "systematic". In a narrow sense, the systems approach is understood as the application of systemic methods to study real physical, biological, social and other systems. The systems approach in a broad sense includes, in addition, the use of systemic methods for solving problems of taxonomy, planning and organizing a complex and systematic experiment.

A systematic approach promotes an adequate formulation of problems in specific sciences and the development of an effective strategy for their study. The methodology, the specificity of the systemic approach is determined by the fact that it orients the study towards disclosing the integrity of the object and the mechanisms that provide it, towards identifying the various types of connections of a complex object and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture.

The 1970s were marked by a boom in systems approach around the world. The systematic approach was used in all areas of human life. However, practice has shown that in systems with high entropy (uncertainty), which is largely due to "non-systemic factors" (human influence), a systemic approach may not give the expected effect. The last remark testifies to the fact that "the world is not as systemic" as the founders of the systems approach imagined it.

Professor Prigogine A.I. this is how it defines the limitations of the systematic approach:

1. Consistency means certainty. But the world is uncertain. Uncertainty is essentially present in the reality of human relations, goals, information, in situations. It cannot be completely overcome, and sometimes it fundamentally dominates over certainty. The market environment is very mobile, unstable and only to some extent simulated, cognizable and controllable. The same is true for the behavior of organizations and employees.

2. Consistency means consistency, but, say, value orientations in an organization and even in one of its participants are sometimes contradictory to the point of incompatibility and do not form any system. Of course, various motivations bring some consistency into service behavior, but always only partially. We often find this in the totality of management decisions, and even in management groups and teams.

3. Consistency means integrity, but, say, the client base of wholesalers, retail companies, banks, etc. does not form any integrity, since it cannot always be integrated and each client has several suppliers and can change them endlessly. Information flows in the organization also lack integrity. Isn't it the same with the resources of the organization? "

35. Nature and society. Natural and artificial. The concept of "noosphere"

Nature in philosophy is understood as everything that exists, the whole world, subject to study by the methods of natural science. Society is a special part of nature that stands out as a form and product of human activity. The relationship between society and nature is understood as the relationship between the system of human community and the habitat of human civilization.

The basic principles of the systematic approach:

• Integrity, allowing to consider simultaneously the system as a whole and at the same time as a subsystem for higher levels.
• Hierarchy of structure, that is, the presence of a set (at least two) of elements arranged on the basis of the subordination of the elements of the lower level to the elements of the highest level. The implementation of this principle is clearly visible on the example of any particular organization. As you know, any organization is the interaction of two subsystems: managing and controlled. One obeys the other.
• Structuring, allowing you to analyze the elements of the system and their relationship within a specific organizational structure. As a rule, the process of functioning of a system is determined not so much by the properties of its individual elements as by the properties of the structure itself.
• Plurality, which allows you to use a variety of cybernetic, economic and mathematical models to describe individual elements and the system as a whole.
• Consistency, the property of an object to have all the features of the system.

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  The founders of the systematic approach are: A. A. Bogdanov, L. von Bertalanffy, E. de Bono, L. la Rush, G. Simon, P. Drucker, A. Chandler, S. A. Chernogor, Malyuta A. N.

  • System - a set of elements acting together as a whole and thus performing a specific function.
  • Structure is a way of interaction between the elements of a system through certain connections (a picture of connections and their stability).
  • Process is a dynamic change of the system over time.
  • Function - the operation of an element in the system.
  • State - the position of the system relative to its other positions.
  • The systemic effect is such a result of a special reorganization of the elements of the system, when the whole becomes larger than the simple sum of its parts.
  • Structural optimization is a purposeful iterative process of obtaining a series of systemic effects in order to optimize an applied goal within the specified constraints. Structural optimization is practically achieved using a special algorithm for structural reorganization of system elements. A series of simulation models has been developed to demonstrate the phenomenon of structural optimization and for training.

  Basic axiomatics

  1. Systems exist.
  2. The system view is true.
  3. Systems interact with each other and, therefore, individual systems can be interconnected.
  4. Any element of the system can be represented as a separate system.
  5. We will express the world around us in terms of a systemic representation.

  Features of the systems approach

  The systems approach is an approach in which any system (object) is considered as a set of interrelated elements (components) that has an output (goal), input (resources), connection with the external environment, and feedback. This is the most difficult approach. The systems approach is a form of application of the theory of knowledge and dialectics [ ] to the study of the processes occurring in nature, society, thinking. Its essence lies in the implementation of the requirements of the general theory of systems, according to which each object in the process of its study should be considered as a large and complex system and at the same time as an element of a more general system.

  The expanded definition of the systems approach also includes the obligatory study and practical use of the following eight aspects of it:

  1. system-element or system-complex, consisting in identifying the elements that make up a given system. In all social systems, one can find material components (means of production and consumer goods), processes (economic, social, political, spiritual, etc.) and ideas, scientifically conscious interests of people and their communities;
  2. systemic and structural, which consists in clarifying the internal connections and dependencies between the elements of a given system and allowing you to get an idea of ​​the internal organization (structure) of the system under study;
  3. system-functional, involving the identification of functions for the implementation of which the corresponding systems have been created and exist;
  4. system-target, meaning the need for a scientific definition of the goals and sub-goals of the system, their mutual coordination;
  5. system-resource, which consists in a thorough identification of the resources required for the functioning of the system, for the system to solve a particular problem;
  6. system-integration, which consists in determining the set of qualitative properties of the system, ensuring its integrity and peculiarity;
  7. systemic and communication, meaning the need to identify the external connections of this system with others, that is, its connections with the environment;
  8. systemic-historical, allowing to find out the conditions in the time of the emergence of the system under study, the stages it has passed, the current state, as well as possible development prospects.

  Almost all modern sciences are based on a systemic principle. An important aspect of the systematic approach is the development of a new principle of its use - the creation of a new, unified and more optimal approach (general methodology) to cognition, to apply it to any cognizable material, with the guaranteed goal of getting the most complete and holistic idea of ​​this material.

  see also

  Notes (edit)

  Literature

  • Agoshkova E.B., Akhlibininsky B.V. Evolution of the concept of a system // Problems of Philosophy. - 1998. - No. 7. - S. 170-179.
  • Blauberg I.V., Sadovsky V.N., Yudin E.G. Systems approach in modern science// Problems of system research methodology. - M.: Thought, 1970. - S. 7-48.
  • Blauberg I.V., Sadovsky V.N., Yudin E.G. Philosophical principle of consistency and a systematic approach // Problems of Philosophy. - 1978. - No. 8. - S. 39-52.
  • A.E. Voskoboinikov Systems research: basic concepts, principles and methodology // “Knowledge. Understanding. Skill ". - 2013. - No. 6 (November - December).
  • Lektorskiy V.A., Sadovskiy V.N. On the principles of systems research in connection with the “general theory of systems” L. Bertalanffy) // Problems of Philosophy. - 1960. - No. 8. - S. 67-79.
  • Rakitov A.I. Philosophical Problems of Science: A Systems Approach. - M.: Mysl, 1977 .-- 270 p.
  • O`Connor Joseph, McDermott Ian. The Art of Systems Thinking: Essential Skills for Creativity and Problem Solving //

  One of the main methodological components of systems research is the systems approach and the systemic research concept arising from it. Let's deal with these concepts.

  The idea of ​​a systematic approach is that a certain integrity is isolated from the surrounding reality and brought under the category of "system". To bring an isolated object under the category "system" means to discover its properties inherent in systems.

  The main provisions of the systematic approach:

  1) any object is an open system that interacts with the external environment (macrosystem);

  2) the effectiveness of the functioning of the system is determined by its systemic qualities and environmental conditions;

  3) the elements of the system are considered in their relationship and development.

  The systems approach is for the researcher the "supplier" of research objects.

  The main features of the systems approach:

  1) one of the forms of methodological knowledge associated with the study and creation of objects as systems;

  2) connection with systems theory and systems analysis, which implies:

  Hierarchy of cognition;

  Study of integrative properties and patterns of systems, disclosure of the basic mechanisms of integration of the whole;

  Aiming at obtaining quantitative characteristics, creating methods that narrow the ambiguity of concepts, definitions, assessments.

  Ultimately, all research is devoted to solving systemic problems in which the object of research is represented as a system.

  The essence of the systematic approach:

  1) the formulation of the research task;

  
  
  

  2) identifying the object of research as a system from the environment;

  3) establishing the properties and components inherent in the system;

  4) defining or setting goals for the components, based on the result of the entire system as a whole;

  5) development of a model of the system and conducting research on it.

  So, we found out that due to the systematic approach, systems are revealed from the surrounding reality in a finished form. But systems can also be the result of creativity.

  The creation of systems is also carried out in compliance with the requirements of consistency, and the process of building a system is presented in the form of a system concept.

  The system concept contains the main ideas regarding the appearance of the investigated or created object and the goals of research or creation, as well as regarding the theoretical and methodological foundations of research or creation of systems.

  As follows from the essence of systems research, systems are the object of research or creation.

  The theoretical foundations of research or construction of systems include a set of various methods, on the basis of which the development of methodology and technology for research and construction of specific systems is carried out.

  System Research Concept Basics:

  1) philosophical foundations;

  2) theoretical provisions for the definition and formalization of an object or process as a system;

  3) the conditions for the integration of methods and the logic of ensuring the integrity of the research process;

  4) systemic research technology.

  The system concept answers the question: what kind of system are we building? The main components of the concept:

  The purpose of building the system;

  Construction principles;

  System model and its system characteristics;

  Goal achievement strategy;

  Strategy implementation mechanism.

  The systems approach requires to consider the problem not in isolation, but in the unity of connections with the environment, to comprehend the essence of each connection and individual element, to draw associations between general and particular goals. All this forms a special method of thinking that allows you to flexibly respond to changes in the environment and make informed decisions.

  The methodology of the systems approach determines the levels of decomposition and procedures for the analysis and / or synthesis of systems that satisfy one or another pre-formulated requirements.

  The selection of satisfactory options is carried out at each considered level of the system representation (conceptual, functional, technological) in stages (selection of structures, parameters, modes).

  Each level-stage has its own set of criteria, its own a priori information is taken into account. The levels of decomposition of systems based on the systems approach are shown in Fig. 6.8.

  All methodological procedures of the systems approach can be summarized in the following three:

  1) a procedure that implements the analysis (synthesis) of the system from the particular to the general;

  2) a procedure that implements the analysis (synthesis) of the system from the general to the particular;

  3) hybrid procedure.

  The first case is associated with the primary development of system elements and with the subsequent construction on their basis of generalized structures and the system as a whole to solve the main functional problems.

  The advantage of the approach is in reducing the risk (errors, inadequacy of the goal) when building the system due to its gradual step-by-step development in accordance with the requirements presented to it.

  The disadvantage of this approach is the need for a large number of elaborations preceding the direct development of the system.

  In the second case, the initial development of the concept or conceptual model of the system is assumed. The next steps are detailing the elements of the model and their relationships.

  The advantage is the strict consistency of the system synthesis procedure.

  The disadvantage is the complexity of the development of generalized models of systems, a high probability of the risk that the system will not fully meet the requirements for it.

  The third case assumes the presence of several interactive steps, at each of which one of the above procedures can be used.

  Systems analysis, along with the systems approach, is also one of the main components of systems research. In this case, the term "systems analysis" or "systems analysis" is considered at two levels:

  General methodological, identical to the concept of "systems research";

  Applied, identical to the concept of "classical analysis".

  The object of system analysis is systems, their statics and dynamics (Fig. 6.9).

  

  The subject of system analysis is the general system characteristics of systems, phenomena and processes arising in them; patterns of functioning and development of systems, cause-and-effect relationships of their interaction with the environment.

  So, we stated that there are different formulations of the term "systems analysis". However, they can all be reduced to two.

  In the first case, systems analysis is a scientific direction, within which the development of systems theory and methodology of a systems approach is carried out in order to formulate and solve semi-structured problems of a political, social, economic, scientific and technical nature. In this case, system analysis acts as a general scientific methodology.

  In the second case, system analysis is an analysis in the classical sense of this method,
  i.e. systems analysis. In this case, system analysis is in the nature of an applied method.

  Consequently, systems analysis can be interpreted as a whole, as a synonym for the methodology of systemic research in general and as a part, an independent method of researching objects such as a system.

  Thus, system analysis in the interpretation of general scientific methodology also includes analysis in the classical sense, i.e., it reflects the procedure for dividing (mental or real) an object into elements. At the same time, system analysis is inextricably linked with synthesis - the combination of elements into a single whole and, as a rule, with optimization - the search for optimal options for separating and / or combining elements. The difference between system analysis and analysis as such is shown in Fig. 6.10.

  

  System analysis differs in that its main content is theoretical and applied research of system connections and patterns in evolving systems, focused on improving the efficiency of functioning, management and development of the objects under study as a whole. The most important problems of systems analysis are the problems of the development of areas of systems research, concluding the following:

  Methods for describing and simplifying systems;

  Synthesis and decomposition of systems;

  Principles and technology for integrating various methods;

  Problems of complexity, uncertainty and methods of their solution;

  Problems of computer implementation of models and decision making.

  System analysis of a specific object is a complex

  research task. Its solution is an important independent scientific achievement.

  The analysis procedure is determined by the conditions of a particular study and the characteristics of the object. It is impossible to work out any universal schemes here. The development of each practice procedure is a creative act in which experience, intuition and personality of the researcher are combined.

  System analysis as a whole as a methodology of systems research organically includes all known methodological approaches and research methods of socio-economic, organizational and information-technical systems.

  The concepts used in systems analysis are concepts that characterize systems and categories of systems analysis (Figure 6.11).

  

  The source of the development of complex systems are problems - contradictions. Solving a problem that leads to a qualitatively new state of the system is a strategic decision.

  Any system has its own ultimate development boundaries. Purposeful qualitative changes in a system imply the presence of an initial systemic quality in it. The development process in such conditions is a sequence of measures and steps to transform the initial systemic quality into the required one.

  An effective search for a new systemic quality is always associated with the management of the development process or systemic (strategic) management.

  In the general case, when controlling the processes of system development, an ideal model (paradigm, standard) is needed, relative to which deviations in the developing system manifest themselves.

  Distinctive features of systems analysis as a discipline:

  1) the object of analysis is the system;

  2) the system is in a holistic relationship with the environment (macrosystem), and the system is considered as an element of the rosystem, isolated from it in terms of goals, functions, structure and parameters of the dynamics of evolution;

  3) the goal of the system analysis is the formation of the system (the concept of the system) and its strategy (the strategy of its implementation);

  4) the main system concept is the evolution of the structure-strategy of the system or an effective (optimal, rational or effective) steadily developing system;

  5) a strategy for achieving a goal - a sequence of actions (algorithm or program) that ensures the progressive evolution of the system.

  6) the methodological basis for achieving the goal is the systemic and the holistic-evolutionary and other approaches developed on its basis;

  The main idea of ​​the system analysis comes down to the substantiation of the initial positions for decision-making through a thorough study of all existing factors, both quantitatively and qualitatively characterizing the analyzed problem situation, as well as the decisions taken to overcome it.

  A systems approach in the study of management can be represented using a set of principles that must be followed and that reflect both the content and the peculiarity of the systems approach (Figure 2.16).

  Rice. 2.16.

  1. The principle of integrity consists in identifying the object of research with a holistic education, i.e. in delimiting it from other phenomena, from the environment. This can only be done by defining and evaluating the distinctive properties of the phenomenon and comparing these properties with the properties of its elements. In this case, the object of research does not have to bear the name of the system (management system, personnel management system, etc.). This can be called a mechanism, process, solution, goal, problem, situation, etc. Let us remind you that a systematic approach is an attitude towards learning, it is a set of principles and research methods.

  Integrity is not an absolute characteristic; it can be expressed to a certain extent. The systematic approach presupposes the establishment of this measure. In this it differs from the approaches of the aspect, multidimensional, complex, reproductionist, conceptual, in which integrity acts not as a real and objective property, and therefore a characteristic of an object, but as a condition for its study. Integrity here is conditional.

  2. The principle of compatibility of the elements of the whole. A system can only exist as a whole when its constituent elements are compatible. It is their compatibility that determines the possibility and presence of connections, their existence or functioning within the framework of the whole. A systematic approach requires evaluating all the elements of the whole from these positions. At the same time, compatibility should be understood not just as a property of an element as such, but as its property in accordance with the position and functional status in this whole, its relation to system-forming elements.

  The system-forming element for the socio-economic system is a person. His relationships with other people for a variety of reasons (technology, technology, information, social belonging, psychology, value, money, etc.) characterize both the ties in the socio-economic system and its integrity. Management, as well as production, society, firm, etc., i.e. a certain community of people, united by one of their needs, is a socio-economic system. In the study of this system, you can use both aspect and system approaches.

  3. The principle of the functional and structural structure of the whole lies in the fact that in the study of control systems it is necessary to analyze and determine the functional structure of the system, i.e. see not only the elements and the connections between them, but also the functional content of each element. In two identical systems with the same set of elements and the same structure, the content of the functioning of these elements and their connection for certain functions may be different. This often affects the effectiveness of management. For example, the management system may have undeveloped functions of social regulation, forecasting and planning, and public relations.

  A feature of the use of this principle is the factor of the development of functions and the degree of their isolation, which to a certain extent characterizes the professionalism of its implementation.

  The study of the functional content of the control system must necessarily include the identification of dysfunctions, i.e. the presence of such functions that do not correspond to the functions of the whole and thus can violate the stability of the control system, the necessary stability of its functioning. Dysfunctions are, as it were, superfluous functions that sometimes have lost their relevance, but still exist due to inertia.

  • 4. Development principle. All characteristics of any control system are determined by the characteristics of the level and stage of its development. And this cannot be ignored when conducting research. It is necessary to carry out a comparative analysis of the past state of the system, its present and possible future. Of course, informational problems arise here - the availability, sufficiency and value of information. But these difficulties can be reduced with a systematic study of the management system, which allows accumulating the necessary information, determining development trends and extrapolating them into the future.
  • 5. The principle of lability (mobility, instability) of functions. Evaluating the development of the control system, one cannot exclude the possibility of changing its general functions, acquiring new integrity functions by it with relative stability of internal ones, i.e. their composition and structure. This phenomenon characterizes the concept of lability of the control system functions. In reality, one often has to observe the lability of control functions. It has certain limits, but in many cases it can reflect both positive and negative phenomena. Of course, this should be in the field of view of the researcher.
  • 6. The principle of polyfunctionality. The control system can have multifunctional functions. These are functions that are combined according to a certain characteristic to obtain some special effect. It can also be called the principle of interoperability. But the compatibility of functions is determined not only by the content of the function, as is often considered to be, but also by the goals of management and the compatibility of performers. After all, a function is not just a type of activity, but also a practical implementation of it by a person, which depends on his understanding of the content of this function. Often functions, seemingly incompatible in their content, turn out to be compatible in the activities of a certain specialist. And vice versa. When researching polyfunctionality, one should not forget about the human factor of management.
  • 7. The principle of iteration. Any research is a process that involves a certain sequence of operations, the use of various methods, the assessment of preliminary, intermediate and final results. This characterizes the iterative structure of the research process. Its success depends on how we choose these iterations, how we combine them.
  • 8. The principle of probabilistic estimates. In the process of research, it is not always possible to accurately trace and evaluate all cause-and-effect relationships, in other words, to present the object of research in a deterministic form. Many connections and relationships are objectively probabilistic in nature, many phenomena can be assessed only probabilistically, if we take into account the current level and possibilities of studying the phenomena of a socio-economic and socio-psychological plan. Therefore, management research should focus on probabilistic assessments. This means the widespread use of statistical analysis methods, methods for calculating probability, normative estimates, flexible modeling, etc.
  • 9. The principle of variance follows from the principle of probability. The combination of probabilities gives different options for reflecting and understanding reality. Each of these options can and should be the focus of research. Any research can be focused either on obtaining a single result, or on determining possible options for reflecting the real state of affairs with a subsequent analysis of these options. The variability of research is manifested in the development of not a single, but several working hypotheses or various concepts at the first stage of research, in the choice of aspects and research methods, various methods, say, of modeling phenomena.

  But these principles of consistency can only be useful and effective, reflect a truly systematic approach, when they themselves will be taken into account and used systematically, i.e. in interdependence and in connection with each other. Such a paradox is possible: the principles of the systems approach do not provide a systematic approach in the study, because they are used sporadically, without taking into account their connection, subordination, and complexity. The principles of consistency must also be used systematically.

  The connection between the principles of the systems approach is shown in Fig. 2.16. Ego is one of the possible options for representing the connections of functions. In general, their use reflects not only the scientific approach to research, but also the art of the researcher. One way or another, we must strive to understand the relationships between principles and the implementation of this understanding in a specific research work.