Roman provinces. Gaul. Galia - the country conquered by Caesar What is gallium

One of the largest and most populated provinces of Rome - Gaul - was annexed to the metropolis after a short, albeit very fierce struggle. This accession is associated with the name of Guy Julius Caesar, who in less than a decade conquered a territory with more than 5 million inhabitants. And he did all this with an army of hardly more than 30 thousand soldiers and officers, without a reliable base of operations and an unfavorable attitude towards this action of his own Senate.

Gaul, after its submission, underwent a strong Romanization and voluntarily and everywhere abandoned its ancient culture and religion - Druidism, absorbing both positive and negative from the Greco-Roman civilization.

It was Gaul that became the last island of Roman culture that survived in the sea of \u200b\u200bthe Great Migration of Peoples and, albeit for a little, but outlived the metropolis, it was the last of the Roman provinces to fall under the blows of the barbaric Franks Clovis in 486 A.D., ten years after the official the fall of the Western Roman Empire, when the last emperor, Romulus Augustus, was deposed in 476.

About the annexation of Gaul in 57 BC and its existence as a Roman province for more than five centuries will be discussed in this chapter.

“... Gaul was twice the size of Italy: it had many states, a powerful nobility, an influential priesthood, its own customs and traditions; it had at least, it is now thought, a population of 4 to 5 million inhabitants, which was not exhausted and weakened, like the Eastern peoples; part of him even lived exclusively in war ... "

Gaul seduced the Romans with its wealth, population and vast lands, which in Italy itself since the time of the Gracchi for ordinary citizens was already sorely lacking. The Roman Senate was forced to look for places for the resettlement of the colonists and the allotment of land to the legionnaires who had served.

She also possessed a strategic position, being a bridge between the Italian and Spanish possessions of Rome.

The first territory inhabited by Celts on the other side of the Alps and subject to the rule of Rome was Narbonne Gaul, conquered in 117 BC. But the close proximity to the free Celts and the easy penetration of ephemeral borders in both directions made this province extremely unstable and often rebelled against Roman rule.

Many unrest of the provincials were supported by their free tribesmen, who provided support with both money and ammunition, and military contingents.

To gain control of Narbonne Gaul, with its turbulent population, was a failure by the lot that determined the provinces for the proconsuls.

Despite constant wars and the fact that it was held here to keep an army, at times reaching 2 million, to settle in the colonies of Roman veterans, the borders of the possessions of Rome were not significantly advanced here: Lugudun Konvenarum, Tolosa, Vienne and Genava were still the most remote Roman settlements. in the west and north.

But the importance of these Gallic possessions for the metropolis was growing. An excellent climate similar to that of Italy, favorable soil conditions so important for trade, convenient sea and land connections with Italy - all this soon gave the southern part of the country of the Celts such economic importance for Rome, which was not achieved for centuries by much older possessions. its like Spanish.

The Aqua Sextians, and even more Narbonas, were large Roman colonies in the provinces that did not lose touch with their homeland, were outposts of Roman influence and way of life in the country of the Celts.

But Narbonne Gaul was only a small part of the Celtic country that stretched beyond the border Rodan.

“… Gaul in its entirety is divided into three parts. In one of them live the Belgians, in the other - the Aquitains, and in the third - those tribes that are called Celts in their own language, and Gauls in ours. They all differ from each other in specific languages, institutions and laws. The Galls are separated from the Aquitanians by the Garumna River, and from the Belgians by Matrona and Sekvana.

The bravest of them are the Belgians, as they live the farthest from the Province with its culture and enlightened life; in addition, they rarely have merchants, especially with such things that entail the effeminacy of the spirit; finally, they live in the immediate vicinity of the Z-Rhine Germans, with whom they are constantly at war.

The part which, as we have said, the Gauls occupy, begins at the Rodana River, and is bordered by the Garumna River, the Ocean and the land of the Belgians; but on the side of the Sequans and Helvetians, it also adjoins the Rhine River. It stretches to the north.

The country of the Belgians begins at the farthest border of Gaul and reaches the lower Rhine. It faces north-east. Activation goes from the Garumana River to the Pyrenees Mountains and to that part of the Ocean that washes Spain. It lies to the northwest .... ”.

The Gauls have long been distinguished by their penchant for settlement; everywhere they had open villages, apart from many separate courtyards. There was no shortage of fortified cities; their walls amazed the Romans both with their strength and the intricate laying of logs and stones.

“… All Gallic walls usually have such a device. On the ground, straight and solid logs are laid in full length parallel to each other with an interval of two feet; they are connected internally (by transverse beams) and are densely covered with earth; and in front, the indicated intervals are densely filled with large stones. Having laid and tied them, another row is placed on top of them, observing the distance between the logs; however, the logs (upper and lower) are not stacked on top of each other, but each of them within the same distance is tightly restrained by the masonry. So, the entire building is displayed in rows until the wall reaches the proper height. This structure, on the whole, has a rather pleasant and varied appearance due to the correct alternation of logs and stones lying in rows in straight lines; but, besides, it is quite expedient in the sense of successful defense of cities, since a stone protects from fire, and wooden masonry, which can neither be punched or pulled out, from ramming, for it consists of logs - usually forty feet long - and inside is properly tied ... ”.

In the more northern districts, for example, the Nerviys, there were also cities, but the population sought refuge during the war in swamps and forests rather than outside the city walls.

In close connection with the relatively significant development of urban life, there are lively intercourse both by dry road and by water. There were roads and bridges everywhere.

River shipping was very extensive and the river fleet was very capacious.

But far more remarkable is the maritime navigation of the Celts. The Celts were not only the people who established regular shipping in the Atlantic Ocean, but they also achieved remarkable heights in the art of shipbuilding and sailing. For a long time, the navigation of the Mediterranean peoples was limited only to the rowing fleet, which is explained by the peculiarities of the waters where they had to sail.

The warships of the Phoenicians, Greeks and Romans were oared galleys, where sails were used only occasionally to help rowers; only merchant ships were authentic sailing ships in the era of the highest development of ancient culture.

The Gauls at the time of Caesar, as well as at a later time, used a special kind of portable leather shuttles for sailing along the strait, which were, in essence, ordinary oar boats. But on the western coast of Gaul, the Santons, Pictons, and especially the Veneti, had large, though clumsy ships, propelled not by oars, but equipped with leather sails and iron anchor chains; they used these ships not only in trade relations with Britain, but also for sea battles.

“... Their own ships were built and equipped as follows: their keel was slightly flatter to make it easier to cope with shoals and low tides; the bows, as well as the sterns, were entirely made of oak to withstand any shock of waves and damage; the ribs of the ship were underneath bound by foot-thick beams and pinned together with finger-thick nails; the anchors were reinforced not with ropes, but with iron chains; instead of sails, the ships had rough or thin tanned leather, perhaps because of a lack of flax and an inability to use it in business, and even more likely because linen sails seemed insufficient to withstand strong storms and gusty winds of the Ocean and to manage such heavy ships ... And when our fleet collided with these ships, it got the upper hand solely by the speed and work of rowers, and in all other respects the Gallic ships are more conveniently adapted to local conditions and to fight against storms. Indeed, our ships could not harm them with their noses (to such an extent they were strong); because of their height, it was not easy to fire at them; for the same reason, it was not very convenient to grab them with hooks. Moreover, when the wind began to rage and they nevertheless set out to sea, it was easier for them to endure the storm and it was safer to stay aground, and when they were captured by the low tide, they had nothing to fear from rocks and reefs. On the contrary, all such surprises were very dangerous for our ships ... ”.

Thus, we not only meet here for the first time shipping in the open ocean, but also the fact that a sailing ship here also took the place of a rowboat for the first time - a process that, however, was not able to take advantage of the dying ancient world and the incalculable results of which are only gradually realized by the new cultural period.

Faced with the new conditions of war at sea, which differed sharply both tactically and technically from the classical form of confrontation between the fleets to the ideal perfected by the Romans during the confrontation with the powerful Carthage, the conquerors of Gaul had to radically change their scheme of actions on the go. And they succeeded. Rome once again proved its superiority based on the use of the experience of the enemy. By changing tactics, the Roman rowing fleet defeated the Gallic fleet. "

“... And having adopted the new successes of his fleet, Caesar was able to defeat the cape cities of the Veneti that were previously invulnerable in their natural defense ...”.

With such an orderly maritime relationship between the British and Gallic coasts, both the close political ties between the inhabitants of both sides of the strait and the flourishing of sea trade and fishing are quite understandable.

The political development of the Celtic people presents a number of very interesting phenomena. The starting point of the state structure is here, as elsewhere, a tribal district with its prince, a council of elders and an assembly of free people capable of carrying weapons. But the originality lies in the fact that it never went beyond the limits of this district system.

Almost everywhere the government consisted of an assembly of the aristocracy, i.e. wealthy owners who distinguished themselves in the war, and the army was formed from the same nobles, each of whom commanded a small detachment of fellow citizens and clients.

So, for example, Eduy Dumnorig “... a very brave man, thanks to his generosity, very popular among the people and very prone to a coup. For many years in a row he was at the mercy of duties and all other state revenues of the Aedui for an insignificant price, since at the auction, no one in his presence dares to offer more than he. By this he himself personally enriched himself and acquired large funds for his generous distributions. He constantly maintains at his own expense and has a large cavalry with him and is influential not only in his homeland, but also among neighboring tribes … ”.

For several generations before the submission of Gaul to the power of Rome, the old Gallic nobility was in debt and became poorer. “… This growing need was taken advantage of by a small number of more dexterous and courageous nobles in order to acquire greater political power and to collect immeasurable wealth. Some accumulated great wealth in land and capital, others monopolized the collection of duties and taxes and lent money. All of them, thanks to the large number of their debtors, their clients, their servants, thanks to the gifts given to the poor, tried to acquire an almost monarchical power in the ancient aristocratic republics ... ”.

As the old landed aristocracy disappeared and property passed into the hands of a small new nobility, the latter embarrassed the old equilibrium of republican freedom with its clients and flooded with them the Gallic army, which from then on consisted of servants - people, for food and some handouts, who worked their land and serving them in their vast dwellings, which were almost always placed alone on the banks of the river or in the middle of the forest, and the cavalry units, which they supported at their own expense, thereby increasing their power both in war and in peacetime.

Events brought Caesar to Gaul at a time when the Celtic nation was going through a severe and decisive crisis, similar to the crisis experienced by Italy after the Gracchi and had the same reasons - disregard for ancient Celtic manners, assimilation of foreign ideas and customs, an increase in the cost of living and the fall of the old classes.

For more than half a century, the Greco-Latin civilization penetrated the Gallic peoples, excluding only the most barbaric ones - the Belgians and the Gelts. She introduced a lot of new things: from the alphabet to wine and aristocratic minting of coins ... "

At the same time, the old agricultural aristocracy was losing all its political influence. The national religion - Druism - fell and lost its influence on the masses. The concentration of property and war ravaged many Gauls and most of them turned into the robbers that Caesar often mentions. “... Others engaged in trade with various peoples of Gaul or with the Germans and Romans; others settled in cities and formed the core of the craft class. Among the small rural settlements that covered the whole of Gaul, a number of cities arose, such as Avarik, Gergovia, Bibrakte, which began to attract population and wealth. The slave trade with Italy flourished. Some crafts, such as ceramics, making things from gold, silver and iron, spinning, making ham, made progress ... ”

The institution of Daltirui - "devotees" who devoted themselves to serving someone, became widespread in Gaul. Caesar describes them as follows: “… from another part of the city, the chief leader of the Sotiates, Adiatunn, tried to make a sortie at the head of a detachment of six hundred“ devotees ”whom the Gauls call“ soliduria ”. Their position is this: they usually enjoy all the blessings of life in common with those whose friendship they have devoted themselves; but if these latter are comprehended by violent death, then the soldiers share their fate, or they themselves take their own lives; and until now in the memory of history there has not been a single such soldier who would refuse to die in the event of the killing of the one to whom he condemned himself to friendship ... ”.

For the Greeks and Romans, the city became the basis of political unity very early instead of the tribal district. Among the Celts, on the other hand, the clan remained the “civic collective” at all times; the prince stood at the head of the district, and not any city, and the general district assembly is the highest authority in the state.

The city has, as in the East, only commercial and military, but not political significance, therefore even such significant and walled Gallic cities as Vienne and Genava were in the eyes of the Greeks and Romans only simple villages.

In the era of Caesar, the original structure of the clans was preserved almost unchanged among the island Celts and in the northern districts on the mainland. The highest power belonged to the community, the prince was bound by its decisions on all significant issues, the public council was numerous, in some clans it had up to 600 members, but apparently had no more importance than the Senate under the Roman kings.

On the contrary, in the more developed southern part of the country, one or two generations before Caesar, the children of the last kings were still alive in his time, a coup took place that abolished royal power, at least in the largest clans - among the Irwen, Aedui, Sequans, and domination here passed to the nobility ...

The reverse side of the complete absence of urban civilization among the Celts was the complete predominance in their clans of the opposite pole of political development - the aristocracy.

The Celtic aristocracy was the highest nobility, which consisted, perhaps, mostly of members of the royal or former royal families. And it is remarkable that the leaders of the opposite parties in the same clan very often belonged to the sweat of the same clan, as, for example, was shown by Caesar on the example of Ediy Dumnorich.

These noble families combined economic, military and political leadership in their hands. They introduced the custom of forming a squad for themselves, that is, the aristocracy enjoyed the privilege of surrounding itself with a certain number of hired horsemen, thus constituting a state within a state. Relying on her servants, she disobeyed neither the legal authorities, nor the recruitment in the districts and actually destroyed the existing system.

Caesar describes them as follows. “Another class is horsemen. They all go on a campaign when it is necessary and when a war comes (and before the arrival of Caesar, they had to conduct either offensive or defensive wars almost every year). Moreover, the more noble and wealthy someone is, the more he keeps servants and clients with him. In this alone they see their influence and power. "

The depth and strength of the Celtic national identity would be inexplicable if, despite its political fragmentation, the Celtic nation had not been religiously centralized for a long time. The Celtic clergy, the Druids, connected the British Isles and all of Gaul, and perhaps other Celtic countries with a common religious-national connection.

It had its own head, who was elected by the priests themselves, its own schools where tradition was cultivated, its privileges, especially freedom from taxes and military service, recognized by all clans, annual councils in the "center of the Gallic land", and most importantly - a community of believers, very pious and religious.

It is clear that such clergy tried to capture and partly took over secular life. Where kings were elected for a year, the clergy presided over the elections during the interregnum.

It has successfully arrogated to itself the right to exclude individuals and even entire communities from a religious union, and thus from civil society; managed to subjugate civil litigation, in particular disputes about delimitation and inheritance, relying on its right of exclusion from the community, and perhaps also on local custom, when mainly criminals were selected for human sacrifices, developed extensive spiritual jurisdiction in criminal cases, vying with the court of kings. Finally, the clergy even claimed to resolve issues of war and peace.

The predominant type of weapon was cavalry, but among the Belgians, and even more so on the British Isles, along with it, the ancient national war chariots reached remarkable perfection.

These large and brave bands of horsemen and chariot fighters consisted of the nobility and their servants. Distinguished by an aristocratic passion for dogs and horses, the Celtic nobility spent a lot of money in order to ride noble horses of a foreign breed.

The warlike spirit of this nobility is characterized by the fact that when the call was heard, everyone who could keep on horseback, even the old people, went on a campaign and, preparing to engage in battle with the despised enemy, vowed not to return home if their detachment did not break through at least twice through the enemy ranks.

The hired vigilantes were typical landsknechts, demoralized and stupidly indifferent to other people's and their own lives.

In comparison with these horsemen, the infantry receded into the background. Basically, it resembled those Celtic troops that the Romans fought in Italy and Spain.

A large shield was in those days the main means of defense, as for weapons, instead of a sword, the first place was now occupied by a long shock spear.

When several districts waged war together, one clan stood and fought against the other. There is no indication that the militia of a separate district should be divided into military units and made up of small, well-formed tactical units.

A long wagon train carried baggage for the Celtic army, and road carts served him as a meager replacement for the fortified camp, which the Romans set up every evening.

There is information about the high qualities of the infantry of certain districts, for example, the nerves. They did not have chivalry and they, perhaps, were not even Celtic, but of Germanic origin.

In general, the Celtic infantry of this time was a militia of little use for war and a clumsy militia, especially in the southern part of the country, where, along with savagery, courage disappeared. The Roman general Caesar gave an even stricter assessment of the Celtic infantry by the fact that he never used it together with the Roman, after he recognized it in his first campaign.

Gaul, a barbaric country striving for civilization and, as a result, full of contradictions, did not know how to wage either a terrible and stubborn partisan war of barbarians, or a scientific and methodological war of civilized peoples. She alternately led one or the other. This war was affected by the inconsistency that then dominated Gaulish society.

Only this can explain how Gaul was defeated by a small army of 30 thousand people.

The original naive courage was lost, and military courage, based on the highest morality and expedient institutions and which is usually the result of a higher civilization, manifested itself only among chivalry and, moreover, in a very perverted form.

The virtues inherent in the primitive era of the life of peoples were lost by the Celts, but they did not acquire the qualities that culture brings with it if it deeply penetrates the entire people.

Subordinating so many peoples inhabiting Gaul to Roman rule in one day, changing the political and national foundations of their existence - this was a huge undertaking.

Even an almost unattainable goal. But Caesar succeeded ...

True, this conquest was for the most part still imaginary. Neither Aquitaine nor the free part of southern Gaul have yet seen a Roman soldier or a Roman magistrate. The mass of the peoples of Central and Western Gaul were not yet conquered; the mass was conquered only in appearance.

Many others, and among them the richest and most powerful - the Sequans, Aedui, Lingons - friendlyly accepted the Roman commander only as a powerful ally, without expressing any disposition to accept Roman rule.

Only after the suppression of a number of speeches of the anti-Roman party of the Gauls, Caesar could consider the newly conquered country reliably annexed.

Remarkably, after the failure of the revolt of Vercingetorich Gaul after 50 BC. no longer seriously resisted, even when Caesar withdrew all the troops for the civil war.

There is no mention of any disturbances in Gaul and along the Rhine in the Commentaries on the Civil War. Neither the Gauls nor the Germans took advantage of the opportunity.

But a more difficult undertaking than the pacification of weak resistance was for Caesar the organization of a new government in Gaul. It was impossible to destroy all the political and legal organs of ancient Celtic society and replace them with completely new governance.

It was no easier to make these ancient institutions function under Roman control, to dominate them to such an extent that they were able to use for themselves this system of traditions, interests, social forces, which Caesar found in action and, most of which continued to exist even under Roman dominion.

An even more important task for Caesar was to reduce in Gaul the discontent caused by peace, which he had unexpectedly imposed on a country where, over the centuries, wars had become a habit.

Such drastic social changes could not fail to cause serious consequences for the new system. Too many people lived in Gaul with these wars, drawing from them their power and honor.

Deprived of the sudden world of what was the basis of their social influence and even their very existence, they could only be a disaffected and heavy element.

Caesar knew this so well that in order to occupy these many unemployed soldiers he recruited a large number of auxiliary troops among them. He also thought to flatter the military pride of the Gauls, forming exclusively from them the famous legion of Lark 36). , thus accepting new applicants into the army on the same rights as the conquerors of the world.

Perhaps he saw Britain as a new field of action, open under the control of Rome for the warlike designs of the large Gallic clans.

Administratively, the regions newly acquired by the proconsul of Narbonne Gaul were temporarily annexed to the Narbonne province. Only when Caesar left this position, from the lands he conquered, two governorships were created - Gaul proper and Belgium.

The loss of certain districts of their political independence resulted from the fact of the conquest.

They were all taxed in favor of Rome.

But this tax system was, of course, not the one on the basis of which the tribal and financial aristocracy exploited Asia. Here, as in Spain, each community was entrusted once and for all with a certain tribute, the collection of which was left to itself. In this way, as many as 40 million sesterces came annually from Gaul to the treasuries of the Roman government, which for this took on the costs of protecting the Rhine border.

Of course, those masses of gold that were accumulated in the temples of the gods and in the treasuries of the rich, thanks to the war, found their way to Rome.

The former district system with hereditary kings or the feudal-oligarchic elite survived mainly after the conquest. The system of clients was not canceled either, due to which some areas became dependent on others, more powerful. Although with the loss of state independence, this system has largely lost its significance.

Caesar was only concerned that, taking advantage of the existing dynastic and feudal strife and the struggle for hegemony, establish an order corresponding to the interests of Rome, and place supporters of foreign domination everywhere in power.

From the very beginning, Caesar spared the national cult and its ministers. We do not find in him a trace of the measures that were taken later by the Roman authorities against the Druids. This is probably related to the fact that the Gaulish wars of Caesar do not bear, as far as we know, the character of religious war, which so sharply manifested itself later in the British wars.

If Caesar showed the defeated nation all possible condescension and spared its national, political and religious institutions, since this was compatible with submission to Rome, then this was done not in order to abandon the main idea of \u200b\u200bhis conquests - the Romanization of Gaul, but in order to implement it in the mildest form possible.

He did not confine himself to spreading to the northern part of the country those orders that had already led to a significant extent to the Romanization of the southern province, but as a real statesman, he assisted in natural development and tried to shorten the always painful transition period.

Not to mention the acceptance of many noble clans into the number of Roman citizens and the admission of some of them even to the Seine, apparently thanks to Caesar, Latin was introduced as an official language in many Gaulish districts, and instead of the national monetary system, the Roman was introduced, and the right of minting gold coins and denarii were left to the Roman authorities, and small coins were minted by separate districts and according to the Roman model.

Caesar was also engaged in the creation of a number of trans-Alpine colonies. He settled his Germanic and Celtic horsemen in Noviodune, and the battles, who expressed loyalty to Rome and for this received the importance of a Roman colony, in the lands of the Aedui.

Such Gaul was left by Caesar crossing the Rubicon.

During the civil war, which lasted almost without interruption for twenty years, the authors of the stories that have come down to us, naturally, could ignore the relatively insignificant events in Gaul. But the fact that this country was never mentioned in the list of triumphs that had been completely preserved until this time proves that in those years no more or less significant new military expeditions took place in the country of the Celts.

Later, during the long reign of Augustus and at all the often very dangerous critical moments of the wars in Germany, the regions of Gaul remained submissive.

However, both the Roman government and the party of German patriots constantly reckoned with the possibility of an uprising of the Gauls against Rome in the event of a decisive success of the Germans and their invasion of Gaul.

Thus, foreign rule in this country was by no means secured. A real major uprising took place in 21 AD under Tiberius, but it was brutally suppressed.

The internal organization of Gaul is the affair of Augustus. When organizing the administration of the empire at the end of the civil wars, Gaul, in the form in which it went to Caesar and was finally subordinated to them, was completely transferred to the imperial administration, with the exception of the area south of the Alps, which at that time was annexed to Italy.

However, already in 21 BC. Augustus handed over Narbonne Gaul to the Senate government together with the region of Massalia from the Mediterranean coast to the Seven mountains, and left only the new Gallic regions under his own control.

This still extremely vast territory was then divided into three administrative districts, and an independent imperial governor was put at the head of each of them.

This division was based on the division of the entire country on a national basis, noted earlier by the dictator Caesar - into Aquitaine inhabited by the Iberians, purely Celtic Gaul and the Celtic-Germanic region of the Belgians.

Legal relations in the old province of Gaul and in the three new ones were completely different. The former was immediately completely romanized, while in the latter the existing national relations were first regulated.

In the old province, the city of Narbonne was of outstanding importance, having full Roman right and competing in trade with the Greek Massalia.

Then four new civilian colonies were founded, mainly in the area ceded after the civil war by Massalia.

Among them, the most important militarily was the colony Yuliev-Forum, which served as the main station of the new imperial fleet.

The Arelate colony at the mouth of the Rhone was of great importance in trade. When the role of Lyon increased and trade again began to gravitate towards the Rhone, this colony advanced to the first place, ahead of Narbon, and became the real heir to Massalia and a large market for Italian-Gallic trade.

Also throughout the province, already under Caesar and at the beginning of the empire, large centers were organized as communities of Latin law: such are Ruscinon, Avennion, Aqua Sextievs, Appa.

Already at the end of the Augustan era, the language and customs of the country on both banks of the Lower Rhone were completely Romanized, and the tribal districts were destroyed almost throughout the province.

The inhabitants of urban communities that received the imperial right of citizenship, as well as citizens of the communities of Latin law, who, joining the imperial army or occupying positions in their hometown, acquired imperial citizenship for themselves and their descendants, were in legal terms completely equal to the Italians and, like them, achieved in public service positions and honorary distinctions.

In contrast to the southern province, there were no cities of Roman and Latin law in the three Gauls. There was only one such city, which did not belong to any of the three provinces or belonged to all.

It was the city of Lugdun - today's Lyon. This settlement arose on the southernmost outskirts of Imperial Gaul, directly on the border of an urban province, at the confluence of the Rhone and Seine, at a point extremely well chosen both militarily and commercially.

This only city of the three Gauls was at the same time their capital. The three Gallic provinces were not united under a common supreme government, and of the highest officials of the empire, only the governor of the Middle or Lugdun province had his seat here.

However, when the emperor or members of the imperial family visited Gaul, they stayed in Lyon.

Along with Carthage, Lyon was the only city in the Latin half of the empire, which, after the model of Rome, had a permanent garrison equal to 1,200 soldiers. 37).

Southern Gaul, thanks to its position, better than any other province, protected from any enemy attack, achieved a high degree of prosperity and urban development under the imperial government.

The basis of prosperity was agriculture, which brought large incomes throughout Gaul. A profitable occupation, especially in the north, was also cattle breeding, namely the raising of pigs and sheep.

The significance of Gaul for the fate of the empire is very great. During the five centuries that it was under the rule of Rome, the territory and population have undergone significant changes. The Celtic people lost their both religious and national independence.

By the end of the 1st century A.D. The legions were formed from Gallo-Romans and although their fighting qualities could not be compared with the imperial or British volunteers, this fact alone indicates that the imperial government fully trusted its provincials. After the law of Caracalla (212 AD) “On the granting of civil rights to all free inhabitants of the empire,” the Gallo-Romans finally merged with the romanized part of the empire.

Before the capture by the Franks in 486 AD. Gaul prospered and prospered under Roman rule, spared the horror of internecine wars and the danger of fighting German invasions.

Caesar's conquest of Gaul opened the way for the free penetration of Greco-Roman culture deep into the European continent.

But here the refined Roman culture entered into a long and dangerous war with the barbaric Germans, which ended with the fall of Rome.



The historical region of Europe between the Po River and the Alps (Cisalpine Gaul) and between the Alps, the Mediterranean Sea, the Pyrenees and the Atlantic Ocean (Transalpine Gaul). From the 6th century. BC. was inhabited by Gauls (part of the Celts). At the end of the 2nd century. Romans ... Historical Dictionary

- (Gallia). A country inhabited by Gauls or Celts. It included present-day France, in antiquity called Transalpine Gaul, and northern Italy, in antiquity Cisalpine Gaul. (Source: "A Brief Dictionary of Mythology and Antiquities." M. Korsh ... Encyclopedia of mythology

- (lat. Gallia) in ancient times the area that occupied the territory between the river. Po and Alps (Cisalpine Gaul) and between the Alps, Mediterranean m., Pyrenees, Atlantic approx. (Transalpine Gaul). From the 6th century. BC e. inhabited by the Celts (who received from the Romans ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (lat.Gallia). The ancient name of France. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. GALLIA lat. Gallia. The ancient name of France. An explanation of the 25,000 foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language, with ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Noun., Number of synonyms: 2 asteroid (579) France (6) ASIS synonym dictionary. V.N. Trishin. 2013 ... Synonym dictionary

Gaul - (Gaul), as the Romans called the vast region. by 3. Europe, inhabited by Celts (Gauls). The Gauls invaded North. Italy in the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. In 222 BC. ter. to the south of the Alps, Rome was proclaimed. prov. Tsisalpinskaya G. The Rubicon River separated it from ... The World History

- (lat. Gallia), in ancient times the area that occupied the territory between the river. Po and Alps (Cisalpine Gaul) and between the Alps, Mediterranean Sea, Pyrenees, Atlantic Ocean (Transalpine Gaul). From the VI century. BC e. inhabited by Celts (who received ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

- (lat. Gallia) historical region of Europe, which included the territory between the river. Po and Alps (Cisalpine G. Gallia Cisalpina) and between the Alps, Mediterranean Sea, Pyrenees, Atlantic Ocean. (Transalpine G. Gallia Transalpina) ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

East region of Europe between the r. Po and Alps (Cisalpine G. Gallia Cisalpina) and between the Alps, Mediterranean m., Pyrenees, Atlantich. OK. (Transalpine G. Gallia Transalpina). Inhabited since the 6th century. BC e. Gauls (a branch of the Celts), mixed in South ... Soviet Historical Encyclopedia

The Romans named two regions by the name of Gallia: I) northern Italy, enclosed between the Alps, Macro, Apennines and Rubicon, and II) a country bounded by the Mediterranean Sea, Pyrenees, Atlantic Ocean, English Channel, Rhine and Alps. First ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

Books

• Gallium Nitride Electronics, R. Quay. The analytical review presented in the book covers over 1750 works devoted to III-N semiconductors, which are used to create transistors and electronic devices for large ...
• Technology for growing gallium nitride crystals, Erentraut D., Meissner E., Bokovski M. (ed.). The book is the first detailed review of advanced technology for growing gallium nitride crystals. The analysis of the possibilities of long-term and short-term use of volumetric ...

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Roman Gaul was created by the Roman state apparatus after the major conquests of the Roman general Julius Caesar during the Gallic War.

Feitscherg, GNU 1.2

In the south, it bordered with Spain, in the southeast - with Italy, in the east - with Germany.

From the north of the Celtic tribes unconquered by the Romans, Roman Gaul was defended by Britain. After the Romans left Britain around 406, the borders of Gaul began to be subject to invasions by Germanic tribes.

Gaul was named after one of the largest Celtic tribes (Gauls), who inhabited a vast region before and partly after its conquest by Rome.

Julmin, CC BY-SA 3.0

In the folk etymology of the Romance peoples, the word was associated with the Latin "gallus" (rooster), which became the national symbol of Gaul, and then the modern Republic of France, which includes most of the territory of the former Roman Gaul and is in fact its cultural and linguistic successor.

Gaul in the Roman era

Before the Roman conquest, Gaul was an indistinct geographic area inhabited by scattered Celtic tribes in the stage of a communal system.

After the Roman conquest, the intensified (although not fully completed due to its large size) centralization of Gaul began, as well as its intensive colonization by Roman settlers from Italy.

Mistersasou, CC BY-SA 3.0

The entire province (and not just the Massilia / Marseille region) was actively involved in trade with the Mediterranean region, commodity-money relations were developed, a network of roads was built, connecting the outskirts of the province with major cities and Rome.

Unlike the Celts, the Romans erected urban settlements at the intersection of trade routes, which eventually reached considerable sizes.

The cities had streets, buildings, aqueducts and amphitheaters. Ancient Lugdunum (modern Lyon) became the capital of Gaul.

Administrative division

Despite the fact that under the Romans Gaul first received formal political and administrative unity, economic and social differences between its regions persisted.

They were largely due to differences in topography and climate. The Roman government was well aware of this, dividing Roman Gaul into several units of a smaller administrative order.

Fæ, CC BY-SA 3.0

By the way, the word "Gaul" in the early Roman state meant two territories inhabited by Celts: Cisalpine Gaul and Transalpine Gaul.

Cisalpine Gaul was located in the north of Italy (the present Padan lowland and the southern foothills of the Alps), from which the Celts were driven out early, and the lands were inhabited by the Romans and Italics.

Cisalpine Gaul eventually became an integral part of Italy, although its Romance dialects retained an affinity with the Transalpine due to a common Celtic substrate.

Romanization

Transalpine Gaul, that is, located behind the Alps, approximately coincided with present-day France.

Ancient Romanization began beyond the Alps, but much later. The Romanization process began in the south of the country, moving up the valley of the Rhone River, and then affected more northern regions (Wallonia).

Sculpture "Roman wedding Ad Meskens, GNU 1.2 "

Nevertheless, the powerful Celtic substratum in Gaul remained for quite a long time. Even centuries after the Roman conquest, Gauls constituted the vast majority of the rural population in the center and north of the country.

Only in large cities and on the southern coast did many hereditary Romans live. Mixed families (Romans, Celts, Greeks, etc.) also spread.

But even at the end of the 3rd century, Celtic settlements remained in the vicinity of Lyon, where it was impossible to communicate without an interpreter.

Benoît Prieur, CC BY-SA 3.0

And yet, after the edict of Emperor Caracalla in 212, all residents of the empire, including Gaul, received Roman citizenship, regardless of nationality.

This accelerated the transition to Latin, which, moreover, in contrast to the Celtic languages, had a well-developed written language.

Over time, the descendants of the Gauls not only began to call themselves Romans, but also lost their language, completely switching to vulgar Latin.

By the end of the Roman period, Gaul had an estimated 10 to 12 million inhabitants, most of whom were Gallo-Romans, professing Christianity and speaking Latin.

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gaul

GALLIA (lat. Gallia) in ancient times, the area that occupied the territory between the river. Po and Alps (Cisalpine Gaul) and between the Alps, Mediterranean m., Pyrenees, Atlantic approx. (Transalpine Gaul). From the 6th century. BC e. inhabited by the Celts (who received the name "Gauls" from the Romans). OK. 220 BC e. the territory of Cisalpine Gaul was subordinated to the Romans and turned into a Roman province, in 58-51 BC. e. Caesar conquered the territory of Transalpine Gaul and in 16 BC. e. divided into 4 Roman provinces (Narbonne Gaul, Lugdun Gaul, Aquitaine and Belgica). From the beginning. 5 c. n. e. the territory of Gaul was conquered by the Germanic tribes and entered the end. 5 c. to the Frankish state.

Gaul

(lat. Gallia), the historical region of Europe, which included the territory between the r. Po and Alps (Cisalpine G. ≈ Gallia Cisalpina) and between the Alps, the Mediterranean Sea, the Pyrenees, and the Atlantic Ocean. (Transalpine G. ≈ Gallia Transalpina) is the territory of modern Northern Italy, France, Luxembourg, Belgium, part of the Netherlands, and part of Switzerland. The territory of Georgia since the 6th century BC e. was inhabited by the Celts, whom the Romans called Gauls (hence the name "Gaul"). Around 220 BC e. territory between r. The Po and the Alps were conquered by the Romans, turned into a province of Cisalpine Georgia with the main city of Mediolan (Milan), and divided into Cispadan Georgia and Transpadan Georgia. Under Caesar (mid-1st century BC), the population of Cisalpine Georgia received rights Roman citizenship, it became part of Italy, although it retained its former name. In the 20s. 2 c. BC e. the Romans began a war with the tribes of southern Georgia, which ended in the formation of about 120 BC. e. on the territory of modern Provence, the Roman province with the center of Narbo-Marcius (Narbonne). In 58-51 BC. e. under Julius Caesar, the rest of Germany was conquered. e. under Augustus, Transalpine Georgia was divided into four provinces: Narbonne G., Lugdun G., Aquitaine, and Belgica. The severity of Roman taxes and the cruelty of usurers repeatedly provoked uprisings of local tribes (52-51, 12 BC, 21 AD, the largest of which was the uprising of Civilis in 69-70). The spread of Roman forms of economy strengthened the economy of Georgia. In the late 1st and 2nd centuries. the number of slave-owning villas is multiplying, large cities are growing: Narbo-Martius (Narbonne), Lugdunum (Lyon), Nemausus (Nîmes), Arelat (Arles), Burdigala (Bordeaux): agriculture, metallurgy, ceramics and textile production, external and domestic trade. However, the economic recovery based on the exploitation of slaves and colonies was short-lived. Already from the beginning of the 3rd century. there is a decline in handicrafts and trade, impoverishment of cities, accompanied by the growth of large landownership and the enslavement of the peasants converted into columns. By the middle of the 3rd century. the crisis is aggravated by the increasing onslaught of Germanic tribes on Georgia. In 258, amid the difficult external and internal situation of the Roman Empire, Germany, as well as Britain and Spain, separated from Rome and created their own empire headed by Postumus (ruled 258-268). The Gallic Empire lasted 15 years. Its last ruler, Tetrik (270-273), being unable to cope with the soldiers' revolts and the outbreak of the Bagaud revolt, surrendered to the Emperor Aurelian, and G. was reunited with the Roman Empire. In the 4th century. the territory of Georgia was divided into 17 provinces, which became part of the Gaulish and Viennese dioceses. As a result of the barbarian invasions of Germany on the Rhine in 406, the so-called. the barbarian state of the Burgundians, in 418 the Visigoths received part of Aquitaine from Rome as federates. From that time on, the Germans seized one part of Georgia after another. The conquest of Georgia was completed by the Frankish king Clovis, who in 486 annexed territories to the north from the r. Loire.

Lit .: Shtaerman EM, Ancient Gaul, "Bulletin of ancient history", 1951, 1; GuIIian C., Histoire de la Gaule, t. 1-8, P., 1907-26; Chilver G. E. F., Cisalpine Gaul. Social and economic history from 49 V.S. to the death of Trajan, Oxf., 1941; Grenier A., \u200b\u200bLa Gaule Romaine. B book: An economic survey of Ancient Rome, t. 3, Baltimore, 1957, p. 381-644: Breuer I., La Belgique Romaine, Bruxelles; Staehelin F., Die Schweiz in römischer Zeit, 3 Aufl., Basel, 1948.

E. M. Shtaerman.

Wikipedia

Gaul

Gaul - the Roman name of the historical part of Europe, limited by the bed of the Rubicon River, the Apennines, the bed of the Makra River (, the modern name Magra), the Mediterranean coast, the Pyrenees, the Atlantic Ocean, the Rhine riverbed and the Alps.

By the time Gaul was first mentioned in Roman written sources, most of its territory was inhabited by various Celtic tribes, which the Romans collectively called "Gauls", which served as the basis for choosing the name of the corresponding lands.

Gaul (County, Ohio)

Gaul County located in Ohio, USA. Formally formed on March 25, 1803. As of 2010, the population was 30,934.

Gaul (disambiguation)

Gaul:

• Gaul is the Roman name for the historical part of Europe
• Gaul - prefecture in the late Roman Empire
• Gaul is a county in Ohio, USA
• (148) Gaul - an asteroid

Examples of the use of the word gallium in literature.

Emperor Maximus appointed Avit chief of cavalry and infantry in Gaul.

Allowing the soldiers to restore their strength, Spartacus, twenty-five days after the battle of Nursia, moved from there to the Apennines and, crossing them, again headed through the area of \u200b\u200bpizzas to the area of \u200b\u200bthe Sennones, intending to walk along the Emilian road to Pad and, crossing the river, penetrate into Gaul.

Thus, the Vandals began to rule in Africa, the Alans and Visigoths in Spain, and the Franks and Burgundians not only captured Gaul, but gave their own name to the areas they occupied, which began to be called France and Burgundy.

In my home Gaul there is such a tribe - allobrogi, they live in the south-west direction from my lexovies.

Lee was pleased: long wanderings in the computer universe of silicon and arsenide gaulare not wasted.

And when the girl switched to microcircuits, she also needed chemistry to understand the compounds of silicon and arsenide. gaul.

I will hardly be able to grow even an ordinary candy from creamy condensed milk, not to mention the molecular scheme from arsenide crystals gaul.

The next three days, they still had to work hard, because, in addition to replacing damaged cells of solar batteries - square, ten by ten meters of sheets of film coated with arsenide gaul- it was still necessary to prepare the station for the next conservation.

Macaulay, but the modern descendants of this beacon of science, in all likelihood, will be able to tell us that, according to the testimony of Julius Caesar, all Gaul was divided into three parts, one of which was inhabited by the Belgae, the other by the Aquitans, and the third by the people who called themselves the Celts, whom the Romans called the Gauls.

To Lucius Hyberius, he sent two closest royal advisers, namely Boson of Bull's Brod and Guerin Carnot, as well as Valvania, his nephew, so that they notify the Roman emperor that he either left the borders Gaul, or already tomorrow he went to the battlefield in order to test in practice which of them has a greater right to Gaul.

According to Proculus and Titian, a decisive battle should have been fought while the army was full of vigor after a recent victory, and not sit back, dulling the edge of their strength, and not wait for Vitellius to appear from Gaul your own special.

At its perihelion, Halley's comet passes twenty-two million leagues from the Sun, that is, even closer to it than Venus - the same, apparently, happened with Gallium.

The people welcomed the winner Gaul - Constance, and in all churches the elders, bishops, patriarchs served molebens, asking for long life and health to the emperor, thanking God for the victories over the barbarians, bestowed on Constantius.

The little Syrian soldier, Strombicus, the one who participated in the campaign of Caesar Julian against the northern barbarians, was especially eloquent. Gaul.

These are primarily scattering elements - lithium, iodine, bromine, gallium, indium, scandium, yttrium, cesium and rubidium, and then, of course, radioactive elements.

Gaul is believed to have been renamed France in 486 when it was conquered by the Franks under Clovis. Rather, Gaul occupied a slightly larger territory than modern France.

Gaul (Latin Gallia) was a historical region of Western Europe during the Iron Age, inhabited by Celtic tribes, including modern France, Luxembourg, Belgium, most of Switzerland, parts of northern Italy, and parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine. "

This is what it looked like:

Gaul before the Roman conquest.

Gaul in the 10th century

However, Richer de Reims lived in the 10th century (Richer de Reims - 940-988), who wrote the book "History in four books" (Latin Historiarum Libri IIII), in which he allegedly describes the political life of France in the 2nd half of the X th century. This book was discovered in 1833 by the German historian Georg Heinrich Peretz in the Bamberg library and published in the same year, but for some reason in the original language - Latin.

And although it is very difficult to read it, nevertheless by means of digital search it is possible to determine that the word "France" is not mentioned in the book at all. While the word "Gaul" occurs very often in the book. Franconia is mentioned there. Now it is:

"A historical region in southeastern Germany, which now contains the three administrative regions of the federal state of Bavaria, namely: Lower Franconia (Unterfranken), Middle Franconia (Mittelfranken) and Upper Franconia (Oberfranken)"

In this book, Richer Reimski gives his own interpretation of the name "Gaul":

"Its name comes from whiteness, because those who were its original inhabitants have very white skin."

It is believed that "Gaul" comes from the Greek word "γάλα" - milk. Hence the GALAXY - the Milky Way? I already doubt that any old names come from the Greek language, because the Greek language itself is not so ancient. I wrote about this in more detail in the article "Etruscans, Celts and Gauls - one people." Here is a quote from there:

“The origins of most alphabetic writing systems can be traced back to the Phoenician alphabet, including Greek, Etruscan, Latin, Arabic and Hebrew, as well as manuscripts from India and East Asia.

The Latin, or Roman, alphabet was originally adapted from the Etruscan alphabet in the 7th century BC for writing Latin. Since then, it has taken on many different forms and has been adapted to write many other languages. "

About the 7th century BC I really doubt. Most likely, this happened closer to our time, about 2000 years. But there is also a version that the word "Gaul" is of Celtic origin:

“We do not know with certainty the etymology of the Latin term Gallia, but it could have been borrowed from the Celtic language. Perhaps it is the type of galiā, the root "gal", which was supposed to denote strength, a term recovered from the old Irish "gal" (fury warrior), also the Welsh root "gallu" - strength, Breton "galloud" - the same meaning. So "galli" means "strong", "powerful" or "angry."

The root gal- or gali- will also be in the origin of the French words jaillir (to sprinkle; splash; pour (about sparks); gush; pour in a stream) and gaillard (hero, man, cheerful; alive; strong; healthy; free; brave; dashing ; brave)

Kimry and Cimmeria

Let's digress a little into the Welsh language.

“Welsh, also Welsh or Kimri; self-name: Cymraeg, belongs to the British group of Celtic languages; distributed in the western part of Britain - Wales (Wall. Cymru). The most widespread Celtic language today. "

Those. in Welsh, Wales is called Kimry. And this is his flag:

“The flag of Wales features a red dragon (Wall Y Ddraig Goch) on a white and green background. Legally passed in 1959, although the red dragon has been a symbol of Wales since time immemorial (according to popular belief, Roman), it is associated with the hero of medieval legends, King Arthur.

In the Middle Ages (under the Tudor dynasty), white and green are also associated with Wales.

Does it look like the flag of Tartary?

In Finnish, the name of the Welsh language is spelled "Kymri", and in Komi it is spelled Kӧmri. Finnish and Komi languages \u200b\u200bare generally very similar to each other. In any case, these peoples understand each other without an interpreter.

And obviously, they are close to the Celtic language of Kimry (Wales). Because he has a Wikipedia page in the Komi language, with a description of the alphabet, numerals, and even a translation into Welsh of the poem "Zapovit" by the Ukrainian poet Taras Grigorievich Shevchenko:

“As I die, bury my dear in Ukraine,
Dig a grave in the middle of the wide steppe,
To lie to me on the mound, over the mighty river,
To hear the old Dnieper raging under the steep.
And when from the fields of Ukraine the blood of hateful enemies
He will carry it ... then I will rise from the grave -
I will rise and reach God's doorstep
I will pray ... And as long as I do not know God.

Bury and get up, break the chains

Sprinkle your will with evil enemy blood.

And me in a great family, in a free, new family,

Do not forget - remember with a kind, quiet word. "

Why were these particular verses translated into Welsh-Celtic-Kimri? In Russia, in the Tver region there is the city of Kimry. And this is the flag of this city:

One flag also reminds me a lot: with a blue sky and a yellow wheat field. And this is not the last coincidence. Another name, Cimmeria, has something in common with the Kimrs:

“Cimmeria - in ancient historiography, the name of the northern regions of the then well-known Oycumene, in particular, the territories of the Northern Black Sea and Azov regions (modern Crimean peninsula, southern regions of Russia, Rostov region and Krasnodar region of Russia. in particular in the Odyssey, Homer describes these lands as follows:

There is the city of the people of the Cimmerian men, Eternally covered with fog and clouds: the bright sun There will never shine with its rays or light "

Not the ancient Greeks, but modern scientists vaguely imagine where Cimmeria was. But here is how the French historian and scientific writer Delisle de Salle, 1770, depicts Cimmeria:

Fragment of the "Map of the voyage of the Argonauts of the Primeval world according to the" Timaeus "of Plato, Hecateus, Apollonius and Onomacritus, provided for the history of Greece."

On his map, Cimmeria goes partially beyond the Arctic Circle, as it is written on the map "Peuple privé du jour" (people with a lack of light, without light, living at dusk). More about that in the article "The world after the medieval flood". By the way, the city of Kimry is now located approximately in the middle of this large island called Cimmeria-Scythia. This can be seen on this map, taken from the article "First Babylon"

Kimry is located 125 km north of Moscow in a straight line. A very beautiful city, by the way, judging by the photographs presented on the Internet.

And then, probably, the Cimmerians moved to the Azov region and the Black Sea region. Or vice versa? Considering that it was these areas that were flooded for a certain period of time. This is what the article above says. And for a long time, the entire southern territory of Ukraine up to Central Ukraine was a wasteland - "Wild Field".

In this regard, Shevchenko's poem "Testament" is perceived differently, who asks to bury him after his death in sweet Ukraine ...

In Spanish, Portuguese, the Welsh language is called "gales", in Romanian - "galeză", in French - "gallois". Again the connection: Gauls-Celts-Cimmerians? Homer's description: " There is a city of the people of the Cimmerian men, eternally covered with fog and clouds: the bright sun there will never shine with its rays or light ",by the way, it also approaches the white foggy Albion.

“Albion” is closely related to the name of Scotland in Celtic languages: Alba in Scottish Gaelic, Albain (genitive - Alban) in Irish, Nalbin in Manx, and Alban in Welsh, Cornish and Breton. These names were later Latinized as Albania and Anglicized as Albany, which were once alternative names for Scotland. "

I already wrote about the white Alvas-Albania in the article "Etruscans, Celts and Gauls - one people." By the way, “milk” in Albanian is “qumësht”, kumis, in other words. Is the circle closed again?

Wallachs or Vlachs and Getae-Huns - Cossacks

Returning to Gaul itself. Rather, to the origin of its name. In addition to the Greek and Celtic versions of the origin of this word, there is also a Germanic one:

“At the present time there is a strong opinion that the French word“ Gaul ”(fr. Gaule) came into the language not from Latin, but from the Germanic dialect. According to one version, the word goes back to the ancient Germanic word "walha" (plural from walh), which can be translated as "foreigner" and by which the Germans denoted peoples speaking non-Germanic languages \u200b\u200b(that is, Celts and Romans equally) ...

The basis for such conclusions is that when French borrowed words of Germanic origin, the letter "w" began to be pronounced as "g" (for example, "war": German werra \u003d\u003e French guerre), and the letter combination "al" before consonants, usually transforms into a diphthong "au" (eg, "horse": French cheval plural chevaux). "

This change from C to G explains why Welsh sounds like Gallic in French. In English Welsh - Welsh. Welsh-valh-gall. The 1900 edition of the Universal Russian Encyclopedia explains the same word as "foreigner", "foreigner":

Czechs and Poles called Italians Vlachs. Russians, South Slavs, Greeks and Turks are Romanians. In Croatia, Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Vlachs are people who use the Orthodox religion as opposed to Catholics. In Serbia, Croatia and Dalmatia, shepherds were called Vlachs, unlike farmers.

Has something cleared up, or even more confused? Valh-gall is a foreigner or another, not so different from ours. But in the same encyclopedia, further about the Volokhs it is said that they are the Vlachs, Vlachs, Magi, Moldavians (and do not forget that they are the Welsh - Celts and Gauls):

“In the XII century. part of the present Bessarabia and Moldavia, where the Pechenegs and Polovtsians also lived between the Volokhs, was subject to the Galician princes. With the fall of the Galician principality (1340). Moldavia went to the Tatars, who ruined cities and villages and turned the country into a sad steppe; but soon the Tatars were driven out by Louis of Hungary, and in their place came the Volokhs from Hungary, led by the Maramuretian voivode Dragos, settled on the Moldava River and founded an independent principality - Moldavia. Until the 17th century, the Slavic language was here not only ecclesiastical, but also judicial. "

In confirmation, the prayer "Our Father" in Moldavian, written in Latin letters from the book "Pantographia; containing exact copies of all known alphabets in the world ”, published in 1799:

We have already found out earlier that the Dacians, Tuxedos, Trojans were Slavs. Geth too. For instance:

"F.M.Apendini proves that the ancient Thracians, Macedonians, Illyrians, Scythians, Getae, Dacians, Sarmatians, Celto-Scythians spoke the same Slavic language." Vinogradov "Ancient Vedic Russia - the basis of Being".

They are Massagets, they are Cossacks. And they are Unny-Huns:

“Further we meet among the Greeks under the name of the Massagets of the Trans-Volga Scythians, taken by the Greeks for Tirasgetes on Tiras or Dnieper, Getae on Tanais or Don, etc. That's when we find the Don Getae or Don Cossacks. We learn from Greek sources that the Etruscans were formerly called Tetai Russi.

Here, undoubtedly, the Russian Getae are indicated - the Cossacks, about whom Stephen of Byzantium and Titus Livy (Roman historian 59 BC-17 AD) speaks of as pure Slavs who, during their migration from Italy to Greece, preserved their generic Slavic language.

The Getae of Northern Europe were called Unns. This is evidenced by the preserved names of two rivers of Unna, Lake Unno, Unsky Bay, Unnskaya Bay in the present Arkhangelsk province. The Scandinavian legends about the wars of the Scandinavians with the Uns and the Rus, their constant allies, testify to the presence of the Unns. " From the same place.

It turns out that now in Moldova and Romania live completely different people, not those who lived in the times described here? Although this has already been written and said, including by AA Klesov, a biochemist and author of "DNA Genealogy". But he believes that this replacement of peoples occurred as a result of internecine wars.

And I think that it is quite possible - as a result of a catastrophe, with subsequent epidemics and pestilences, which I described in the article "Catastrophe", as a result of which, according to inaccurate data, up to 90% of the then population of the planet died. It was then that the settlement of the deserted territories by other peoples, who naturally did not remember anything (or rather, did not know) about those who lived in these places before, could well have occurred. True, where did these other peoples come from is also a big question?

Two Galicia: Spanish and Ukrainian

About the Galician principality or Galicia mentioned here. There were two Galicia: one in Spain, the other in Eastern Europe (now roughly corresponds to the territory of modern Ivano-Frankivsk, Lviv and most of the Ternopil regions of Ukraine and the south of the Subcarpathian Voivodeship of Poland). To somehow distinguish them, Russian-language sources called Spanish Galicia Galicia, although in other languages \u200b\u200bthey are spelled the same: Galicia and Galicia.

The version of the origin of the name of Spanish Galicia:

“The name Galicia comes from the Latin toponym Callaecia, later Gallaecia, associated with the name of an ancient Celtic tribe that lived north of the Duero River.

The etymology of the name has been studied since the 7th century by authors such as Isidore of Seville, who wrote that "Galicians are called so because of their fair skin, like the Gauls", associating the name with the Greek word for milk.

The most recent proposal comes from linguist Francesco Benozzo after defining the root gall- / kall- in a number of Celtic words meaning “rock” or “rock”, namely Gaul (Old Irish), Gal (Middle Welsh), gailleichan (Scottish Gaelic) , kailhoù (Breton), galagh (Manx) and gall (Gaulish). Consequently, Benozzo explains the ethnonym Callaeci as "stone people" or "people of stone" ("those who work with stone") in relation to the builders of the ancient megaliths and stone formations so common in Galicia. "

The version of the origin of the name of Ukrainian Galicia:

“According to one version, the name is associated with the ethnonym Galatians, which belonged to the Celtic tribes of the Danube region of the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC e.

According to another version, it comes from the Greek word "galis" (ancient Greek ἅλς - salt). This name was found in Byzantine sources. Indeed, since ancient times, salt has been mined in this region, in the most ancient way - by evaporation of brine. Salt production is mentioned in ancient Russian chronicles, on the coats of arms of some cities in the region (in particular, in the coat of arms of the city of Drohobych) salt furnaces are depicted.

Also, the possible initial meaning is “the area around the city of Galich”.

It turns out that Gaul came from Greek milk, and Galicia - from Greek salt. Both are white, so the difference is really not very big. And about the origin of the name "Galicia" from English-language sources:

“The Ukrainian name Galich (Halicz in Polish, Galich in Russian, Galic in Latin) comes from Khwalis or Kaliz, which have occupied the region since the Magyar times. They were also called Khalisa in Greek and Khvalis (in Ukrainian). Some historians have speculated that the name was associated with a group of people of Thracian origin (that is, the Getae) who, during the Iron Age, moved to the area after the Roman conquest of Dacia in 106 AD. and possibly formed Lipica ..

The Celtic connection supposedly explains the connection between the name "Galicia" and many similar names of places found in Europe and Asia Minor, such as ancient Gaul (modern France, Belgium and northern Italy), Galatia (in modern Turkish. Asia Minor) , Galicia in the Iberian Peninsula and Romanian Galati.

Some other scholars argue that the name Galich is of Slavic origin - from khalyts, which means "bare (without forest) hill", or from khalki, which means "jackdaw". (The jackdaw is depicted on the city's coat of arms, and later also on the coat of arms of Galicia-Lodomeria. The name, however, precedes the coat of arms, which may represent a simple folk etymology.)

Those. the basis of the versions of the origin of the name remains the involvement with the Celts. The jackdaw appeared in the coat of arms later than the name, so she clearly could not influence it. But it is present not only on the coat of arms of Galicia, but also on the coats of arms of some French and Spanish provinces.

And also a jackdaw is very similar to a raven or a raven, which are present on the coats of arms of many European countries. Actually, here is a map of the countries in whose arms there is a crow-jackdaw:

Allegory of the schism of "France" or Gaul in the 17th century

The description of this scene in the book:

“The fifth scene represented how France was once again properly justified and healed, and how confidently the French Hercules (Henry IV, then Louis XIII - approx. Mine) held the state ball on his strong shoulders.

For when he came to power, stopped the war, strife, removed all wrong from his path, with amazing diplomacy and mercy to his sworn enemies, restored friendship with his neighbors, achieved peace, helped to establish justice on the throne and satisfied the entire Christian world.

Louis XIII, heir to his father's valor and glory, following in his footsteps, behaves like a descendant of such a great ancestor, and supported by God's grace with his strong shoulders, like the second Hercules, supports the state ball with his strength, wisdom and prudence both in peace and in war. "

"Gaia" is also consonant with the name of the Earth "Gaia":

“The Greek word Γαῖα (Gaĩa) is the common form of the Attic Γῆ (Gê) and the Doric Γᾶ (Gã) for" Earth. " The origin of the word is unknown, it may have pre-Indo-European roots "

Perhaps "Gaul" and "Gaia" have the same origin? And the representation meant the globe? Or the placement of the inscription was grotesque - "the globe of the French Empire", as it is written about in the book. In the text of the book itself, not a word is said about Gaul, it is about France.

In Dutch, this word was written "Vranckrijck", i.e. with the word "Gallia" not to be confused. Or was France still called Gaul in the 17th century? Other facts also indirectly indicate this.

Gallomania and gallophobia

In the 18th century, everything French was popular in Russia. But for some reason it was called not Frenchmania, but Gallomania. Here is what the Universal Russian Encyclopedia writes about it (excerpts):

“Gallomania and gallophobia. Elizabeth's reign was particularly favorable to Gallomania. Just like the English court of Charles II, the courts of the German princes of the 18th century. were reproductions of the court of the "king of the sun", and we had a desire to assimilate the French way of life, with its brilliant court, luxury of dwellings and fashions, etc.

The reign of Catherine II gave an extra impetus to Gallomania, complicating it with the ideological imitation of the West. A number of attempts have been made to implant Western enlightenment in our country.

In 1767, Catherine established a special “translation department” to translate the best foreign books. A private initiative took up the same business. In addition to adventure novels and oriental news, “philosophical” novels and some scientific works of French philosophers appeared on the book market.

Russian trips abroad have become more frequent. The government resumed the old practice of Peter the Great, began to send young people abroad, which gave them the opportunity to get even closer to Western science and educational philosophy.

At the same time, a purely external gallomania was preserved. Lush courtyard, light morals, ugly "secular" education, etc., everything was the same.

Imitation of Western forms of social life at first aroused vigorous protests against itself on the part of those social groups that were still closely connected with the previous period of our history by the whole system of life.

Patriotic protest against foreign innovations became a constant mood among a significant part of society: only its forms changed. Dissatisfied with the Peter's reforms became complicated or completely turned into gallophobia of the time of Elizabeth. The ideological Gallomania of the second half of the century broadened the horizons of the Hallophobes, drawing their attention to Voltaireanism and "perverse ideas".

In the mid-1980s, a campaign against the Western enlightenment itself began. The movement opened with an attack on the free-thinking of clerics and masons. Several foreign political writings have also been translated. The French Revolution added fuel to the fire. The ideological Gallomania was dealt a cruel blow.

In 1812, patriotic enthusiasm and hatred of the foreign reached a climax. But this struggle, for all its fierceness, has borne very little fruit.

That "the fashion for the French" was strong back in the 1920s, can be seen from the famous monologue of Chatsky: "Frenchie from Bordeaux, pulling on his chest." Obviously, the time was not yet for the independent development of higher forms of life: this required more advanced civil forms of the social system. Russian society, in its search for greater freedom and sophistication of social relations, had to "learn" for the time being. A new time has come only after the civil reforms of the 1960s.

See Afanasyev, "Traits of Russian Mores in the 18th Century." (Rus. Vesti., 1857); Borodin, Gallophobia in Russian literature of the last century (Observer, 1887, v. 10-11); Belozerskaya, Influence of the translated novel and Western civilization on Russian society in the 18th century. (Rus. Old., 1895.1); Russian freethinkers during the reign of Catherine II (R. Star., Vol. IX); Galakhov, History of Rus. literature, vol. I, part 2, and vol. II: Tikhonravov, Gr. 0. V. Rostopchin and Literature, 12 Years (Works, vol. III — 1, Moscow, 1898); his own, On the borrowings of Russian writers (Soch., vol. III-2, Moscow, 1898); 10. Veselovsky, Literary essays (articles on the Principality and on the fight against bad education, M. 1900): Petukhov, On the main trends in Russian letters. XVIII and 1st quarter of the XIX century. (Yuriev, 1895); Pyatkovsky, From the history of our literary and societies, development, vol. II (St. Petersburg. 1876); Pynin, The Social Movement under Alexander (1885); his, History p. ethnography, vol. I (1890); Characteristics of Literary Opinions (1900); and History of Rus. letter. III-IV '(1899); Skabichevsky, Essays on East. R. censorship (1892). "

There are other concepts associated with "Gaul". For instance:

“Gallicism, expression or turn of speech, peculiar exclusively to the French language. For example: "I'm glad to make your acquaintance" (je suis content de faire votre connaissanse) etc. "

Again the same question: why gallicism and not Francisism? If Gaul has ceased to exist for 1300 years? And in its place has a state called France been existing for 1300 years? Moreover, this is not at all about some ancient things and concepts, but about quite modern things of that time.

Gallic rooster

From the same encyclopedia:

So, the rooster, he's a Gaul. The Gallus rooster remained in Italian and Spanish (gallo), in Portuguese (galo). It looks like "rooster" is written in Latvian - gailis, in Albanian - gjel, in papiamento (the language of the population of the Antilles) -gai, almost like Gaia. An interesting description of the Gallic rooster is given in the Spanish Wikipedia:

“Suetonius, in his Life of the Twelve Caesars, made it clear that in Latin and French,“ rooster ”would be part of the term“ Gaul ”. In the early Middle Ages (12th century), enemies of France used this pun for ridicule, giving the impression that the French (especially their king Philip Augustus) were as proud as a pet.

Although he has existed as a symbolic figure in France since medieval times, it was only from the Renaissance that the rooster began to relate to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe French nation, which appears gradually. The image of Valois and the Bourbons is often accompanied by this animal, in addition to the engraving on coins. As a minor emblem, the rooster is present in the Louvre.

The rooster gained particular popularity during the French Revolution and the July Monarchy, where it was introduced by replacing the dynastic Fleur de Lys.

Thus, in the revolutionary period, we can find it on the coats of arms decorated with a Phrygian cap, on the seal of the first consul, and the allegory of the brotherhood often wears a cane crowned with a rooster.

Napoleon Bonaparte replaces the Republic with the Empire, and since then the eagle replaces the rooster, since under the emperor the rooster had no power, so it could not be an image of the empire.

After a period of eclipse, the Revolution of 1830 rehabilitated the image of the French rooster, and the Duke of Orleans, future Louis-Philippe I, would sign an order that the rooster should appear on all flags and buttons of the uniforms of the National Guard.

The Imperial Eagle reappeared with Napoleon III as a sign of the Empire's permanence. "

Rooster and eagle - as the personification of two opposing sides: the people and the nobility? The eagle fought the rooster until, in the end, he finally defeated him. But back in the 20th century, the image of a rooster was present on some French coins and postage stamps.

Phrygian cap and Gallic rooster on coins:

6 pound ecu, 1793 coin,

Also, the image of a rooster (perhaps not Gallic?) Was often used as the end of a spire or weather vane, and is still used today. And not only in France:

St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague.

We encounter puns not only in the combination "gall-rooster", but also in other combinations. For example: Slav - slave (Slave-slave), Scythian scythe / Lithuanian / mower (Scyth - scythe). Hence "Scythed chariot" can be read as "chariot with scythes" and "Scythian chariot".

Capture of Persian scythe chariots at the Battle of Gaugamel, André Castagna (1898-1899).

The Persians, by the way, are depicted in this picture in Scythian hats. She is Phrygian. What I wrote about in the article “Tartaria is Scythia. Part 6 "

Well, and one more "funny" combination known to all, tartarine - tartar. Tartar translates as "the greatest abyss", as well as: culinary sauce, minced meat, tartar, a hot-tempered person or a man of wild disposition and the enemy is too tough.

All these combinations, willingly or not, also create a relationship between the concepts of "Gauls", "Slavs", "Tartars" and "Scythians", as another addition to the already many available evidence.

For the design of the article, the image of the 1st scene from the allegory of the restoration of France by Henry IV after the collapse of France (or Gaul?) By Henry III, Caspar Barlaeus was used. 1638 year.

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