Iran history of the creation of the state is brief. Read online "History of Iran and Iranians. From the beginnings to the present day". State structure of Iran

Blessed memory
Alexandra Yurievich
Yakubovsky
dedicated to

Foreword

The history of Iran spans a vast chronological period. Science has information about the Iranian peoples, which date back to the 1st millennium BC.

During this time, the Iranian-speaking peoples came into contact with different states, with many languages, diverse cultures, but nevertheless created their own life - political, economic, cultural and literary, the study of the development of which is of outstanding interest.

Due to its geographic location, state organization, cultural development, Iran has played an important, sometimes leading role in the history of the countries of the Near and Middle East. Therefore, the events of his life were the most important events in the world history of his time.

In ancient times, Iran came into contact with Egypt, with Greece, at one time it assumed the functions of uniting a number of regions on the territory of Assyria, Babylon, Urartu, and Central Asia. After the conquests of Alexander the Great, Iran defended its independence in the fight against Rome and Byzantium and submitted to the Arabs in order to conquer them with its culture.

Iran was a place of interaction and struggle between the sedentary population and nomadic peoples, interaction and struggle, which played such an outstanding role in the history of the ancient and medieval East and in a peculiar way colored the development of social relations.

For millennia, caravan routes from the Chinese Empire to the shores of the Mediterranean flew through the regions inhabited by Iranian-speaking peoples. Therefore, their role in international trade and cultural exchange was extremely great.

The cultural role of Iran, significant in antiquity, was exceptionally great in the Middle Ages. In the era of feudalism, the culture of the Persians and the Persian literary language were no less important than the culture of classical Greece and the Greek language in antiquity. In accordance with this, this book provides general overviews of the development of Iranian culture in different periods. These reviews are necessarily brief, especially when describing the development of fiction: it was taken into account that there are special manuals in Russian on the history of Persian literature. More space is given to other branches of art, since there are no special manuals for them. The book also provides brief overviews of the development of ideological systems.

This book is the first experience of summarizing the well-known results achieved by Soviet Iranian studies on the basis of the Marxist-Leninist methodology. The book attempts to periodize the ancient and medieval history of Iran. Considerable attention is paid to the development of the country's productive forces and the state of its economy at different periods of history. However, a number of issues remain unresolved. In particular, the patterns of development and specificity of production relations in feudal society in Iran have been relatively little studied.

The book was prepared by a team of historians of the Eastern Faculty of the Leningrad Order of Lenin State University named after A.A.Zhdanov. Chapters I and II are written by Corr. USSR Academy of Sciences prof. N.V. Pigulevskoy, Chapter III and Section 9 of Chapter IV - Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences USSR Academy of Sciences prof. | A. Yu. Yakubovsky, § 1-6, 19 and 20 of chapter IV, § 2 of chapter V, chapters VI, VII, VIII and IX - prof. I.P. Petrushevsky, § 7, 8 and 16 of chapters IV, chapter V (except for § 2) - doc. L. V. Stroeva, § 10-15 and 17-18 chapters IV - Assoc. A. M. Belenitsky. 1

• 1 For technical reasons, the transcription of Arabic, Persian and other names and terms is transmitted approximately, without indicating the longitude and shortness of vowels in transcriptional signs.

Chapter I Slave Society in Iran

§ 1. Geographical location of Iran

From the earliest times the Iranian-speaking peoples occupied a vast green plateau, bounded in the east by the highest mountains of the Hindu-kush, in the west and south-west by the Request mountain system. The Suleiman Mountains separate it from the Indus River basin. In the south it is washed by the Persian Gulf of the Indian Ocean. In the north, the Elburs ridge and the Caspian Sea were the border of the ancient and medieval state of Iran, but by no means the border of the peoples who spoke Iranian languages. The areas between speech and Asia Minor were the subject of the claims of the Persian state in antiquity.

The harsh climate of the Iranian plateau, with intolerable heat in summer and cold in winter, softens somewhat in its lower parts, where agriculture was possible along river valleys. In the steppes, cattle breeding was widely carried out, which was of a nomadic nature, and in the oases, it was sedentary, both in the west and in the east. In summer, cattle were driven to high-altitude pastures, in winter they were kept in valleys. Both cattle and small ruminants were bred, as well as horses. Hunting in the steppe and forest areas played a significant role. The Iranian plateau is rich in minerals - copper, silver and iron ore, oil, precious gems and building stone.

Iran is one of the oldest agricultural centers in the world. Archaeological excavations of the last three decades prove the high level of the agricultural culture of Iran already in the fourth millennium BC. During the excavations, grains of wheat and barley from five to six thousand years ago were found. Most of the cultivated plants of the Mediterranean Sea, Western and Central Asia, known to us now, were cultivated in Iran already in the first millennium BC. Among them are peach, apricot, wine berry, pomegranate, pear, grapevine and date palm. In the southwest, in the valley of the Karun River, an olive tree was planted. Under the Sassanids, sugarcane, rice and other plants were cultivated.

Lack of precipitation and uneven distribution of water resources forced the inhabitants of the Iranian Highlands from ancient times to resort to artificial irrigation. At the beginning of our era, irrigation was used in Iran. For this purpose, river channels, mountain springs, wells and caries were used. Underground galleries for withdrawing underground waters (caries) to the surface were connected to the surface by lookout fellows who served for their periodic cleaning.

§ 2. Population of Iran

The tribes that inhabited the Iranian Highlands in ancient times belonged to the Iranian ethnic group, whose languages ​​belong to the eastern branch of the Indo-European languages. In some areas there lived a tribe of Na who spoke languages ​​of other linguistic groups (for example, in Elam, later Khuzistan). Attested in northern Baluchistan. the population of Dravidian origin, with a dark complexion. The most powerful Iranian tribes were the Medes, who gradually settled in northwestern Iran, and were located to the south of them. Persian tribes. Bactrian tribes lived in the northeast of the Iranian Highlands. The oases of Central Asia have been inhabited by Iranian-speaking tribes since ancient times.

The nomadic tribes made raids and incursions into the settlement area of ​​the sedentary tribes. These latter came into direct contact with the cultural states of Mesopotamia, in particular with Assyria. In the southern part, the Iranian tribes bordered on Elam and only later came into contact with Babylonia.

The social system of the Iranian tribes before the Persian conquest was based on the clan community (vis), at the head of which was the clan elder. The tribal community included a family, the head of which was the father. A group of clan communities made up a tribe (Zantu), which singled out a leader. The tribal unions formed larger public associations, attested to by the ancient sacred book of the Zoroastrian religion, the Avesta.

A well-known social stratification within the clan, the separation of the priesthood and clan nobility as the top of the rest of the members of the clan that made up the people, also dates back to this time. In addition, there were undoubtedly slaves, who were, however, few in number and mainly performed housework.

In ancient times, the tribes of Iran and India, which bore the common name of the Aryans. they also had a common language, their social structure, mythological legends are the same. Based on the Avesta, we can say that the Iranian tribes came from the east, from the regions of Central Asia. and invaded with their herds in the eastern regions of Iran on the mountains, and from there some of them, apparently, moved to the western part of the plateau, the other part moved southeast to settle in the valley of the river. Indus. The tribes that invaded the Iranian Highlands mingled. with the most ancient population conquered by him, and the land in which they settled was named the country of the Aryans - Ariana, in modern terms - Iran. Some researchers expressed the opinion that * the Aryan tribes moved from the north, across the Caucasian ridge, proof of which they considered the existence of the Iranian-speaking tribes in Ossetia. It is possible that some of the tribes did indeed move. this way, but the bulk invaded the Iranian plateau from the northeast.

§ 3. Sources on the ancient history of Iran

The ancient history of Iran has numerous and varied sources, among which should first of all include monuments of material culture that have survived from the Achaemenid era.

In ancient Iran, one can point to the existence of two related Iranian written languages: the language of the holy book of the Zoroastrian religion Avesta and the language of cuneiform inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings, also called ancient Persian.

Among the written sources, one should first of all note the Avesta, the oldest monument of the Aryan peoples, reflecting their life at the earliest stages of social development.

The information that was obtained from the cuneiform tablets of Assyria and then Babylon is of great value, especially since they provided both some historical information (for example, about the conquests of the Medes) and some economic information (for the time of Darius). From the period of the conquest of Egypt, hieroglyphic inscriptions of contemporaries of events have been preserved. Finally, ancient Persian historical inscriptions are of the greatest importance.

Some of them were compiled in two or even three languages, so that they could be understood by that conglomerate of peoples, which was the Persian state. The Behistun inscription should be considered the most significant of them. Discovered in 1802 by Grotefend, it still remains the subject of research. This inscription is located on a high rock, on the caravan road not far from Kermanshah. The image of the king is carved on the rock, accompanied by two persons holding his bow and spear. With his right foot, Darius tramples on the magician Gaumata, followed by nine rioters in one common chain, with their hands behind their backs; the last is the Scythian Skunkha wearing a pointed felt hat. The Behistun inscription is made in three languages: Babylonian, Elamite and Ancient Persian. Persian cuneiform has 38 characters that correspond to a consonant or syllable (consonant with a vowel). It also contains ideograms, that is, signs symbolizing a whole word, such as the ideogram of Ahuramazda. Thanks to the parallel texts of the Behistun inscription, it became possible to read it, and then to read other Persian cuneiform monuments.

The most valuable reports about the Persians and the description of the wars waged by the Greek city-states, Athens and Sparta, with the Persians, were left to us by Greek historians. The most remarkable surviving work of Herodotus of Halicarnassus (mid-5th century BC), who has earned the title of "father of history". Herodotus gave extremely valuable information about ancient Media and Persia, which he drew from official Persian sources, reports of the Persians and what was recorded by direct participants in the Greco-Persian wars. By his political convictions, Herodotus was a supporter of Athens and expressed their point of view. The work of Herodotus is of great value and contains information of exceptional significance for the history of Persia and neighboring countries, including the history of the regions of the southern Black Sea region inhabited by the Scythians. The information of the Greek historian Xenophon, a participant in the campaign of Cyrus the Younger (end of the 5th century BC), is also of great value. In his Anabasis, he reports on the retreat of 10,000 Greeks through the regions of northern Mesopotamia and Armenia. He mentions various areas of the Achaemeid state and gives geographical and ethnographic data about them.

Scattered information about Iran is also found in the works of a number of other Greek and Latin authors, among which a special place is occupied by the extensive geographical work of the Greek Strabo (1st century BC - beginning of our era), which described the regions of Iran. He reports data on the productive forces of the Iranian Highlands, the ethnic composition of the population, its social order and culture. No less valuable are the information of Isidore Kharaksky, who compiled in Greek the route of the punitive route from Syria to Central Asia through the Parthian state, and the famous Greek geographer Ptolemy (II century AD), whose works had a long and profound influence on geographical literature Arabs and Persians.

§ 4. Mussel

Assyrian monuments of the 9th century mention the Medes. BC e., who know them as scattered tribes that do not have a single state structure. By the middle of the VIII century. BEFORE "AD" (737 BC - the year of the campaign of the Assyrian king Tiglathpalassar III against the Medes), cuneiform inscriptions list a number of tribes that were located near the border of Assyria and constituted, as it were, its external environment. The most significant of these tribes were the "strong" or "mighty Medes". They lived in (the East, in a mountainous area, relatively remote from the borders of Asoiria, with a center in Bikni, northeast of present-day Tehran. At the head of the "strong Medes" \ in the 8th century BC there were numerous tribal leaders.

The Greek historian Herodotus (V ib. BC) knows six Median tribes that were united by the "first king" Deyoka, but there is no doubt that the process of unification began earlier.

Media took shape as a state in the vicinity of large ancient cultural states, such as Assyria and Urartu, and in the struggle against nomadic tribes that attacked it from the east.

The ancient state of Urartu, located in the southern spurs of the Caucasus Range, was a powerful rival of the Assyrian kings, and in 857 BC. NS. Shalmaneser II mentions the name of this state in the inscription. The cuneiform inscriptions of Urartu are made in the Urartian language. Urartology, a science developed by Soviet scientists, has now taken a prominent place among the branches of science about the ancient world.

The struggle between Urartu and Assyria was significant for the history of the Iranian peoples, since they inhabited the regions of Manna and Parsua, which belonged to the beginning of the 9th century. Urartu. End of the 9th century and the first polo of wine VIII v. BC NS. were filled with the wars of Assyria with Urartu, which were unsuccessful for the first. Under the Assyrian king Tiglathpalassar III(ruled in 746-727 BC) the Assyrian state was strengthened again. Successive campaigns of the Assyrians in VIII v. BC NS. in Manna and Parsua "weakened these Urartian regions significantly.

Squeezed between strong military states - Assyria and Urartu - Media was forced to fight for its independence.

Assyrian king Tiglathpalassar III in 744 and 735 BC NS. made campaigns to Media, which were crowned with success and made it possible to f [leave the Assyrian governor there and erect a temple to the Assyrian deities. In subsequent years, Assyria's attention was diverted to its western borders. But in 722 the throne of Asoiria was in the hands of Sargson II. He began to carefully prepare a war against Urartu, whose kings maintained friendly ties with the Median and Aryan tribes. In 716, hostilities began, as a result of which Media and the Manna adjacent to the lake Urmia were ravaged by Sargon's troops, and the Median king Deyoka was defeated in 715. In the following year, Sargon repeated his campaign j to the same areas, since Deyoka made attempts to re-organize and unite the Median tribes around him. Sargon opposed the "maddai" and "manna" and especially against the "Beth Deyoka", in other words, the areas under the control of King Deyoke. In 713 BC. NS. Sargon forced a number of areas of Media to pay him an annual tribute. Deyoku is considered to be the founder of Media and its capital, Ecbatana.

The Greek historians Herodotus and Ctesias have preserved information about the lineage and chronology of the kings of Media, but their data differ. At the present time, the following sequence of kings of Media can be accepted: Deyoka ((information is known from 715 BC), Fraort - Kshatrita (675-653 BC), the rule of the Scythians (approximately 653-625 BC), Kyaksar-Uvakshatra (625-585 BC), Astyages-Ishtumegu (585-550 BC).

Sargon's successor, Sancherib, marched east with his troops in 702. Crossing Elam and returning back through the regions of the "distant Medes", he received gifts and offerings from them, which are called tribute: ... They submitted to my sovereignty. " The tribes with which he fought in the East were Kashshi (Kassites). In 690 BC. NS. Sancherib broke the alliance between Elam and Babylonia.

The social system of Media can be characterized as generic in the stage of decomposition. The expansion of cattle breeding and agriculture contributed to the emergence of slave labor, and mass movements and campaigns of conquest contributed to the enslavement of many people. Craftsmen were undoubtedly available in the 8th century. BC e., since the writings of the Assyrian kings say that the victories over the Median tribes gave them the opportunity to take with them a large number of craftsmen.

In the VIII century. BC NS. Cimmerians and Scythians moved from the north and north-west through the Caucasian ridge. The Cimmerians inhabited the southern Russian steppes, according to the testimony of Herodotus, who knows them living along the shores of the Black and Azov seas. The newly arrived hordes of Scythians and Saks, also belonging to the Iranian branch of the peoples, forced another part of the Cimmerians to move to Thrace, and then cross Bosior to appear in Asia Minor. The undisputed date is 750 BC - the year when the Greek colony of Sinap in Paphlagonia (Asia Minor) was destroyed by the Cimmerians, who, therefore, had crossed the Bosporus before this year. It was a dangerous threat to Aosyria, while decisive Esarhadon did not repulse in Kapladokia. Meanwhile, another danger threatened from the invasion of the Scythians, whom, however, Assyria managed to make her allies. With their help, the son of Deyoka, the Median king Fraort, was utterly defeated by the Assyrian troops. He tried to attack the primordial enemies. Media, but fell himself on the battlefield (653 BC).

Meanwhile, the Scythians, breaking through the Caucasus, made bold attacks on all the provinces of Assyria, reaching Palestine itself.

The Scythians ravaged the Medes for decades, and they got rid of the Scythians, according to Mede traditions, by cunning. Kyak sar, the son of Fraort, allegedly lured the Scythians and their chief Madyya to a feast, at which they were drunk and killed. However, part of the Scythians remained with Kiaxar as bodyguards. He forced the Scythians to train their troops in military affairs, especially archery, which they were fluent in. The Median army was reorganized, instead of the old division of the troops according to types, it was distributed according to the type of weapons, which significantly increased their combat effectiveness.

The policy of conquest put the Medes in the hands of the region to the south and west of Lake Urmia. An alliance with the Babylonian king Nabopalasar led him to new successes. In 616 Nabopalasar attacked Assyria, and after him moved Cyaxar, who in 614 reached the Tigris and surrounded the city of Nineveh, but this siege did not take place - the Median troops were apparently distracted by other tasks, first of all, the struggle with the remnants of the Scythian tribes in the north. This happened not without the influence of Nabopolassar, who did not want the domination of the Medes in Assyria. An agreement was concluded between him and Kiaxar, in the presence of both numerous armies, according to which the granddaughter of Kiaxar, the daughter of his son Astia-g, Amitis, was declared the bride of the son of Nabopalasar.

In 612, the two armies met again at Nineveh. Three battles took place between June and August, the last deciding the fate of the city. At the end of September, Ciaxarus returned to Media, but the scores with the great power were not yet over. In northern Mesopotamia, a new war-Assyrian kingdom was organized, and Nabopalasar turned to Media in 610 for help. Allied troops met in November in Babylonia and. They moved together against Harran, who, after the victory, went to the Medes.

The state of Kiaksar included: Rey (south of present-day Tehran), Ispakhan, Atropatena (Azerbaijan), 1 region and the city of Ekbatana (Hamadai). Median troops, annexing part of the Urartian kingdom, captured the region of Cappadocia and in 590. steel on the river Galis, which separated them from the strong Lydian kingdom, rich and highly cultured. For five years, the war dragged on between Lydia and Media, two powerful states. The battle that took place on May 28, 585,. was interrupted by a solar eclipse, which was predicted on the basis of calculations by the Greek philosopher Fa forest of Miletus. After that, peace was concluded, and> the Galis river became the border of Media. A few months later, the son of Cyaxar, Astyages, ascended the throne, whose claims extended to Babylonia, which had reached great power under King Nebuchadnezzar (reigned 604-562 BC). After the death of the latter, the political crisis weakened the position of this state somewhat, which Astyages took advantage of, advancing into the northern regions of Mesopotamia and northern Syria in order to tear them away from Babylonia.

At the same time, at the beginning of the VI century. BC NS. the Medes subjugated the Persian tribes inhabiting the southwestern regions of the Iranian plateau (Parsu-mash and Anshan), uniting vast areas. But the conquest was not lasting, since at the time when the Medes began an active policy of conquest, the Persian tribes revolted. The regions with the Persian population were under the nominal authority of the king: Cambyses I, who was entirely dependent on the Medes. Legend claims that Kam-biz married the daughter of Astyages and from this marriage the future Persian king Cyrus II (Kurush; ruled 559-529 BC) was born, although another version is known that Cyrus's father was a common man ... Cyrus spent his youth at the court of Astyages, where he managed to win sympathy and supporters. Cyrus sought to push the Persians and achieve their dominance over the Medes, the southwestern regions of the Iranian plateau were to receive a leading role, which until that time belonged. northern regions, Median.

§ 5. The foundation of the Old Persian kingdom. Cyrus

In 559 BC. NS. Cyrus was made king of Pars. In honor of this event, he "ordered to knock out his relief in Pasargadae, of which his family was, and in the inscription he called himself" the great king of Achaemeni-dom ", associating himself with the family of Persian leaders. At the same time, he made an alliance with the Babylonian king Nabunaid, who hoped: in this way to have support against the Medes. By 553 BC, the aspirations and intentions of Cyrus were so obvious that the Medes opposed him. having found a leader, they gladly shook off the yoke. ”Legendary tradition reports several battles, of which the first were victorious for Astiatus. captured (550 BC). Ecbatana, the capital of Media, was captured by Cyrus - such was the end of the Median kingdom. "Kurush entered the land of Agamtuna (Ekbatana), the royal city. He took silver, gold, in any utensils and precious values; he took everything from Agamtuna and brought to Anshan the treasures and goods he had taken, ”the Babylonian chronicle reports. However, the Medes, along with the Persians, enjoyed a prominent position in the new state, and therefore the names of the Persians and Medes replaced each other among the Egyptians and Greek historians and were used by them without distinction. Ecbatana (Hamadan) remained the capital for the ancient Persian state, it was significantly fortified, surrounded by seven rows of walls and was an excellent fortress.

• 1 South, or Iranian, Azerbaijan. 12

Cyrus used about three years to consolidate the provinces that had previously belonged to Media for the Persian state. He achieved this peacefully, through diplomatic negotiations, and also made a number of military campaigns. V. As a result, Aosyria, Armenia and Cappadocia, as well as the tribes of the Iranian Garnogo plateau, became part of his state.

This period can be called the period of the formation of the Persian state, the basis of which was the unions of the Iranian tribes. The class division became more and more distinct. The increase in the number of slaves at the expense of captives contributed to this. Tribal leaders, kings of small regions, became subjects and allies of the "soaring Kurush, Achaemenid". The army received a more harmonious organization. It was divided into cavalry and infantry, whose attacks were irresistible. The Persian armies did not know defeat and for more than a century were a threat to the Middle East.

In the west, the border along the Galis River seemed tight to Kira, his conquest plans went immeasurably farther. Amasis, king of Egypt, taking into account the general position and military power of the young state, made an alliance with Lydia, who was extremely interested in protection, as well as with Babylon and the Greeks of the Asia Minor colonies. However, Cyrus' allies were the Cilician king of Siennesia, 1 who owned the gorges along which the roads to Asia Minor passed, and the Greek city of Miletus. The campaign of Cyrus against the Median king Croesus refers to the Babylonian chronicle in the ninth year of king Nabonidus, i.e. to 547/6 BC. NS. Despite the help given to Lydia by Egypt and Babylon, Cyrus won the victory, captured the capital of Lydia, Sardis, with its untold treasures, and captured King Croesus. Then came the turn of the Greek city-states, and Cyrus established himself on the coast of the Aegean Sea and the Hellespont.

Cyrus carried out the seizure of Babylonia with great circumspection; he gradually surrounded her, interrupting her relations with the western regions, cutting off her vital routes and trade routes. His strategy was supported by the great material values ​​he received during the conquest of Asia Minor, as well as new military equipment and information gleaned from the Greek cultural centers. The revenues of the trading and banking houses and temples of Babylonia, which previously reached large sums, fell sharply. This caused discontent among the priestly and commercial circles, especially since the attempts of the Babylonian king Nabonidus to return to the previous position, despite the support provided by Egypt, were unsuccessful. In Babylon itself, a party was formed that was inclined to agree to an agreement with the Persians. About the deliverance that the Persians could bring, the sword of the tal, and the Jews, the inhabitants of Phenicia and maritime Syria, taken from Palestine to the "Babylonian captivity". In addition, heavy taxes were imposed on the inhabitants of Babylonia by their king, since receipts from other regions ceased. All these circumstances made the position of Babylon even more difficult, in which, however, they prepared military resistance. Belsharusur (Belshazzar of the Bible books), the son of Nabonidus, who refused to surrender even when the capital, thanks to cunning, was in the hands of Cyrus, was put at the head of the troops. When the citadel fell, Belsharusur was executed (538).

• 1 It is possible that Siennesius was a common name for the kings of Cilicia.

A remarkable Babylonian document has survived, drawn up after the victory of Cyrus, which also contains the text of his manifesto. About Na-Bonid "it is said that" the weak was put to rule over the whole country ", that he" constantly did what was to evil for his city ... he brought its inhabitants to "death, imposing a heavy yoke on them." finally, he “canceled the daily sacrifices ... the veneration of Marduk, the king of the gods.” The latter especially aroused the anger of the priests, who found it possible to explain Cyrus's victories by the patronage of the supreme deity, who was angered by the popular disaster: moaning of their (inhabitants), he left their regions. The gods who lived in them left their dwellings because of anger for their transfer to Babylon. Marduk ... turned to all the dwellings turned into ruins, and to the inhabitants of Sumer and Akkad , like corpses, turned and had mercy on them "... Wanting to protect Babylonia," Marduk, the great ruler, protector of his people, "looked around, looking for" the right king after his heart. " Marduk gave "to direct his way to Babylon" and "without a fight and battles gave him a drink in Babylon and spared his city from oppression ... ”Thus, the Babylonian priests sought to justify the conquests of Cyrus and give a positive assessment of his victories.

This is followed by the text of the manifesto, where Cyrus seeks to show his love for peace, care for the internal affairs of Babylon, its well-being, and deserves credit for the return of the prisoners to the cities on the other side of the Tigris, to their homeland. "I, K" r, the king of the world, the great king, the mighty king, the king of Babylon, the king of Sumer and Akkad, the king of four countries, the son of Kambiz, the great king, the king of the city of Anshan, the grandson of Cyrus, the great king, the king of the city of Anshan. .. When I peacefully entered Babylon and, with joy and joy in the palace of the kings, occupied the royal dwelling, Marduk, the great ruler, bowed the noble heart of the inhabitants of Babylon to me because I thought about his veneration every day. My many troops entered Babylon. Throughout Sumer and Akkad, I did not allow the enemy. Concern about the internal affairs of Babylon and about all its sanctuaries touched me, and * the inhabitants of Babylon found their desires fulfilled, and the dishonorable yoke was lifted from them. I have turned away the destruction of their dwellings and have stopped their fall. Marduk, the great ruler, rejoiced at my blessed deeds, and blessed me, Cyrus the king who honors him, and Kambiz, my son, and all my army with mercy, when we sincerely and joyfully led him, the exalted deity. All the kings sitting in the palaces of all countries of the world, from the Upper Sea to the Lower. ..in tents the living kings of the West, all together brought their heavy tribute and kissed my feet in Babylon ... The cities on the other side of the Tiger, founded from ancient days, the gods living in them, I returned to their places and gave them to dwell there forever. I gathered all their inhabitants and restored their homes. And "to the gods of Shumer and Akkad, whom Nabonidus, to the wrath of the lord of the gods, transferred to Babylon, I gave, at the behest of Marduk, the great lord, to dwell unharmed in the palaces of the" joy of the heart ". All the gods, returned to their cities, pray daily in front of Bel and Naboo for the length of my days, put in a merciful word for me and say to Marduk, my ruler: "May it be King Cyrus, who reveres you, and Cambyz, his son ..." ":. Then the text is cut off.

Cyrus's politics was the politics of a great statesman , who had in mind further conquests, and therefore it was important for him to keep peace with the priesthood and representatives of the upper strata of Babylonia. It was dangerous to dare to conquer Egypt during the "reign of Amasis, the slender organization of Egypt and the energy of its king were an obstacle." But it was not by chance that Cyrus maintained friendly relations in Palestine and appeased the cities of Phenicia - they were to become his allies in the future war against Egypt, his closest support.

The borders of the great Persian power demanded protection. It was especially restless in the northeastern outskirts of the Iranian Highlands, where numerous nomadic tribes of the Saks made constant raids. and Massagetae. It was necessary to secure yourself from this side in order to. to pursue an active policy in the West and to protect the sedentary tribes of the Iranian plateau from the devastation of the nomads. The Scythian tribes of Sakas and Massagets stood at the lower stages of barbarism, at which group marriage took place, the destruction of decrepit relatives, etc.

Hero Dot describes the decisive battle between the Persians and the warlike barbarians in the following words: "At first, both troops fired at each other from bows at a considerable distance, then, when the arrows were exhausted, they switched to hand-to-hand combat and fought with spears and swords." The core of Cyrus's army was the excellent Persian reluctance, distinguished by special staunchness. The Massagetae used their light cavalry, which showered a cloud of arrows, evading hand-to-hand combat, until, remaining in the majority, they delivered a decisive "blow. In this battle (in 529 BC) on the distant border of their state was Cyrus was killed and he was buried in his native Pasargadae.

§ 6. Iran to the reign of Kambiz

Cyrus's eldest son, Cambyses, took part in governing the state during his father's lifetime. In Babylon, documents were found drawn up on behalf of Cyrus and Cambyses, Cambieus is mentioned in Cyrus's manifesto cited above, Cambyses entrusted Cyrus with his kingdom, setting off for the last, fatal, campaign against the Massagets, from which he did not return *. Cyrus' successor was an organizer, commander, ruler of the greatest power of his time, who dreamed of its further expansion.

The relative security of the well-fortified eastern border allowed him to fulfill his father's plan and move to Egypt, glorious in antiquity and wealth. The kingdom of Judah in Palestine and the cities of Phenicia were his allies, besides, he secured himself the support of the Arab tribes who roamed the steppes and deserts along which the Persian troops went to Egypt. The Arabs were supposed to supply the Persian army with water during its passage through the desert in the Sinai Peninsula. He was also supported by the cities of the islands of Crete and Samos. To ensure peace of mind during the campaign, Cambyses ordered the assassination of his younger brother Bardito, who could claim the throne. The murder was committed in secret, so one could assume that Bardia was alive, remained within Iran and only did not take part in his brother's campaign.

Cambyses moved to Egypt in 526 BC. e., his troops went by land and were transported by ships. In addition to the Persians, there were Greek mercenaries in his army. Greeks were also in the Egyptian troops. The warlord of the Greek mercenaries, the Greek Phanet betrayed Egypt and fled to Cambyses, leaving behind his two sons. He led the Parsi troops through the desert. Even before the outbreak of hostilities, Amasis died, and the throne of the pharaohs passed to Psammetichus III.

The first battle between the Persians and the Egyptians took place at Pelusia, the Mediterranean city of the Isthmus of Suez. The Greek mercenaries of Egypt, before it began, slaughtered the sons of Phanet in front of the Persian army and, mixing their blood with wine, drank, confirming their vow to fight to the end. The siege of Pelusia - “the key of Egypt for both the exit and the entrance” - was delayed thanks to the desperate resistance of the Egyptians and Greeks, who used throwing weapons. The Persians attacked both from land and sea. The capture of Pelusia opened the way for them further. They met active resistance back in Memphis, with the capture of which the Persian conquest of Egypt before Elephanttika became a fact. Of great importance was the dissatisfaction of the Egyptian nobility with the policy of Amasis, thanks to which Cambyses received support from their side. The betrayal of the wealthy nobleman Udzatorresent, who was at the head of the military "fleet, made it easier for Cambis to conquer Egypt.

The autobiographical inscription left by this representative of the Egyptian nobility and priest leaves no doubt that the Persian king was received with joy from the top. “When the great king arrived, sir. Of all countries Cambyses to Egypt, and with him were the barbarians of all countries, he“ reigned over this country in all its breadth and settled them there. He was the great king of Egypt, the great ruler of all countries. His Majesty to me to be a great healer, forced me to be next to him as a seven, chief of the court. ”In this position, Udzagorresent was able to influence the government of Egypt and restored the cult of gods and hereditary priests in famous temples.

Having conquered Egypt, Cambyses strove further, he organized a campaign against Nubia, famous for its wealth, especially gold, which was mined on the east coast of Africa. Northern Nubia pledged to pay tribute to the "king of all countries", but the Persian army could not withstand the terrible heat and lack of water during further movement and was forced to return.

During this campaign (524-523 BC) rumors began to reach Egypt about an uprising of Iranian tribes, about the appearance of an impostor who called himself after the murdered brother of Cambyses, Bardia. It was the priest (magician) Gaumata. At the same time, unrest broke out in Egypt among the local nobility. The indignant Cambyses brutally dealt with the Egyptian nobles who had raised their heads, as well as with some of the representatives of the Iranian nobility who accompanied him, among whom the movement raised in Iran found from the sound. Having suppressed the uprising in Egypt, Cambyses set off with the army on the return journey, but on the way he died, with insufficiently clarified "circumstances. Historians say differently about his death: some - that he committed suicide, unintentionally or on purpose, others - that he fell off his horse after drinking too much wine, thirdly, when he mounted a horse, he wounded himself in the thigh and died twenty days later, most likely a violent death.

Events in Iran were caused by the long absence of the king, the dissatisfaction of the priests and the Median nobility with the secondary position that they occupied after the rise of the Persian dynasty of the Achaemenids; the support of the latter was an obedient and organized army. The movement was led by the magician Gaumata and his brother. The Persian regions also joined the Medes. The priesthood and nobility, having seized power, transformed Media into an independent state. They cruelly oppressed the masses, seized the pastures and property belonging to the communities. The regions annexed by the king-generals, Cyrus and Cambyses, separated and became independent states - the great Persian state collapsed.

The young commander Darius, who belonged to the royal family of the Achaemenids, succeeded in reuniting the "kingdom of countries". After the death of Cambyses, according to legend, the returning troops were headed by “seven Persian nobles or“ military leaders, ”who were representatives of seven noble families that made up the core of the Persian tribes. ¦ Among them was Darius, who quickly took a leading position as the closest representative of the royal family.

§ 7. The reign of King Darius I

“I am Daryavush, the great king, the king of kings, the king of countries, the son of Gietasp, the grandson of Arsam, Achaemenid; says Daryavush king, my father Gistasp, his father Aream, father of Arsam Ariaramn, father of Ariaramna Theist, father of Teisp Ahemen. Daryavush the king is speaking. That is why we are called Achaemenids. Since ancient times we have been noble, since ancient times our family was imperial. Daryavush the king is speaking. Eight of my kind were previously kings - I am the ninth. We are nine kings in two tribes ”, - this is how King Darius wrote about himself in the famous Behietuk cuneiform inscription. His father was mentioned among those close to Cyrus II, and he himself, as a twenty-year-old youth, participated in the campaign of this king against the northern nomads. He accompanied Kam biz to Egypt as the head of the bodyguards.

From the first steps, the position of Darius was very difficult. Those representatives of the nobility who supported him demanded power for themselves, they needed to be rewarded, made the rulers of the regions and put to sleep their aspirations for oligarchy.

He conquered Media, Gaumata - the false Bardia was killed. In the same Behistunya inscription, it is said about this: “Daryavush the king says: this is what I did after I became a king. Cambujiy (Kam-biz) by name, Kurusha (Kira) son, from our family - he was the king here. That Cambujia had a brother named Bardiy, from the same mother and from the same father with Cambuja. Then Cambujiy killed Bardia. When Cambujiy Bardia killed, the people did not know that Bardiy was killed. Then Cambujiy went to Egypt. " During the absence of the king, "the people became hostile, then there were a lot of lies in the country: in Persia, and in Media, and in other countries." Then “the mate of Gaumat arose and lied to the people like this: I am Bardiy, Kurusha son, Cambujia brother. Then the whole nation was set aside from Cambujia, to that passed: Persia, and Media, and other countries. " Gaumata seized the kingdom, and "there was no man, neither a Persian, nor a Mede, nor from our kind, no one who would have taken the kingdom from that Gaumata-mata." But Darius dared to do this: "I, together with a few people of that Gaumata, killed the first people who were devoted to him."

After that, Darius restored the kingdom "," taken away from our kind ", NS took measures that could attract the masses to his side, namely: pastures belonging to the people, immovable and movable property NS the clan [property] that Gaumata the magician took away from them, I restored to the people in their place. " He strengthened his position by the fact that> "taken back" - "restored Persia and Media and tried to" restore our house, as before [it was]. "

Nevertheless, in different parts of Persia there were uprisings, unrest, impostors appeared, such as, for example, Nebuchodo who called himself Rhino in Babylon, and another who said about himself: "I am the king in Elam." The Bekhistun inscription gives a whole list of areas that Darius had to return with weapons. The uprising in Elam quickly subsided due to the fact that the people did not support her leader. Darius strengthened. here his position and, in an effort to preserve it, translated official documents into the Elamite language (Behistun inscription). While Darius was restoring order in Babylon, Persia, Susiana, Media, Assyria, Egypt, Parthia, Margiana, Satagidia, Scythia were separated from him.

An impostor appeared in Media, who declared himself a descendant of Kiaksar and took the name of Fraorta (Kshatrita). He was defeated only after several repeated campaigns, of which the third, the last, was led by Darius himself. From it the areas in the center of the Iranian highlands were deposited. Parthia and Hyrcania revolted, which were held by the father of Darius, Hystaspes, who was appointed their governor. One of the faithful satraps of Darius defeated the rebels in Margiana (522 BC). At the same time, it was necessary to continue strengthening Persia and Media, in which more than once new uprisings were being prepared. In 517, Darius had to fight the rebellious Elamites and undertake a campaign against the Saks, the Massagets, "living across the sea." The area of ​​the Massagets was the area east of the Aral Sea, between the Amu-Darya rivers f Syr Darya.

Soviet and all world science owes to Academician V. V. Struve new discoveries, thanks to which the individual Scythian and Saka peoples are precisely localized. These investigations made it possible to establish the "first exact date of the history of the peoples of the USSR" (Academician V. V. Struve).

The head of the Sakas and Massagets, Skunkha, is depicted on the relief of the Behistun inscription in a pointed cap. After the victory over the Massaget Sakas, Darius saved his life, but at the head of the Massaget Sakas he set up another leader. Darius finally managed to achieve peace in his huge multi-tribal power.

In Egypt, where he went to seek the support of the priesthood and the people, his rule met with approval, and his power there was firm. It is hardly possible to doubt the message of the Behistun inscription that “in the same year, having become king,” Darius “fought 19 battles,” left. them the victor and "captured 9 kings"; at the cost of the greatest efforts, the Achaemenid state was restored.

The world power was also to receive a new organization, which would provide it with strength and coherence. It was necessary * to concentrate government in the hands of the Persians, to regulate taxes, which were supposed to replace gifts and tributes, to establish a monetary system, and finally, to reorganize the cult and establish writing .. All these tasks were carried out by Darius.

§ 8. Internal administration of the Old Persian state

The great power of Tsar Darius I was, according to Herodotus, ... divided into 20 administrative regions - satrapies, each headed by the "governor of the region" satrap (ancient Persian hsha-trapavan).

Since the Persian state included ancient monarchies, city-states, various ethnic associations, the satrapies had different lengths: along with Egypt and Babylonia, there were several satrapies in Asia Minor. Only the Persians' own area was excluded from the total number of satrapies, it occupied a special position - no taxes were collected from it.

The satrap enjoyed unlimited civilian power. In many areas, the former, local rulers continued to exist: kings, representatives of the priestly elite, clan leaders, but they in all civil affairs were subordinate to the satrap. The military forces of the satrapies were subordinated to the generals who were independent of the satraps. In this way, mutual control of civil administration over the military and vice versa could be achieved, with the direct subordination of the satrap and military leader to the king. Of great importance was also the control exercised by special officials - "the sovereign's eye", "the king's ear", that is, by the inspectors who visited the satrapies, recognized and monitored so that uprisings, conspiracies, revolts did not arise. no separatist tendencies of any kind appeared. Military leaders usually had troops of several satrapies under both command; (four or five). Warriors were recruited from local residents: Greeks, Nubians, Egyptians and Babylonians, to the main organizing force and the core of the army were not these "foreigners", but the Persians. Persians and mussels tsev in the detachments, in comparison with others, there was a relatively small number, as evidenced, for example, by the papyri from Elephantine (in the south of Egypt). Xenophon wrote: “We agree that the Persian king is extremely concerned about military affairs: to each ruler of each nation from which he collects tribute, he prescribed how many horsemen. shooters, slingers and armed with shields, he must contain. how much he needs to manage subordinates and for protection; countries in the event of an enemy invasion. In addition, it contains the garni zone in the acropolis. "

The army was dispersed throughout the entire region, but in case of emergency it was moved, sent to the borders of the state or in areas requiring special attention.

One of the most important functions of the satrap was the collection of taxes. Before the establishment of Darius, the regions of the Persian state presented gifts to the king (offerings or gifts! (the first thousand, the second seven hundred talents); other regions also paid a lot, so that the total annual amount of taxes received by the state treasury of Darius was 14,500 talents (about 34,000,000 gold rubles). In addition, each region also contributed in kind, depending on what it was rich in: grain, cattle, horses, slaves, ivory, etc.

The ordering of the tax system was possible only with the introduction in Persia of the minted coin, which was known even in the Lydian state. The king's coin was a gold minted coin. It had been in circulation in the Middle East for many centuries and retained the name Darika (on behalf of King Darius). The satrapies had the right to mint silver coins, and the smaller areas of the check nil copper coins. The development of the monetary economy and the unification of large areas by the Persians led to the widespread development of trade. A large number of peoples and regions are drawn into trade relations ": Babylon, Egypt, Asia Minor, the Arabian Peninsula, Thrace and Macedonia on the" Balkan Peninsula, the Black Sea steppes, the islands of the Aegean Sea, Persia proper and the regions to the north-east and south -east from her.

Both “strategy and trade required a developed network of roads and their safety, this task was also solved in the state of Darius. Herodotus, who traveled along it in the middle of the 5th century, reports about a large, well-kept highway connecting the coastal strip of the Aegean Sea with Susa. BC NS. The route from Sardis to Susa had 111 post stations and took about 90 days. For every 25 kilometers there were stations where the traveler could find rest and shelter. The roads were guarded by detachments of troops, who severely punished for attempted robbery and robbery on the roads, and thanks to this they became safe.

The canal, completed by order of Darius I, is remarkable, connecting the extreme of the eastern branches of the Nile with the Red Sea, which another of the pharaohs began to break through. On the "bank of the canal, a slab was placed with an inscription carved on it in Egyptian hieroglyphs for the surname and cuneiform, in which, on behalf of Darius, this construction was reported.

The serviceability of the roads made it possible to use them for trade transportation, for the movement of troops, as well as for postal communications. There were pickets on the roads at a short distance from each other. Mail from picket to picket was passed by riders like a relay race, due to which it was delivered with exceptional speed for the modes of movement of that time.

The seat of the king changed several times during the year, one of the main residences was Susa, where a number of roads converged. Ecbatana and Persepolis also have a prominent position.

§ 9. Social relations in the ancient Persian state

Both in the unification of his state, and in its further organization, Darius relied on the upper strata, on the rich, on the nobility, on the priesthood.

Sources contain information that the large trading houses of Babylonia are gaining momentum, drawing into their operations various regions of Persia, which included Babylon. Cuneiform tables have preserved information about the large turnover of the trading houses of Egibi and sons, Murashu and sons and others. This was largely facilitated by the buyout system, which often ruined the regions, but presented great convenience for the central government. So, the trading house Mu Rashu with his sons took over the Nilpur region. They had to collect from the region and the city to give in silver and transfer it to the royal treasury. But their slaves and clients not only collected tax, but also robbed the population in their favor, completely ravaging it. A complaint filed by a Persian official about their actions threatened them with a court, as the cuneiform documents of the 5th century tell about it. But the "sons of Mura shu" preferred to give a huge bribe to officials in order to get rid of the court. The bribe consisted of many measures of barley, wheat, several barrels of wine, many heads of cattle and sheep, etc.

The priesthood was a great political and economic force in the society of that time, and Darius, in order to have his support, took measures to protect the basis of the priesthood's welfare - the temple economy from ruin. So, he pretended to one of the satraps of Asia Minor that he collected fees from the farmers dedicated to Apollo and ordered them to "dig up private land." The sources have also preserved the testimony of the priest of Uzagorresent about the patronage given to him and the extensive temple economy, which he was in charge of, Darius.

The Persians occupied a special position in the state - they did not pay tribute. It was equally honorable for free Persians to carry arms and engage in agricultural labor or cattle breeding. The Persians formed the nucleus of the commanders of the Persian army and its garrisons, stationed in various satrapies, and representatives of the civil administration were also recruited from them. The warrior and the farmer were combined in one person; the Persian did one or the other, depending on the circumstances. In Persian society, there was slave, forced labor, which was used to perform various jobs. For example, the Persians did not carry out construction work, in any case, the construction of the royal palace in Susa was carried out by representatives of all the peoples that were part of the Persian state: there were Egyptians, Greeks, Babylonians, Syrians, Lydians, even Medes. Only "the Persians are not named in the inscriptions of this palace that have survived to this day. They were probably only overseers at the buildings.

The original traditions of Media and Persia were reflected in the fact that the king, relying on the army, occupied the position of an unlimited despot, but he could not disdain the idle time, the modest work of the farmer. King Cyrus the Younger at the end of the 5th century proudly showed the Greek Lysander, the famous commander of Sparta, the garden he himself had cultivated. At the same time, the Persian king borrowed the pomp and solemn riot adopted in the palaces of the monarchs of Egypt, Lydia, Babylonia - the ancient states of the East. Ten thousand bodyguards were the personal guard of the king. His purple, gold-embroidered clothes, led by a high-pitched high tiara in precious stones, the throne on which he sat - everything spoke of his greatness, of the world significance of the state of the "king of countries."

§ 10. Culture and ideology of the Achaemenid time

The material culture of the Achaemenid time stood at a great height. The surviving ruins of cities, tombs, palaces give only a distant idea of ​​the majestic structures erected by the Achaemenids. Especially many monuments have survived in Persepolis, the hundred-column hall of which was a miracle of building art. On the palace staircase, a number of images (mainly animals), made with colored glaze, have been preserved. On the inside of the parapet of the same staircase, there is a remarkable image of the procession of the Persian guards. By this time, the tradition also dates back to depicting the king on a hunt or on a campaign among his troops. Along with great realistic images, such as the battle of a lion with bulls (Persepolis Palace), there are images of a fantasy character - winged bulls, half-beasts, half-humans, etc., undoubtedly associated with the religious ideas of the Persians. Material culture, its technical level, the degree of artistic development, its character, content play a significant role as a source for the study of a given era.

The eclectic nature of the art of the Achaemenid era is largely due to the fact that the homeland of the winners was adorned by the conquered ^ of various countries, bringing their skills and tastes into the work. It is known that the relief monuments of the palace in Susa were created by Greek craftsmen from Asia Minor. Under the Achaemenids, Iran's cultural ties with the Mediterranean countries, in particular with Greece, expanded significantly.

Many elements have been gleaned from Babylonian traditions. The Persians owed their writing to Babylon. The Persian cuneiform script was alphabetic and probably originated under Cyrus. A number of Persian inscriptions have survived from the time of Darius, which are of great importance as historical sources, including the remarkable Bekhistun inscription.

The name of Darius is associated with the introduction of the cult of the good beginning of the universe of Ahuramazda (Ormuzd). The Persian tribes and the Achaemenid clan, from which Darius emerged, revered Ahuramazda as the god of their tribe. In the Behistun inscription, Darius "attributes all his victories over the impostor, his accession to the will of Ahuramazda and his shield." Everything that I did, I did according to the will of Ahuramazda. Ahuramazda sent me help. Ahuramazda protected me from all evil and my house And this country. Therefore I pray to Ahuramazda, may Ahuramazda give me for this. "

The religious beliefs of the Persians took shape long before this time, later became the basis of Zoroastrianism and were reflected in the sacred book of the Avesta. The composition of the Avesta is heterogeneous and belongs to different eras, and therefore the study of this monument presents great difficulties. The most ancient part of it, the Ghats (hymns), reflects the period of a classless, primitive society. The elements of the cult of the dog, the cult of the bull, and, finally, the extremely long-delayed cult of the solar deity Mithra, point to deep, hoary antiquity. * The pastoral cult of the bull was closely intertwined with the agricultural cult of the sun. Mithraism lasted until the first centuries of the Christian era, reaching Rome. The worship of fire has existed among the Iranian peoples since ancient times. The founder of Zoroastrianism is Zarathushtra (VI century BC). According to his teaching, the good principle - Ahuramazda - in the fight against the evil principle Angra Mainyu (Ahriman) sends fire, which is a good element. Ahriman sends a dragon, in single combat with. which often depicts the king. The dualistic view of the world obliged the Zoroastrians to wage a constant struggle against evil and gave hope for the ultimate victory of good.

§ 11. Greco-Persian Wars

The subjugation of the Greek cities of Asia Minor by Persia opened the way for her to the Aegean Sea. In the last period of his reign, Darius captured the islands of the Aegean Sea, which were in the hands of the Greeks. Athens. Both the infantry and the cavalry troops were delivered by ships, by sea. Having reached Attica, the Persian troops landed at Marathon, where the cavalry, which, however, were few in number, could deploy their actions. Persians, who rushed to ships, wishing to reach Athens.But the Greeks captured several ships and managed to reach Athens before the Persians, who therefore did not dare to besiege the city.The victory of the Greeks over the terrible and, it seemed, invincible Persians responded with uprisings in the regions conquered by the Persians and falling away from the Persian state of certain regions, including Egypt.The last years of Darius and the first years of his son Xerxes (from 486 BC) BC BC) were dedicated to the suppression of uprisings. Then Xerxes began to prepare a campaign against Athens, gathering a large army, mainly from the detachments of the peoples he conquered. There were few Persians in the army, barely a tenth; they had to remain to protect the state.

In 480 BC. NS. Xerxes ferried his troops across the Hellespont. The allied Greek army could not defend fertile Thessaly, but from the Thermopylae pass they tried to keep the Persians. The Persians managed to bypass and destroy a detachment of 300 Spartans, led by Leonidas, who remained the last in order to continue the resistance.

Near the island of Salamis, in a narrow and shallow strait, a sea battle took place (September 28, 480), from which the Persian fleet left with very significant losses - Xerxes had only a small number of ships left. The victory of the Greeks gave them greater confidence in their own strength, and the common desire to finish off the Persians united them. The Greeks gathered their forces and the battle of Platzia (on the border of Attica and Boeotia), in 479 BC. NS. brought them the final victory over the Persian troops.

Thus, the campaigns of the Persians suffered a complete defeat. The further spread of the Achaemenid state to the west "was put to an end. Many peoples and states that were part of it were not firmly welded together, they strove for independence, rebelled, separated, and the borders established by Darius did not last long.

§ 12. Persia under the successors of Darius I

The son of Darius I, Xerxes, had to begin his reign with the pacification of Egypt. But in the following time, this Persian satrapy, thanks to its ancient historical traditions, was repeatedly protected.

Artaxerxes I (ruled 465-424 BC) stepped over the corpse of his father he had killed in order to ascend the throne. The intrigue of the courtier Artaban, and then internal unrest, weakened the rule of the Persians in Egypt. But the tsar managed to regain its former position for some time. He also suppressed the uprising in Syria. The Persians maintained friendly relations with the Jews, supporting their ruling elite and priesthood.

After the death of Artaxerxes I, a struggle arose for the throne between his son Xerxes II and one of his relatives; the latter gained overweight and reigned as Darius II. Unrest in various areas did not stop, they broke out in Lydia (410 BC). In 411, an uprising began in Egypt, which is known from the reports of the Elephantine papyri. Soon after these preliminary unrest, Egypt fell away again, probably in the very year of the death of Darius II.

Usually the king sent an army against the rebels with one of his commanders, but when in 405 a warlike mountain tribe rebelled. kar of spirits (kaduoiev), inhabiting the area between Assyria, Media and Armenia, the king spoke himself. During the campaign, Darius II fell ill and in the spring of 404 he died in Babylonia. His son Artaxerxes II (ruled 404-358 BC) fought for the throne with Cyrus, his younger half-brother. In Sardis, Cyrus pulled together part of the Persian troops and Greek troops, but he himself fell in the battle of Kunax (401). The participation of Sparta in the revolt of Cyrus forced Artaxerxes II, who dreamed of the former greatness of Persia, to break with the Spartans. His satraps began conquering Asia Minor. In 394, under Kn "Ida, the Persian commander Koeon (Greek-Athenian) defeated the Spartans and concluded with them a royal or Antalcid peace (387 BC) that was beneficial to Persia, on the basis of which the Greek cities of Asia Minor and the island Cyprus fell back to Persia, Egypt failed to subjugate Artaxerxes II, and the last years of his life were poisoned by palace intrigues.

The life of Artaxerxes II was described by the Greek writer Plutarch. Fearing a struggle for power, Artaxerxes III, nicknamed Oh (reigned 359-338 BC), first established himself on the throne and only nine months later announced the death of his father. His first campaign was against the Kadusis. Then he turned his attention to Egypt, which for 60 years had been completely independent. Egypt, Phenicia and Cyprus formed a coalition, and in 351-350 BC. NS. Phenicia revolted. Arta Xerxes marched with troops from Babylon. Especially cruel reprisals befell the richest city of Sidon. The ground forces operated here with the support of the fleet.

Sidon was destroyed by fire; the inhabitants of Sidon perished in the fire, for perty in their houses. Fear and horror gave Phenicia into the hands of the Persians, and the island of Cyprus went to them. At the same time, the Persian commander Mentor of Rhodes suppressed the uprising of the satraps in Asia Minor. Bagoi, another. the military leader, forced the Jews in Jerusalem to become completely subordinate to the Persians, taking advantage of the disagreement among the priestly elite .. The Persian troops moved under the command of Artaxerxes to Egypt, strengthening their defenses with the help of Greek mercenaries. The Battle of Pelusia led to the victory of the Persians. In 343, Egypt was re-conquered by the Persians and severely plundered.

The Persian state reached the size that it had under the first Achaemenids. The Greeks were curious about Artaxerxes. Philip the Macedonian made an alliance with him, although he himself secretly prepared for a war against him.

Artaxerxes III died of poisoning. He was succeeded by a son, and then by a distant relative, Darius III. The further fate of Persia was decided by the Greco-Macedonian conquest.

§ 13. Greco-Macedonian expansion to the East

Macedonia, located between Thessaly and Thrace, in the northwestern corner of the Aegean Basin, has maintained primitive social relations for a long time. King Philip II (reigned 359-336 BC), who joined Greek culture, contributed to the economic and political development of Macedonia, pacified the Thracians and Illyrians, and became a firm foot in Thessaly. In 346 BC. NS. Athens reconciled with him after several years of struggle. In 338 BC. NS. an alliance of all Greek states was concluded, the main goal of which was the fight against the Persians. This “was an urgent task * on the solution of which the further development of the productive forces and trade of the Greeks depended. may have been organized by the Persians.

His son, Alexander (356-323 BC), received a Greek type of education, which he completed under the guidance of the great Greek philosopher Aristotle. Having ascended the throne for twenty years, he made brilliant campaigns against Illyria and the Danube valley. These hikes were given. new contingents for him to march on the Persians. In 334 BC. NS. Alexander, at the head of the combined Greek forces (30,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry), crossed the Hellespont. He emerged victorious: from the very first battle on the river. Granike, defeating the Persian cavalry. Asia Minor cities, including Sardis, opened the gates for him, only Miletus and Halicarnassus resisted. The next year, all of Asia Minor was in his hands. Alexander destroyed the oligarchic power here, which was patronized by the Persians, and established democratic rule. Then, through the K "Ilician passages, he moved to Syria, but the Persians went behind him in the valley of Issa. In November 333 BC a battle took place, the Persians were crushed, the king's camp and his family were in the hands of Alexander. Darius himself retreated with troops to the Euphrates.

The victory at Issus enabled Alexander to move south. Damascus was occupied, then stubbornly resisting Tire (332 BC) and the city of Palestine. Phenicia and Syria recognized the power of the Greeks. Darius; entered into negotiations with Alexander, offering eternal peace, territory to the Euphrates (before Galis, according to other sources) and 10,000 talents of tribute, but this offer was rejected. Alexander moved on. Egypt submitted to him "without resistance. Here Alexander strove. To win the sympathies of the priesthood, was consecrated as a son to the god Ammon and founded the new city of Alexandria.

Meanwhile, Darius III hastily gathered an army and met Alexander not far from the ruins of Nineveh. Under Gaegamel, Alexander won another brilliant victory (331 BC), forcing Darkya to flee to Media. Greco-Macedonian troops moved south; Susa and Babylon opened the gates for him and gave their treasures.

In all battles, the Persian army outnumbered the Greek. But the swift blows of the Macedonian cavalry, the tactical superiority of the "phalanx" —the special disposition of the army — the cohesion and orderly organization of the army — all gave the advantage to the Greeks. In the Persian troops, there were not many Persians proper - the Greek mercenaries did not show much enthusiasm, it could not be expected from the warriors from among the peoples conquered by Persia, finally, the organization of the Persian army was weak.

Alexander entrusted the highest military and financial management in the conquered areas to the Greco-Macedonians, but otherwise retained the same management. From Susa, Alexander moved through the mountain passes, where he was resisted, to Persepolis, which surrendered without a fight (330 BC). In the ancient capital of Persia, he received the treasury of over 120 thousand talents. The remarkable Persepolis palace was, however, burnt down, for political reasons or perhaps by accident by drunken warriors.

In April 330 BC. NS. Alexander continued to move east. In Ecbatae, he left Parmeiaion, his commander, to guard the treasures that he got and watch the general order and tranquility, the aesam set off in pursuit of Darius, who reached Bactria. The approach of Alexander prompted Bessus, the satrap of Bactria, to kill Darius. The Macedonian king "legally" took the throne of the Achaemenids, whose heir he considered himself.

In the regions conquered by the Persians, Alexander could always find groups dissatisfied with the power of the Persians, and rely on them, be it the democratic strata of Asia Minor cities or the Egyptian priesthood. The satrapies were ruined by the system of ransoms, predation and extortion.

Huge sums of taxes were spent on the fact that the nobility surrounded herself with unheard-of rookosh and fabulous wealth. But the Persian clan nobility, deprived of their privileges and enormous material wealth, sought to show persistent resistance to the Greeks. In the east, in the Persian regions proper, this nobility had a more solid support and was able, led by the satraps of the eastern provinces, to organize the struggle. However, the Greco-Macedonian army occupied Parthia, Aria and Arachosia.

From Arachosia, the Greeks moved north, in the spring of 329 they made a difficult pass through Parapamiz (Hindu Kush), reached the shores of the Oks (Amu-Darya) and captured Bactria and Sogdiana, which offered heroic resistance for three years. Marakanda (modern Samarkand) became the headquarters of Alexander. His troops reached Yaksart (Syr-Darya); there was founded another Alexandria - Dalnaya or Extreme (modern Khujand), an extremely important point on the routes that went through Central Asia to China. For about two years, Aleksander stayed in the extreme northeastern regions, since the Sogdians raised the nomadic Scythian tribes (Massagets), who constantly threatened these borders. The resistance of the Sogdians was led by the heroic leader Spita men. Alexander's struggle with the Central Asian peoples left a deep imprint on their minds. Legend says that he locked the barbarians with iron gates, blocking their path to the cultural, fertile regions of Oxus.

The conqueror was drawn further and further, although the conspiracies among the Macedonian nobility, to which he responded with cruel executions, should have served as a warning to him. The reason for the dissatisfaction was the prolonged stay of the Greek troops in the east and Alexander's tendency to adopt eastern traditions in organizing his state and rely on the local Iranian nobility. The latter was dictated by the interests of the huge state he conquered, in which the east occupied an immeasurably larger place than the west - Macedonia and the Greek fools.

In the spring of 327 BC NS. Alexander's troops moved through the Hindu Kush and the Kabul River valley to conquer northern India. Taking advantage of the support of some Indian Rajas, Alexander "crossed the Indus (326), defeated the largest ruler of the Punjab, Por, and seized fabulous riches. Under pressure from the troops, however, he had to set off on his way back" along the Indus, as the ground troops were accompanied by a fleet In July 325, the Greco-Macedonian troops marched to the Indian Ocean, crossing the barren deserts of Gedrosia, north of the Persian Gulf, led to the death of part of the army from hunger and thirst, and the storms of the ocean were heavy for the fleet. The army reached Susa.

Alexander was full of new ideas. He wanted to reorganize his army, unite all state armies together and give them a single command, but this event caused an uprising of the Macedonian troops on the Tigris. He intended to make Va Vilon the capital of the state. The dying Babylon also had its advantages as a cultural and economic center, in which many roads and various influences crossed. This and other plans for organizing a world empire, which he conquered, Alexander could not carry out - the overworked organism of the thirty-three-year-old king could not defeat the dashing ones, and on June 13, 323 BC. Alexander died in the magnificent palace of the Babylonian rulers. His closest associates and commanders, who divided this grandiose monarchy among themselves, were his heirs. The fate of the Achaemenid state, like the monarchy of Alexander, most of all depended on the fact that it was not a single, melted, whole state. These were conglomerates of groups that disintegrated and united depending on the successes or defeats of one or another conqueror.

§ 14. Iran after the conquests of Alexander the Great

Even during the reign of Alexander, the conquered regions received a uniform administrative management, and the tendency was for the separation of the military and financial departments. If he put satraps at the head of the provinces, they were obliged to give him an appropriate report. This made them dependent on the king.

It is well known what exceptional significance the founding of cities has for history. The era of Alexander and his successors was a time when the emergence of new urban centers in the east was especially lively. Usually the city was not built from scratch, but the already existing village was fortified, surrounded by a wall, within which new buildings of state and public importance were laid. The position of the village changed legally, it received "the right of a policy, I am also the new name given to it by the founder. So the future capital of the couples of the Fian kings had two names: Ctesiphoi and Seleucia. The ancient village of Dura on the Euphrates was turned into a fortress, and "the Greeks call this city Europos." After the conquest of Alexander, the new was only the organization of the city as a state union, as a polis, which consisted of free citizens. The organization of the polis was conditioned by the presence of the Greek population, the Greco-Macedonian colony. The polis did not include either foreigners or slaves. So in Seleucia. The Greek part of the population had the usual for Greece council of three hundred and Gerusia.The Persians and Syrians had an independent position, independent of the polis, constituting their own special corporations.As in the center of the satrapy, in Seleucia there was a strategist and epestatus of the city in charge of the garrison. A very important political and cultural phenomenon was "the spread of military colonies to the east. The Greek and Macedonian military colonies in Asia Minor, the so-called katoikia, had their own allotments - cleres. These plots were tax collection units and together constituted the land of the klerukh. These allotments stood out from the land that was considered royal. The filthy land of the klerukhs became king again. The katoykia could be assigned to the city, and there were cases when such a military colony received the rights of a polis. For 312. BC NS. the famous Macedonian katoikia in Harran. Greek military colonies are known in Edessa, Taxila, Ecbatana, etc.

Urbanization (lat. Urbs - city) was at the same time a means of Hellenization of new areas, a way of assimilation and colonization. For the tsar, this was the most effective way to assert his economic power and political domination. The city paid the king a certain amount of taxes, and the land provided to the city was the property of the king. To settle in the new cities, Alexander and his successors used prisoners of war, who were usually resettled far from their homes. The wounded and sick soldiers were left in the cities, where they replenished the already existing Greek colonies. The main population of the cities was the eastern population, behind the Tigris it was predominantly Persian. Mixed marriages contributed greatly to the mutual influence of the local population and the Greeks. As early as 324 in Susa, Alexander openly encouraged marriage between Macedonian soldiers and Persian women. If the Greek language was used in the cities, then the province and the village spoke as before in Persian, Aramaic, or another language and remained faithful to the old traditions. The basis of prosperity in Mesopotamia and in the western regions of Iran was the work ownership. The labor of slaves and prisoners of war was used to erect walls, fortresses, and city buildings. This is evidenced by the surviving Babylonian tablets from the end of the 4th century.

The unification of vast areas, from the Mediterranean Sea to the Syr Darya and the Indus, was of exceptional importance. In Seleucia - Ktes-background, the planned capital, numerous routes crossed, connecting Central Asia with the Mediterranean, the Caucasus with the shores of the Persian Gulf. The "royal road" from eastern Iran to Seleucia and further to Sardis or Antioch remained brisk, which contributed to the development of trade relations, crafts, production and exchange of all kinds of goods in the vast state. The cult of the sun god Mithra won a place for itself in Asia Minor, and the Greek pantheon became known to Bactria. Perhaps it is no coincidence that the legendary legend that the Hindus owed the first image of Buddha to the Greek masters. In this respect, of great interest are the coins minted before the Greek model in the Iranian regions proper, for example, in the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, and for many centuries determined the nature of the coins of Central Asia. The symbolism of Greek deities and Iranian cults are reflected here.

The importance of the Hellenization of the regions of Iran must be "put in close connection with the orientalization of those Greco-Macedonian elements that came into contact with the ancient cultural states of the east, with Persia in particular. Alexandre created the preconditions for mutual influence, which affected all aspects of the state and cultural life of the Middle East.

§ 15. Struggle of the Seleucid and Parthian states for the possession of Iran

Succession disputes that arose after the death of Alexander the Great were somewhat settled in 321 BC. NS. Under the agreement, Ptolemy received Egypt, and Seleucus became the satrap of Babylon. He remained so until 316. In 312, Oelevk Nicator founded a dynasty, and this year began to be considered the beginning of the Seleucid, or Antiochian, era, according to which chronology was kept in the Middle East for many centuries. The center of the Seleucid state was first Babylon, then Seleucia on the Tigris, and finally Antioch on Orontes in maritime Syria. In 281, Seleucus died as king of Syria, Meso Potamia and Iran, uniting them “in his hands.

The constant rivalry and struggle between the Seleucids and the Ptolemies ended only when they were subdued by Roman weapons. This struggle kept the Seleucid state in suspense on its western border and diverted attention from internal affairs. Meanwhile, there was a sign of resistance from the Iranian population. among which the power of the "Parthians began to grow. Antiochus Soter (reigned 281-261 BC. It was impossible to govern Bactria and Sogdiana from Antioch in the 3rd century AD, entrusted to one of the commanders of Antiochus, Diodotus, about 250 AD, this satrapy enjoyed relative independence. his son.In Iran, new forces were outlined.Among the East Iranian nomadic tribes, known under the common name of the Dakhs, Arshak, the head of the nomadic tribe pair, began the unification of Parthia and put an end to Androgor, who represented the military power of the Seleucids in it.Tiridates, Arshak's brother, succeeded capture Hyrcania and Par-fia, and the Parthian state was formed (the Arshakid dynasty 250 BC - 224 AD).

The campaign of Seleucus II, who had gathered an army in Babylon, against Tiridates in 228 was unexpectedly interrupted by the news of an uprising in Antioch. Tiridates retained dominance in the Caspian regions for himself until 211, the year of his death. Under his son Artaban I (died 191 BC), the Seleucids continued to try to end Parthia, but to no avail. Parthia became one of the largest states of Asia Minor under Mithridates (ruled 171-138 BC), which could not be prevented by the activity of Antiochus IV. Under Antiochus IV, the revival of the Hellenization of the eastern regions can be noted. It was based on pressure from the Greek elements, their desire for expansion. At the end of the 4th - beginning of the 3rd century. the preponderance was clearly on the side of the Greco-Macedonian elements, placed in a privileged position, but gradually the East took its toll and pressed the Greeks in its markets. The policy of Hellenization represented the desire to conquer new lost opportunities, to consolidate the economic position for Western trade. But Pa-rfia grew stronger. Mithridates successively annexed Gedrosia, Drangiana (Sistan), Aria (Herat region); the conquest of Elimais and Media made Mesopotamia accessible to him. In 142 BC. NS. Babylon, which received a new Greek guise under Antiochus Epiphanes, fell into the hands of Mithridates, in July 141 BC. NS. he captured Seleucia on the Tigris, and in 140 BC. NS. Babylonian cuneiform documents revived the Achaemenid royal title in order to name the Parthian ruler king of kings. The beginning of a new Parthian era in Babylon was considered 1 Nisan (April) 247. BC NS.

§ 16. Parthian state

From the moment when Mesopotamia was in the PyKaix of the Parthians, conflicts with the West became inevitable for them. Antiykh VII Shines (ruled 139- 129 BC) three times he defeated the Parthian army, which had reinforcements from the Saka mercenaries, occupied Seleucia and the Babylonian satrapy (130 BC), spent the winter in Ekbatane (Hamadai), but was expelled by Phraates II, son of Mithridates. Meanwhile, the Saki crossed the northeastern border of Parthia, the troops of Phraates were defeated, he himself fell on the battlefield in 129 BC. NS. His successor Artaban II is also riora 6 (124) in the fight against the advancing Saks, who captured Aria and Drangiana. Since then, Drangiana has received the name Sakastan (now Sistan), that is, the country of the Sakas. In Mesopotamia, Artaban made Gimer a satrap, whose brutal rule caused displeasure in Seleucia and other cities. It is known about him that he sold the inhabitants of Babylonia as slaves to Media. After 129, the Arab-led state of Kharazen was formed near the Persian Gulf. His king Hispazion in 127 and 128. BC NS. owned Seleucia and Babylon, as evidenced by the coins. But Gimer recaptured these areas and assumed the title of king. Its rise was facilitated by the especially difficult situation of the rest of the Parthian provinces, which were threatened by the invasion of the Saks. Mithridates II, son of Artaban, brought Harazzus to obedience and recaptured Babylonia (122-121 BC). Around 115, the Parthians succeeded in breaking the dominion of the Massagets, so that in their hands were the areas up to the Oksa River.

Parthia became a firm foot on the crossroads of trade routes to India and China. The Silk Road now ran through her domain. Mi tridat solemnly received the Ambassador of the Middle Empire. Emperor Wu-di of the Han dynasty meant to strengthen relations with Parthia in order to conduct trade unhindered. The international importance of Parthia in 92 was also recognized by Rome, with which Mithridates began relations by sending an embassy to Sulla. He also conquered the Arab tribes, who were disturbing the peace of Mesopotamia, supported by Antiochus IX. In 87, the ruler appointed by him took part in the internecine struggle in Syria and captured Demetrius III Aykair. In Mesopotamia, Mi Tridat organized three vassal principalities. Adiabena and Gorduena (the Kaduhi, or Kadusi tribes) became independent at the time of the general weakening of the Seleucid power. Back in 132, a small principality of Osroena was formed, at the initiative of the Seleucid ruler of Iranian origin Osroi. In 127 AD Abubar Mazur reigned there, the ancestor of the Arab dynasty, which for several centuries headed Osroena, before it became part of the Roman Empire.

The borders of the state of Mithridates II cannot be accurately marked, in any case, the western bank of the Euphrates was part of his possessions. He owned Zeugma and Nicephorius (Kalinik). However, numismatics data indicate a difficult situation in Parthia. Although in 108 BC. NS. for Mithridates II, the title of king of kings was established, so. however, in 89, Gotharz I considered himself king of Babylon. After the death of Mithridates in 88/87, the Armenian king Tigran captured Gordouena with Nineveh and Adiabena with Arbela. It is known that around 80 BC. NS. the Babylonian king was Orod I (Herod). Since 64, this title was conferred on the Arshakid Phraat III, who considered Babylon as his capital. The struggle for the northern regions of Mesopotamia between Phraates and Tigranes was left to the judgment of Pompey, for the first remained Adiabena, for the second Gorduena and Nisibius. The Caspian regions and power over the Massagets was not retained by Fraat, but he was left with Merv. Oke was the border between the Central Asian Saks and Parthians. Sakastan and Arachosia (the basin of the Hilmand River) were also lost, from which the Indo-Scythian state was formed, well known to Chinese writers of the 1st century BC. BC NS.

In 58/57, Phraates III was killed by his sons. After his death, the struggle for the throne began between his sons. In Iran, Orod you opposed Mithridates, who temporarily drew the proconsul of Syria Gabiny into his game. After the victory over Nabatea, the Roman general moved to Egypt in the spring of 55. Civil strife again gave the date to Mithri, Seleucia and Babylon, and Orod again took them, and Babylon: surrendered after a long siege, forced to this by famine. Mithridates was executed by his brother in the fall of 55 BC. NS.

Meanwhile, Parthia found herself in front of a new enemy - Rome. At the suggestion of Pompey, 60-year-old Krasé was assigned to Syria to wage the Parthian war. His allies were Tsar Osroeny Abgar II and a representative of the Arab dynasty that dominated the semi-nomadic Arab tribes, probably the Bedouin Arabs living west of the Euphrates, Alkhadoniy. The third ally of Rome was the king of Armenia Artavazd. Beauty in the spring of 54 was in Syria. In the same year, Roman troops crossed the Euphrates and easily captured the cities along the Baliha (Velik) river to Nicephoria. The only exception was the small fortification Zenodotion, which was taken by storm.

For the winter, the bulk of the legions returned to Syria, and two cohorts from each legion were left to guard the cities captured in Mesopotamia. In the spring of 53, Orod asked Crassus about his descent, and to the statement that an answer would be given in Seleucia, he arrogantly ordered to provide: "Before the hair grows on my palm, than he will see Seleucia."

At Zeugma Krasé crossed the Euphrates, having 7 legions with him. In addition, the cavalry of his eastern allies was present. Orod moved at the head of his troops to the border of Armenia, the defense of Mesopotamia was entrusted to them to a 30-year-old military leader who bore the name of the noble and powerful family of Suren (his own name remained unknown). Roman troops began to advance to Harran along one of the northern roads of Mesopotamia, adapted more for camel caravans than for troop movements. This path was indicated to Kraes by Abgar, whom Roman historians accuse of treason. Perhaps it was wiser to move along the Euphrates to Nicephorius (Kalinik), as the quaestor Cassius suggested, without immediately striving to cross Mesopotamia. But there were many roads leading to Seleucia, and any of them could pose a danger during the attack of the Parthians, and it is possible that it was not a treacherous advice that came from Abgar, a friend of Pompey.

On May 6, 53, Krasé stopped near Harraya. The army was so exhausted by fatigue, hunger and thirst that the mocking words of Abgar preserved by the sources are quite understandable: "Didn't the Romans think they had a way through Campania?" Even before that, Artavazd the Armenian refused to help Crassus, and as soon as it became known that the Parthian army was approaching, the Arab cavalry of Alkhadonia and the regiments of Tsar Osroena left it. The latter, judging by his caustic words, had a fairly clear idea of ​​the state of the Roman legions and, in view of the danger, tried to hide. Krasé managed to build an army in order of battle, to give orders. The Parthians threw arrows with exceptional skill. The Romans could not resist the camels, which represented the formidable force of the eastern army. By sunset, Crassus's warriors began to retreat, the darkness prevented the Parthians from throwing arrows. 4,000 wounded were left on the battlefield. Harran (Karry), where Krasé went, could not be a true defense - there was not the necessary amount of food.

The morale of the Roman army was lowered, part of it moved with Crassus to the foot of the mountains of Armenia, but the Parthians continued to pursue them. Suren achieved negotiations with the Roman command, during which there were misunderstandings that led to a clash; Krasé fell victim to it. A small number of Romans remained with Cassius on the border, and about 10,000 were captured by the Parthians and taken to Merv. In Seleucia, Suren made a parody of a Roman triumph. The defeat of Crassus also served as a theme for the footsteps in the Greek tragedy, written by Artavazd. Armenia itself became an ally of Parthia, whose power was now restored. The northern regions of Mesopotamia with Nisibia and Gordiana were again annexed to Parthia. But the Iranian-prepared strike against Syria in 52 and 51 years. was unsuccessful. The enterprising Suren was killed, he seemed to Horod too lucky as a commander and died a victim of his suspicion. The son of Orodes, Pakorus, with his cavalry, only disturbed Cilicia and the borders of Cappadocia. The Parthians found themselves helpless before the walls and fortifications of Antioch. It is possible that their very expedition but the strength of the nature of an easy campaign with the aim of plundering the richest regions, including the suburbs of Antioch. In 50 BC. NS. Iranian cavalry returned across the Euphrates.

At 38/7 T. Orod was killed by his own son Phraates IV, seizing his throne. The position of Anthony, representing Rome, who was entrusted with settling affairs in the east, was difficult. A campaign plan was drawn up to ward off Babylonia from Parthia, but it failed to materialize. In the spring of 36, Antony left Zeugma and headed north, along the Euphrates, through Melitena to Karin - Erzurum. From Karin, he moved east, but he was delayed by a transport that stretched over a large area. For his protection, Anthony allocated part of the legions, but did not create the proper command for them. As a result, the Parthian troops, bypassing the bulk of the Roman forces, attacked their transport and captured it. This predetermined the victory of the Parthians. At the city of Fraasp, Anthony stayed until October, and in October the cold set in and the inglorious retreat began. With "great difficulties, the Romans reached Armenia. From here Anthony began to ask for help in Egypt, from Cleopatra. The army was in serious condition, the cold snowy winter killed about 8,000 legionnaires. Warm clothes. The supplies brought from Egypt by ships arrived on time. but nothing could make up for the defeat of the Roman army. Antony's career was over. The change came in 30 BC, when Augustus arrived in Syria in order to give a new direction to the Eastern policy of Rome. This policy of Rome was to to strengthen its border with Parthia and move it as far as possible to the east The fragmented state of Armenia and Parthia, the strength of tribal relations, thanks to which individual noble families (acquired the position of possessing princes - everything created "opportunities to interfere in the internal affairs of these states.)

Despite the vigilance of Augustus, Parthia restored Armenia led by the energetic king Tigran. Armenia has always been the subject of a dispute between Rome and Parthia due to the strategic and commercial importance of the Armenian Highlands. For Rome, the dreams of Bacteria and India, which were so important to international trade, were clearly impracticable. The coming centuries were a struggle abroad along the Euphrates; all attempts to become firmly behind the Tiger failed, although in some cases the Roman legions reached the regions of Parthia proper.

In 58 and. NS. Roman legions under the command of the commander Corbulo began a long-planned campaign against Armenia. The troops of the Part-Fians, occupied in Hyrcania, were unable to provide assistance to the Armenian troops. Artaxa (Artashat) - the ancient capital of Armenia - was taken, its walls were destroyed, and by 60 the whole of Armenia was conquered. In 63, a new agreement on Armenia was concluded between Parfia and Rome. The new king of Armenia from the Arshakid clan received, however, the throne from the hands of Nero, having made a trip to Rome for this.

Thus, a branch of the Arshakid dynasty (63-428 AD) was established in Armenia. And during this period it remained a buffer state. The branches of the Arshakid dynasty also established themselves in Iberia (Eastern Georgia) and Albania (northern, now Soviet Azerbaijan).

The Parthians had to not only defend their western border. The constant threat from nomadic peoples from the north and northeast did not diminish. In 72, with the support of the king of Hyrcania, the Alans marched through the “iron gates” in the Caucasus and ravaged Atropatena (Adorbaigan). Rome did not satisfy Vologesh I (71 / 72-79 / 80) for help, since his legions were busy annexing the principalities and regions bordering on Parthia. The campaign of Trajan, the future emperor, to Armenia, and then to Osroenu, made the last Roman province and largely fortified the border. In the spring of 115, Emperor Trajan moved with the support of the fleet on the Tigris and with the help of battering machines took Seleucia - Ctesiphon. The Parthian king Osroy (Khosroi) fled, leaving his daughter and the famous golden throne in the hands of the Romans. Trajan in 116 was awarded the title "Parthian".

The throne of the Parthian kings became a plaything in the hands of Roman diplomats. But in the eastern and northeastern regions of Iran, the opponents of Rome were grouped, and these Persian regions showed such strenuous resistance that the Roman troops were forced to return to the west and even abandon the movement along the Tigris to the south. In August 117 Trajan died.

Like the Greco-Macedonian expansion, the struggle between Rome and Parthia was prompted by the desire to gain access to trade routes. Suffice it to point out the proximity of Parthia to India and their deep mutual ties or trade relations with China, which brought enormous benefits.

Vologesh II (128 / 9-147) tried to maintain friendly relations with Rome. The attack of the Alans on Parthia (136) was repulsed, with support provided by troops sent from Cappadocia. The Parthians rallied with new forces and, led by King Vologesh III (ruled in 148-192), moved westward, took Edessa, crossed the Euphrates a little further south and entered Syria, where an uprising against Roman rule could be expected. Fearing this, Western legions were sent from Rome. The emperor Lucius Verus made Antioch his headquarters, restored order in the troops, and in 163 BC.

Armenia was taken by Artashat. The bloody battle took place near Dura-Europos. The Romans, developing an offensive, moved east and again took Seleucia-Ctesiphon (165). An epidemic among the Roman army forced him to retreat. The Parthians found the strength to defend and for a retaliatory offensive, which was reflected (166). The result of this campaign was the granting of the regions to the west of Habor and its political domination over Edessa and Karra (Harran).

The weakness of the royal power in Parthia, the constant struggle for the throne made it difficult for her to resist Rome. Therefore, the emperor Septimius Sever was able to make a campaign against the Parthians (196). Meanwhile, there was a struggle for the throne between two Arshakids - two Vologesh, of which one (new, IV) was in Seleucia. The uprising covered the northeastern regions of Iran. Vologesh suppressed it with his troops and after a long pursuit drove the rebels to the Caspian Sea. Because the king of Adiabena Narses did not support him, Vologesh defeated him.

The new campaign of the Romans (199), who systematically aimed at the final dominance over Parthia, was crowned with the capture of Ctesiphon and Babylon. But they failed to take Hatra Septimia Sever.

In 211, the Roman emperor Caracalla finally subdued Osroena (center - the city of Edessa), ruled by King Abgar IX, and made it a Roman province. Caracalla took advantage of another civil feud between the two Arshakid brothers - Vologesh V in Seleucia and Artaban V in Ecbatana, and captured Mesopotamia, Arbela, part of Media. Artaban V fled, gathered Parthian troops and marched beyond the Tigris (217). The Romans and Parthians met at Nisibia, since Artabanus did not agree to the terms proposed by Rome. In 218, peace was concluded.

At this time, new events were brewing in Iran. The Persians sought to shake the dominant position of the Parthians in the state. When "in 212 an uprising was raised against the king of kings, Artashir, the son of a papa, who came from a noble family of Sassanids, took the most active part in it. Papak, having annexed a number of possessions, received the title of king of Pars and asked Artaban for this title for his son Shapur. Both of them soon died, and Artashir seized the throne. The authority of the Parthians and the Arshakid dynasty had completely fallen by this time. Vologesh V was killed in 222/3, Artaban V fell in battle in 224, and his son Artavazd did not resist for long. The throne of the kings of Persia was in the hands of a new ^ strong Persian clan of the Sassanids.

§ 17. The social structure of the Parthian state

The administration of the large Parthian state was carried out through rulers, or satraps, who were placed at the head of the provinces. The administrative division partially preserved the old division of the kingdom of the Achaemenids, and then the Seleucids. Satrapies were subdivided into smaller units - dioceses or districts, in the float of which civil or military rulers were placed. Land accounting for the distribution of taxes was concentrated in the smaller centers of the dioceses, called Greek sources. Along with the king of kings, the shahanshah Arshak-dom, there were small royal dynasties that ruled in certain regions and districts as representatives of local aristocratic families. In a number of cases, the position of the rulers was completely independent. The center of the state was Media, and the summer residence of the Shahanshah was the city of Ecbatana. The kings of the kings spent the winter in Babylon.

Only the power over Mesopotamia and the path to Central Asia made Parthia a power of world importance.

The king of kings was surrounded by a large court, family nobility, and his personal military guard. Seven famous families were especially close to him. Sucks noble and the second council of "wise people and magicians", ie, "Parthian priesthood, were part of the central state power. Part of the state positions, apparently, was hereditary for this family, as for the Suren and Karen clan. The army, mainly equestrian, consisted of free and noble Parthians, and the vassal kings and princes had their own army, which served under their command, making up part of the entire Parthian army. For the latter, herds of "excellent horses, whose homeland was Media, were supplied." The Parthians were renowned for their excellent marksmanship, oh, they threw arrows with exceptional accuracy and strength. Both the warrior and the horse were protected by chain mail, which is perfectly visible in the primitive drawing "kz Dura-Europos. Auxiliary service in the army was apparently carried out by slaves.

Slavery should be considered the leading form of production relations in the Parthian state, although it did not reach the level of development that is known in other slave states, for example, in the Roman Empire. The fact of the mass sale of the Babylonian population to Media, as slaves, by the satrap G. Memer at the beginning of the 2nd century. BC NS. is one example for understanding the role of slavery in society.

In the eastern regions of Parthia, cattle breeding was developed, in the western regions, along with cattle breeding, agriculture flourished, especially in Mesopotamia, and the cultivation of vegetable gardens, orchards and vineyards was widespread. Wheat and barley were the main grain crops.

The significance of Mesopotamia, which lies at the crossroads of trade routes connecting the West with the East, did not change during the "times of the Parthian domination. The situation became somewhat complicated only at the end of the 2nd century and the beginning of the 1st century BC, when during political turmoil and civil strife The protection of trade routes was weakened.Arab nomadic tribes (Bedouins) robbed caravans with impunity, which became dangerous to drive.

The Seleucids, having lost Asia Minor, revived the trading life of the Phynician coast, which entered into a direct exchange relationship with Greece. One of the roads from the Persian Gulf went along the Titra to Seleucia, and from there to Duru Europoe and further to the Syrian trade centers. Movement along the Caspian and Black Seas developed only in Roman times. Having struck up relations with the Far East, Par-fia jealously protected her rights to them. The early period of the Parthian dominion should, however, be noted as a time of free and lively exchange. In the II and I centuries. BC NS. the trade route from the Middle Empire was defined. Goods went through Chinese Turkestan to Merv, then to Hecatompil, Ecbatana to Seleucia. In Mesopotamia, there was another very busy road, north of Seleucia, which connected Hatra with Nioibia and Zeugma. How lively the exchange was, says the appearance of Chinese silk in Syria and Egypt, the presence of Syrian textiles in Mongolia and the coins of Mithridates II in Turkestan.

Chinese traveler Zhang Qian circa 128 BC NS. took home grape and alfalfa seeds. Pomegranates were known in China as the Parthian fruit. Peaches and apricots became known in Iran from the Chinese. In addition to silk, Chinese tempering steel was highly valued in Parthia, which was brought through Merv, hence its name - "marginal steel". From Babylonia to the Heavenly Empire, ostriches, called "Parthian / birds." connected with the Indus by a waterway through the Persian Gulf. Babylon did not lose its importance in the Parthian time as a multi-tribal and multilingual trade center. Its Hellenization bore rich fruits: there were Greeks who mastered the Babylonian language, and local residents who knew Greek. space for new forms of Aramaic writing, in connection with the replacement of clay tablets with parchment and partly with papyrus Astronomy and chronology-sciences created by Babylon continued to develop.There is an assumption that China borrowed the name of the constellations from the Babylonians, and the Greeks relied on data from the Babylonian science.

The Middle Persian language, called the Parthian - Pahlavi, was the state language in Parthia. But the few monuments preserved on it are written in the Aramaic alphabet according to the system of ideograms. The writing material was parchment. The same Zhang Qian notes the method of writing the Parthians on parchment, which struck him, from left to right. "

The surviving architectural monuments, sarcophagi, sculpture speak of a high level of development of art in Parthia. Iranian art of this time has peculiar features that anticipate the pictorial art of the Sassanid era.

It is extremely significant that the pantheons of the cities of Mesopotamia in Parthian times include not only the old, local gods, but also provide a place for the Egyptian and Greek deities. Zoroastrianism and Mazdaism, professed by the Parthians, spread far beyond the boundaries of their state - in Pontus, Commagene, Cilicia, Armenia. In Hierapole-Membidzha, in Dura-Europos there were temples of the great mother of the gods - Atargatis. In the same Dura, Adad-y ​​and Nanaye Atargatis, as well as the goddess Artemis, were worshiped. The temple of the Babylonian god Atu was found in the heart of Parthia, in Uruk. Bot Bel assimilated in Ecbatana, Palmyra and Cappadocia. The coexistence of various deities speaks of a deep mutual influence and mixture of Iranian, Babylonian, Aramaean, Syrian-Christian and Greek elements. In Mesopotamia, with its trade, developed crafts, all influences, all religions crossed, and from this point of view, it is of absolutely exceptional interest.

§ 18. Results of the period

During the period discussed above, Iran went through a number of stages in the development of society and its culture. The primitive communal system was replaced by a slave-owner system, first in the form of domestic "patriarchal slavery, then its more developed forms. In this regard, the power of the Persian kings spread over large territories united in the Achaemenid period. strengthening of urban life and town planning The Parthian period characterizes the further development of social relations and elements of Iranian culture, including writing.

Around the 6th century BC. in the arena of world history, the Persians emerged. With phenomenal speed, they managed to turn from an unknown tribe into a formidable empire that existed for several hundred years.

Portrait of the ancient Persians

What the ancient Iranians were like can be judged by the ideas of the peoples who lived next to them. For example, Herodotus wrote that initially the Persians wore clothing made of skins, as well as felt caps, which were called tiaras. They did not drink wine. They ate as much as they had. They were indifferent to gold and silver. They were distinguished from neighboring peoples by their high growth, strength, courage and incredible cohesion.

It is interesting that the Persians, even having become a great power, tried to follow the precepts of their ancestors.

For example, during the coronation ceremony, the newly-made king had to wear simple clothes, eat some dried figs and wash them down with sour milk.

At the same time, the Persians could marry as many women as they saw fit. And this is without taking into account the concubines and slaves. It is also interesting that the laws did not prohibit marrying even close relatives, be they sisters or nieces. In addition, there was a custom according to which a man did not show his women to strangers. Plutarch wrote about this, pointing out that the Persians hid from prying eyes not only wives, but even concubines and slaves. And if they needed to be transported somewhere, then closed carriages were used. This custom is reflected in art. For example, in the ruins of Persepolis, archaeologists have not been able to find a single relief with a female image.

Achaemenid dynasty

The era of the omnipotence of the Persians began with King Cyrus II, who belonged to the Achaemenid family. He managed to quickly subdue the once mighty Media and several smaller states. After that, the king's gaze fell on Babylon.

The war with Babylon was just as quick. In 539 BC. Cyrus set out with his army and fought with the army of the enemy near the city of Opis. The battle ended with the complete defeat of the Babylonians. Then large Sippar was captured, and soon Babylon itself.

After this triumph, Cyrus decided to curb the wild tribes in the east, who, with their raids, could disturb the borders of his power. The king fought with nomads for several years, until he died in 530 BC.

The next kings - Cambyses and Darius - continued the work of their predecessor and further expanded the territory of the state.

So, Cambyses managed to capture Egypt and make it one of the satrapies.

By the time of the death of Darius (485 BC), the Persian Empire occupied a vast territory. In the west, its borders rested against the Aegean Sea, in the east - in India. In the north, the power of the Achaemenids extended to the deserted deserts of Central Asia, and in the south - to the rapids of the Nile. It is safe to say that Persia at that time subjugated almost the entire civilized world.

But like any empire that possessed such a vast territory, it was constantly tormented by internal turmoil and uprisings of the conquered peoples. The Achaemenid dynasty collapsed in the 4th century BC, unable to withstand the test of the army of Alexander the Great.

Sassanian state

The Persian Empire was destroyed, and its capital, Persepolis, was plundered and burned. The last of the kings of the Achaemenid dynasty, Darius III, with his retinue went to Bactria, hoping to gather a new army there. But Alexander managed to catch up with the fugitive. In order not to be captured, Darius ordered his satraps to kill him, and themselves - to flee further.

After the death of the king in the conquered Persia, the era of Hellenism began. For the common Persians, it was like death.

After all, it was not just a change of lord that took place, they were captured by the hated Greeks, who quickly and harshly began to replace the original Persian customs with their own, which means they were completely alien.

Even the arrival of the Parthian tribe, which took place in the 2nd century BC. changed nothing. The nomadic Iranian tribe managed to expel the Greeks from the territory of ancient Persia, however, they themselves fell under the influence of their culture. Therefore, even under the rule of the Parthians, exclusively Greek was used on coins and in official documents.

But the worst thing was that the temples were erected in the Greek image and likeness. And most of the Persians considered it blasphemy and sacrilege.

After all, Zarathushtra bequeathed to their ancestors that it is impossible to worship idols. Only the inextinguishable flame should be considered as a symbol of God, and sacrifices should have been made to it. But the Persians were not able to change anything.

Therefore, out of impotent rage, they called all the buildings of the Hellenic period "the structures of the Dragon."

The Persians endured Greek culture until 226 AD. But in the end, the cup overflowed. The rebellion was raised by the ruler of Parsa Ardashir, and he managed to overthrow the Parthian dynasty. This moment is considered to be the birth of the second Persian state, headed by representatives of the Sassanid dynasty.

Unlike the Parthians, they tried in every possible way to revive the very ancient culture of Persia, the beginning of which was laid by Cyrus. But it turned out to be difficult to do this, since the Greek dominance almost completely erased the legacy of the Achaemenids from the memory. Therefore, the society, which the Zoroastrian priests told about, was chosen as a "guiding star" for the revived state. And it so happened that the Sassanids tried to revive such a culture, which in reality never existed. And at the forefront was religion.

But the people of Persia embraced the ideas of the new rulers with enthusiasm. Therefore, under the Sassanids, the entire Hellenic culture began to quickly dissolve: the temples were destroyed, and the Greek language ceased to be official. Instead of statues of Zeus, the Persians began to erect altars of fire.

Under the Sassanids (3rd century AD), there was another clash with the hostile Western world - the Roman Empire. But this time this confrontation ended in victory for the Persians. In honor of the significant event, King Shapur I ordered to carve a bas-relief on the rocks, which depicted his triumph over the Roman emperor Valerian.

The capital of Persia was the city of Ctesiphon, once erected by the Parthians. But the Persians essentially "combed" it to match their newfound culture.

Persia began to develop rapidly thanks to the competent use of the irrigation system. Under the Sassanids, the territory of ancient Persia, as well as Mesopotamia, becomes literally riddled with underground water pipes made of clay pipes (cariza). Their cleaning was carried out using wells dug at intervals of ten kilometers. This modernization allowed Persia to successfully grow cotton, sugarcane and develop winemaking. At the same time, Persia became almost the main world supplier of a wide variety of fabrics: from woolen to silk.

The fall of the empire

The history of the Sassanian dynasty ended after a fierce and bloody war with the Arabs, which lasted almost twenty years (633-651). It is difficult to reproach the last king of Yezdeget III for anything. He fought the invaders to the very end, and was not going to surrender. But Yezdeget died ingloriously - near Merv, a miller stabbed him in a dream, encroaching on the king's jewels.

But even after the official victory, the Persians, every now and then raised uprisings, however, unsuccessful. Even the internal turmoil in the caliphate did not allow the ancient people to gain freedom. Only Gugan and Tabaristan, the last fragments of a once great power, held out the longest. But they were also captured by the Arabs in 717 and 760, respectively.

And although the Islamization of Iran was successful, the Arabs were never able to assimilate the Persians, who managed to maintain their self-identity. Closer to 900, under the new Samanid dynasty, they managed to gain independence. True, Persia could no longer become a great power again.

A Brief History of Iran for Tourists. Everything a traveler needs to know about the history of Iran (history of Persia): history of ancient Iran (Zoroastrianism, Achaemenids, Cyrus the Great, Darius, Persepolis, Sassanids), history of the Middle Ages of Iran (Arab conquest of Iran, Umayyads, Abbasids, Buyids, Seljukids, Safavids , Abbas the Great, Zendy, Qajars); recent history of Iran (Pahlavi, Iran in World War II, Islamic Revolution, Ayatollah Khomeini, Operation Argo, Iran-Iraq war, Ahmadinejad, Rouhani).

I confess, before my trip to Iran, I got acquainted with its history rather superficially. In the meantime, this is definitely worth doing in order to better understand the context of the creation (and destruction) of the many historical monuments to be seen. Even while preparing this superficial and short course on the history of Iran (or the history of Persia), I was carried away by reading stories about the Persians widely known in narrow and not so circles and the turbulent past of the country. Yes, a good guide can tell a lot. But even the information from the guide is better perceived when you more or less holistically imagine the general picture of what was happening. So I decided to write this short history of Iran for travelers. I will give most of the information on history directly in this large post, and some additional points can be read in the links to information about the attractions.

At its best, Persia was the most powerful empire of the East, exerting a powerful cultural and political influence, and considered the most populated state, under whose rule (under the Achaemenids), perhaps, almost half of the world's inhabitants were. Only after the 18th century did Persia lose its former greatness.

The history of Iran is more than 5 thousand years old. The first reliably known state, Elam, appeared on the territory of Khuzestan as early as the 3rd millennium BC. The language is Elamite. The capital is Susa.

Media, the first state on the territory of Iran that had significant influence, appeared in the VIII-VII centuries. BC. The Medes managed to establish their power in the western and parts of the eastern lands of Iran. Later, in alliance with Babylon, they defeated the Assyrians, subjugating Mesopotamia and Urartu. Language - Median.

Median kingdom (green fill) in the heyday (670 - 550 BC)

A huge contribution to the formation of Persia as an empire was made by the shahinshah - "king of kings" -, the founder the Achaemenid dynasty, one of the most revered rulers of the pre-Islamic period of Iranian history. It is more correct to call him Kurush the Great, and not Cyrus, because in Farsi “kir” ... how to put it mildly ... corresponds to the Russian obscene designation of the male genital organ. And it happened to him to become Cyrus in Russian transcription because of the Greeks - the Greeks called Kurush in their usual manner Kyros. And in the Russian linguistic tradition, it is customary to remove the ending “wasps” from Greek names. Here is such an intricate unintentional revenge of the Greeks on the eternal enemy turned out.

Tourists should definitely know more about the Achaemenids. Quite a lot of important monuments of the history of ancient Iran are associated with this dynasty.

Interesting legend about the origin of Cyrus.

The Medes king Astyages had a dream that from the womb of his daughter Mandana, a spring began to beat, flooding the whole of Asia. The interpreters of dreams told the king that this dream means the birth of a grandson, who will become a king and seize all the possessions of his grandfather. Astyages, out of harm's way, married his daughter to a modest Persian (not Median) nobleman, hoping that his grandson would not grow up ambitious. But after the birth of Cyrus, the vision returned again, but in a different form. Astyages decided not to tempt fate and ordered his courtier named Harpak to kill the newborn. Harpak took Cyrus to the forest, but did not kill him himself, but ordered the shepherd he met to do it. But when the shepherd came home, it turned out that his own child had just died in childbirth. The shepherd and his wife decided to keep Cyrus for themselves, and they dressed the stillborn in his clothes and carried them to the mountains, reporting on the fulfillment of the task. As a result, Cyrus grew up among the mob (the shepherd was a slave), but even then he was distinguished by leadership qualities. Once other children, playing, chose Cyrus as king. One of the boys, being the son of a nobleman, did not want to acknowledge the leadership of Cyrus, for which he was beaten. Cyrus was taken to Astyages for punishment, and he recognized him as a grandson by familiar features. The shepherd confessed to the substitution. Astyages became furious, and as punishment at a banquet he fed the unsuspecting Garpag with the meat of his son, the same age as Cyrus. Satisfied with the revenge, he again interrogated the priests about the prediction, and received the answer that there was nothing more to fear - it had already come true, because Cyrus's children were elected king, and nothing happened. Astyages relaxed and sent Cyrus to his parents in Persia. But in vain. Having raised the uprising, Cyrus defeated Astyages, and not without the help of Harpagus - the Median king appointed him to command the army sent to pacify the rebels. But Harpagus led the army into an encirclement and surrendered it to Cyrus, thus avenging Astyages for his murdered son.

Until his death in 529 BC. NS. Cyrus II the Great subdued all of Western Asia from the Mediterranean and Anatolia to the Syr Darya. Earlier, in 546 BC, Cyrus founded the capital of his kingdom - where he was buried.

Kambiz, the heir to Cyrus and his eldest son, continued his father's business by organizing a campaign to northern Africa, suppressing the uprising in Egypt and trying to seize the kingdom of Kish (Nubia) on the territory of present-day Sudan. Cambyses was an eccentric sovereign, and the failure in the African campaign undermined his authority. Taking advantage of the absence of Cambyses, he seized power in Persia magician Gaumata, declaring himself Bardia, the youngest son of Cyrus (previously secretly killed by Cambyses). It sounds like a fairy tale, but in fact, temple priests were called magicians in Persia at that time, the usual meaning of "magician" was assigned to the word "magician" much later. However, the priests' contemporaries had no doubt that they knew how to conjure.

Be that as it may, Cambyses hastened to return from Egypt to the capital, but on the way he died of gangrene, accidentally wounding himself with a sword. The magician (priest) Gaumata ruled Persia under the guise of Bardia for seven months, after which the deception was revealed, and he was killed by seven conspirators from the nobility, among whom was Darius, a distant relative of Cambyses, to whom the title of tsar passed. This is how the story is set out according to the version of Darius I himself, who ordered in memory of this to carve a bas-relief in the rock outlining what happened in the ancient Persian, Babylonian and Elamite languages ​​( Behistun inscription). According to another version, the conspirators killed the real Bardia, declaring him the magician Gaumata.

According to legend, since the conspirators were of approximately equal origin, they decided that the lot (or god) would determine who became king. They agreed that in the morning they would ride on their horses to the pasture, and the one whose horse would laugh first would become the king. Darius decided to help the higher powers a little with a choice - on the eve of the decisive day, he sent his servant with a horse to the agreed place, where the stallion was waiting for a date with a beautiful filly. Therefore, when the next morning the comrades in the struggle for the royal throne gathered together, as agreed, the horse of Darius recognized the place and whinnied happily, calling on his girlfriend, providing the resourceful master to the throne.

After Darius ascended the throne, numerous uprisings began in the country, which were brutally suppressed. For 36 years of his reign, Darius I subdued Persia Kish, Punt (part of modern Ethiopia), the coast of Libya, Cyprus, Thrace (part of Bulgaria), western India. The power of Darius was also recognized by the Carthaginians - the entire coast of northern Africa to Gibraltar. During the military campaign of Darius in Scythia (512 BC), the Persians, passing through the Bosphorus (having built ferries across it and across the Danube), along the Black Sea coast reached almost the Caucasus. But the Scythians exhausted Darius by flight. They did not engage in battle with superior enemy forces, attacking only small detachments. They burned the grass and buried springs on the way of the Persians, and to the demands of the ambassadors to fight or submit, they answered, mocking that they did not run away, but wandered in accordance with custom. As a result, Darius was forced to abandon the plan to break through to Persia through the Caucasus and returned the same way.

Darius' campaign against the Scythians (@Anton Gutsunaev)

In 499-493 BC. Darius pacified the rebellious Greece. Only Sparta and Athens remained unconquered - 12.09.490 BC. the outnumbered Persians, due to a number of tactical mistakes, lost the Battle of Marathon to the Athenians. Darius, not wanting to put up with defeat, intended to return with a huge army, and take revenge, but died in 486 BC. at the age of 72 from illness, and was buried in the tomb of the necropolis in the rocks, leaving behind the Achaemenid empire at the height of its power.

Darius I also carried out a number of important reforms that contributed to the strengthening of order and economic growth: a single gold coin "Darik" was introduced for the empire, the tax system was changed, the construction of cities, paved roads, canals was actively going on, and trade flourished. Darius began construction Parsis- the legendary holiday city. In Egypt, Darius resumed and completed the previously abandoned construction of a navigable canal from the Nile to the Red Sea, providing a navigable route from Europe and the Middle East to Persia.

Under Daria I was built Royal road, a stone-paved “autobahn” connecting the main cities of the empire from Sardis on the Aegean coast of modern Turkey to Susa, the capital of Elam, near the modern Iranian-Iraqi border. The length of the Tsar's road, considered a construction miracle of its era, was 2,699 km. Horse couriers delivered mail on this "autobahn" in 7 days - every every 15 km. there were post stations where a rider changed a tired horse. For a hiker, the journey took about 90 days.

A few days after the Battle of Thermopylae, the Persians took Athens, plundered and destroyed the Acropolis. Themistocles, a prominent Athenian politician and commander (524-459), by that time convinced the main part of the population of Athens to take refuge on the island of Salamis, in the straits of which the Persians after a while, thanks to Themistocles, suffered a crushing defeat, which changed the course of the war in favor of the Greeks ... Fearing the destruction of the Bosphorus crossing by the Greek fleet, the Persians were forced to retreat to Asia Minor, and the Greeks launched a counteroffensive.

The Achaemenid Empire begins to weaken. It is known that in 467 BC. there was a famine in the state, discontent was ripening among the people. In 465 BC. Xerxes I and his son Darius were killed as a result of a palace conspiracy by the chief of the royal guard Artaban and the eunuch Aspamitra. Learning of this, the youngest son of Xerxes, Artaxerxes I Dolgoruky(he had one arm longer), dealt with the conspirators, at the same time executed the sons of Artaban, after which he took the place of his father at the head of the empire. Another son of Xerxes, Gistapus, tried to seize the throne by force, leading a campaign against his brother, but was defeated and killed. After that, Artaxerxes decided that it was easier to prevent problems than to solve them. And, just in case, he destroyed the rest of his brothers.

In 460 BC. Egypt rebelled against the Persians, who came to the aid of the Greeks. Only 4 years later, control over it was restored. Artaxerxes used new tactics in the fight against Athens - by bribing Greek politicians, he created a "fifth column" - a pro-Persian lobby. Artaxerxes warmly accepted Themistocles, expelled by the Athenians for treason (a secret treaty with the Spartans, who by that time had become enemies of the Athenians), for whose head he had previously appointed a large reward. As a result, since Themistocles himself appeared to Artaxerxes, he not only issued a reward to Themistocles, but also granted him five small towns so that he had something to do at his leisure. After some time, the king demanded a favor - to lead a campaign against Greece. According to legend, Themistocles chose to poison himself.

The sluggish Greco-Persian war wore on both sides, and in 449 BC, 51 years after its start, the Peace of Call was concluded, which defined the borders of states and the demilitarized zone along them.

The reign of Artaxerxes I was generally characterized as wise and just, merciful to the conquered peoples. Thus, Artaxerxes allowed the Jews to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem. He died a natural death in 424 BC.

In 336 BC. century Alexander the Great with 38-42 thousand soldiers invaded Persia. The skillful commander managed to break the resistance of the outnumbered Persian army. In 330 BC Pasargadae and Persepolis were, and the king of Persia, Darius III, was killed by the satraps who betrayed him.

The territory of the Achaemenid empire was included in the state of Alexander the Great, but after the death of the commander in 323 BC, his empire collapsed, and for centuries Persia became a place of constant confrontation between Parthia and the Seleucids (descendants of one of the generals of Alexander the Great).

Romans, Seleucids and Parthians, 200

The beginning of the revival of Persia was laid Ardashir I Papakan(born 180, reigned 224-241) from a little-known family from the town of Heyer, a distant descendant of the Achaemenids. There are several historical versions of its origin. According to the official Iranian, Ardashir's father, Sasan, was engaged in cattle grazing in the courtyard of Papak, the king of a small city. After the king dreamed that the shepherd was a noble man, and his children would go down in history, Sasan confirmed that he was descended from an ancient royal family. King Papak, in joy, married his daughter to a noble shepherd, and Ardashir was soon born to them.

Ardashir at a young age goes to the court of the king of Parsa, the Parthian Artaban, but there he has a conflict, and he flees from retribution. A pretty servant, who appreciated the overheard conversations of the sages that Ardashir is destined to become king one day, ties in with him. The girl for her beloved, when she escaped, took away from Artaban a beautiful ram, which in fact is not a ram at all, but farr- the divine essence of royal power. Well, with Farr on his side, it was impossible not to defeat the enemies.

In 224, after defeating Parthia, he created "Kingdom of the Aryans" - Eranshahr establishing a new ruling the Sassanid dynasty(capitals - Istakhr, Ctesiphon, languages ​​- Middle Persian and Aramaic, religion - Zoroastrianism) In the next three hundred years, the empire absorbed the Middle East Mediterranean from Turkey to Egypt, the Arabian coast of the Persian Gulf, Yemen, the Caucasus, Central Asia and Afghanistan.

The Sassanid Empire (224-651) at its best

Shapur I(241-272 years), the son of the founder of the Sassanid dynasty, Ardashir I, was respected by his subjects for wisdom, justice, bravery and talent as a commander (and hated by the Romans and the people of Asia Minor for the merciless cruelty shown during periodic devastating invasions).

There is a legend about his origin that Ardashir I Papakan married Shapur's future mother, not knowing that she was the daughter of his sworn enemy - Artaban, king of Parthia, whose family he swore to destroy. Once the queen's brothers persuaded her to poison her husband, but at the last moment she dropped the cup of wine and confessed everything to Ardashir. Sincere repentance did not help her. The king ordered the execution of both the brothers and herself. But the vizier, who was entrusted with the execution, learned from the queen that she was pregnant with the heir to Ardashir (which the latter was not aware of). The vizier did not take a sin on his soul - he hid her highness with him. And in general, he solved the problem of sin radically - he cut off his penis, packed it in a bundle, took it to the king and asked the transferred to be sealed in a box.

The queen safely gave birth to a boy. The Vizier called him simply, but tastefully - the Tsar's Son (this is what he means Shapur in Persian). Eight years later, the vizier waited for his finest hour: Ardashir felt sad from loneliness (here I did not understand - he did not have a harem?), And the truth that the queen was alive, and even with a ready seven-year-old royal heir, was revealed. In confirmation of the fact that the son of the royal, and not the vizier, was solemnly removed from the sealed casket kept by the king ... Proof of the vizier's integrity was extracted.

But in fact, historians argue that this is just a legend - the timing of it does not beat the known dates of Shapur's birth.

Be that as it may, Ardashir doted in his son, and even from some moment they began to reign collegially.

Subsequent Sassanids ruled the country with varying degrees of success. Persia and Byzantium over time significantly weakened each other by constant wars, and in 633 they had a new formidable enemy in the person of the Muslim Arabs who attacked the Sassanid empire. As a result of a fierce 20-year war, by 652 the conquered Persia became part of Umayyad Caliphate(the capital is Damascus, the language is Arabic, the religion is Sunnism).

Arab Caliphate. Burgundy - the conquests of Muhammad (622-632), terracotta - the conquests of the Righteous Caliphs (632-661), sand - the conquests of the Umayyads (661-750)

The conquest of Iran by the Arabs marked the beginning of an active process of Islamization, which seriously influenced the entire Persian culture. Arab influence during the Islamic period of Iranian history contributed to the flourishing of medicine, philosophy, architecture, poetry, calligraphy and painting in Iran. Representatives of Persian science and culture, in turn, made a significant contribution to the formation of Islamic civilization.

In the middle of the VIII century, the power of the Umayyads in the caliphate came to an end. Family Abbasids taking advantage of the dissatisfaction of the Persians who had converted to Islam, the inequality in relation to the Arab nobility, they revolted. In 750, their army, with the support of the Shiites under the command of the Persian general Abu Muslim, swept the Umayyads, almost completely destroying them. Despite the fact that the Abbasids did not differ in their meek disposition (soon after the victory over the Umayyads they), the new dynasty, which transferred the capital to Baghdad and completed the creation of the Arab Caliphate, remained in history a symbol of Islamic unity. Thanks to the policy of the Abbasids, the Muslim Persians received equal rights with the Arabs, which contributed to the acceleration of the Islamization of Iran.

Capitals of the Abbasid Caliphate - Anbar, Baghdad, Samarra; Arabic language. Religion - Islam (Sunnism and Shiism).

Despite the adoption of Islam, the power of the Arabs themselves was not accepted by the Persians. At the beginning of the 9th century, the struggle against the Arabization of Persia intensified, and by 875 the national independence of Iran was actually restored through appointments to key posts in the Persian state with fairly broad powers.

In 934, in northeastern Iran, a rebellion of the Buyids- a new dynasty from the Deilemit people, inhabiting the mountainous regions of the Iranian coast of the Caspian Sea. Three brothers are warriors Imad ad-Daula, Hasan and Ahmad from the Buyid family, claiming kinship with the shahs from the Iranian royal dynasty of the Sassanids, as a result of a successful coincidence of circumstances for them and thanks to persistence, political and military talents, managed to subjugate the Iranian province of Fars first, and then reached Baghdad, in fact, making the Abbasids their vassals, retaining only nominal power for them. Since each of the brothers was fighting on its own "front", then under the control of each of them the corresponding part (emirate) of the new state was transferred - the Buyid state was a confederation. Each of the emirates was autonomously and independently governed amir - prince . At the same time, the amirs, by mutual agreement, recognized the seniority of one of them, amir-al-umara- the main amir, sometimes also referred to in the Persian Sassanian tradition shahinshah- the king of kings.

Confederation of Amirates of Buyids. The capitals are Shiraz, Rey, Baghdad. Languages ​​Deilemitic, Persian (state), Arabic (religious). The main religion is Shiism.

Amirat Confederation of Buyids (934-1062), in 970

Since the end of the 11th century, the rulers of the Turkic Khorezm, located northeast of Iran in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya, once part of the Achaemenid empire, tried with varying success to free themselves from the power of the Seljukids, but only by 1196 the Khorezmshah (ruler of Khorezm) Tekesh managed to finally defeat the Seljukid troops. and the Abbasids, thereby completing the creation of another powerful empire, which includes Iran - state of Khorezmshahs(1077-1231). The capitals are Gurganj, Samarkand, Ghazni, Tabriz. Languages ​​- Persian, Kypchak. Religion - Sunnism.

After the death of Tekesh, his youngest son, Muhammad II, as a result of constant wars, managed to further expand the territory of the empire. However, in 1218 Muhammad II came into conflict with Genghis Khan overestimating their strength.

The history of the conflict has some discrepancies, but the circumstances were approximately as follows. In 1218, Genghis Khan sent an embassy to Khorezm, consisting of 450-500 camels with goods, with a proposal to the Khorezmshah to join forces to conquer new territories and joint trade. However, the uncle of Muhammad II Kaiyr Khan, offended by the lack of respect from the Mongols, accused the caravan of espionage and, with the permission of the Khorezmshah, arrested the goods and merchants (according to another version, he interrupted the merchants and sold the goods). Genghis Khan, in response to the news of this, sent an embassy of two Mongols and one Muslim with a demand to extradite Kayir Khan for his punishment. Muhammad II considered it beneath his dignity to negotiate with the infidels (the Mongols professed shamanism), moreover, he was sure that his army, the greatest in the region (if not the world) of that time, consisted of 500,000 infantry and 500,000 horsemen (the latter, however, they were not regular units), will easily be able to withstand the 200,000 soldiers that Genghis Khan had. Therefore, he did not answer Genghis Khan. The head of the Muslim ambassador was cut off (according to the version according to which the caravan was only arrested, those arrested were executed along with the ambassador of Genghis Khan). The Mongols' ambassadors had their beards shaved off.

And Muhammad II was able to repel the Mongol invasion that followed. Its first wave ... In 1219, the second wave washed away the state of the Horzmshahs into oblivion. Because the army of Muhammad II, although it was huge, consisted mainly of recruits of the peoples he defeated, recruited according to the principle of "kill half, half for the service," who hated Muhammad. In addition, the Khorezmshah did not dare to give an open battle, but dispersed his forces, sending them to the defense of the cities.

The cities of Khorezm were razed to the ground. Kaiyr Khan held the defense of the city of Otrar from the Mongols for 5 months, and for another month he defended himself in a fortress inside the city after its fall. He was captured by his own bodyguards and handed over to the Mongols, taken to Genghis Khan. He behaved courageously and daringly. Executed by pouring molten silver into eyes and ears. Muhammad II was more fortunate - he managed to escape and die soon in exile and poverty from pleurisy.

Genghis Khan's revenge was fierce even by the standards of his always brutal campaigns. Forty years of Mongol rule is one of the darkest periods in Iranian history. The population of the country during this time has decreased from 2.5 million to 250 thousand people.

Mongol Empire: capitals - Karakorum, Khanbalik; languages ​​- Mongolian and Turkic), the predominant religion is shamanism (Buddhism and Christianity are also popular).

However, the take-off was short-lived, and after the death of Abbas the Great, the empire was noticeably weakening, as evidenced by the losses of Baghdad and Kandahar.

At the beginning of the 16th century, Persia suffered defeat after defeat from the Ottomans and Russians, losing territory. As a result of the Russian-Persian war of 1722-123, Russia of Peter I received Baku and Derbent from the Persians. In 1722, the insurgent Afghans captured Isfahan, killing almost the entire Safavid family and placing Mahmud Khan at the head of the country. The surviving 18-year-old Prince Tahmasp II fled and tried to organize a rebuff to the Afghans. Nadir Shah(1688-1747), a well-known by that time "field commander" of Turkmen origin from the Afshar tribe, who traded with his squad in robberies, racketeering and mercenary activities, offered the prince his services, and he gladly agreed.

An experienced military leader expelled the Afghans from Iran and received virtually unlimited power from the prince. After successful campaigns against the Turks in the Caucasus, Nadir Shah, who strengthened his authority as a result of intrigue, deposed and killed Takhmasp II and his son, declaring himself shah and laying the foundation for dynasty Afsharid(1736-1796). Nadir Shah consistently (but unsuccessfully) made attempts to reform the religious life of the country, trying to unite Shiism with Sunni Islam.

State of Afsharid. The capital is Mashhad. Language - Farsi (civilian), Turkic (military).

After ascending the throne, Nadir Khan drove the Ottomans from the Caucasus, forced Russia to leave the Caspian regions, defeated Afghanistan, returned Kandahar and captured Kabul. The fleeing enemies took refuge in India. Nadir Shah demanded from the Indian Great Mogul Mohammed Shah not to give them asylum, but he refused, which was the reason for the Persian invasion of India.

In 1739, the Persians conquered Delhi. In response, the locals revolted. On the orders of Nadir Shah, the movement was brutally suppressed, about 30 thousand people died. India was subjected to merciless robberies, during which the symbol of the ruling Mughal dynasty was taken out of the country - the chic Peacock throne, made of two tons of pure gold. A huge number of precious stones were taken to Iran, among which were the famous Shah and Koh-i-Nor diamonds. Only diamonds were sent from India over 5 tons, which were transported on 21 camels, and the pearls were not even counted.

In 1740, the Persian army invaded Central Asia and conquered Turkestan, expanding the borders of the state to the Amu Darya. In the Caucasian direction, we managed to reach Dagestan. In the Caucasus, the Persians met fierce resistance, to which they responded with brutal reprisals. In the end, the Persian army was defeated by poorly armed and small, but skillful and brave Avar warriors. At the end of his reign, Nadir Shah turns into a bloodthirsty paranoid. Dissatisfaction with the authorities grew, and when in 1747 the Shah set out to exterminate the Persians serving in his multinational army, he was killed by the conspirators.

After several years of internecine wars that followed the death of Nadir Shah, as a result of a combination of circumstances, one of the commanders of Nadir Shah came to rule the country in 1763 - Kerim Khan(1705-1779) - representative of the dynasty Zendow(1753-1794), the first ethnic Persian in many centuries.

After the death of Kerim Khan, who seized power from the Zend Agha Mohammed Shah Qajar(1742-1797), castrated at the age of six, is known for his cruelty. He began a campaign against the Zends in 1779, after the death of Kerim Khan. The massacre of opponents was accompanied by the unprecedented destruction of Isfahan, Shiraz and Kerman and the massacres, looting and rape of their inhabitants. The ashes of Karim Khan were recovered from the grave and transferred under the threshold of the palace of Aga Mohammed. In 1795, with an army of 35,000, he marched against Georgia, using as a formal pretext the alliance of the Georgian king Irakli with Russia. Irakli asked for help from Russia. Unfortunately, the help from Russia was late. The 5,000-strong army of Heraclius managed to inflict a sensitive blow to the advanced units of the Persians, forcing the Shah to doubt a possible victory. But, having received news of the small number of Irakli's detachment, Aga-Mohammed overcame his fierce resistance and occupied Tbilisi, destroying the city, exterminating and enslaving the inhabitants. In pursuance of an allied treaty with Georgia, Russia sent troops to the Caucasus, capturing Derbent and taking Baku without a fight. However, with the ascension to the throne of Paul I, the Russian army was ordered to return.

In 1796, Aga-Mohammed was proclaimed shah of Iran, but a year later he died at the hands of his servants in Karabakh. Under Aga Mohammed, Tehran finally became the capital of Iran.

Agha Mohammed Shah Qajar

(1772-1834), who ascended the throne (1797-1834), was considered a weak ruler, devoting more time to entertainment and patronage than politics. 150 (this is not a typo, one hundred and fifty) of his sons filled various government positions throughout the country. 150 sons! And 20 more daughters ... They probably didn’t even know each other :).

In fairness, it should be noted that Feth Ali Shah's interests were not limited to carnal pleasures, but he also read a lot during breaks. One of the gifts he received in 1797 was the complete Encyclopedia Britannica, which he read cover to cover, and to commemorate this civil feat he added to his title "Greatest Master and Master of the Encyclopedia Britannica."

Corruption flourished. It is clear that in such conditions, Iran's positions in the foreign policy arena have significantly weakened. England and Russia acquired significant influence in Persia, alternately persuading the Shah to "be friends against each other" during the "Great Game" - the struggle for influence in Afghanistan, which served as a buffer between the Central Asian possessions of Russia and the British East Indies. In 1826 - 1828, the shah tried to recapture the lost Caucasian territories from Russia, but extremely unsuccessfully, and was forced to conclude peace with Russia on unfavorable terms of paying a huge indemnity, losing even more lands. It was after the end of this war that the embassy arrived in Tehran with Griboyedov, torn apart by an angry crowd. Only one managed to hide. All the rest, 37 people, including Griboyedov and 35 Cossacks of the guards, were killed. The attackers, according to various sources, lost from 19 to 80 people. Feth Ali Shah sent a large number of gifts to Moscow, fearing harsh retaliation from Russia. But the gifts, including the Shah diamond conquered from the Mughals, which can now be seen in the Diamond Fund in the Kremlin, were received favorably and even the size of the contribution was reduced.

Mohammed Shah(1810-1848), the next ruler of Iran (1834-1848), read feeble-minded. At first he accepted money and military aid from England, then he took the side of Russia in a joint campaign against Afghanistan, supported by Britain. And he lost the war.

In 1848 he was called to the throne (1831-1896), which left a significant mark in the history of Iran. His native language was Azerbaijani, during his reign he mastered Persian and French. He visited many European countries, visited Russia. He blogged about his travels in diaries, which were later published. Supporter of Europeanization of Iran and reformer. He invited many foreign specialists to the country - architects, builders, and the military. The French helped reorganize the army. He laid a telegraph in the country. He conducted several successful military campaigns against the Turkmen and Khivans. Lost the war with the British, who landed on the Persian Gulf coast in 1856. Following the defeat, Persia pledged to return the previously captured Afghan territories and end the slave trade in the Persian Gulf (the British demanded the abolition of slavery from Persia since 1846, but the Shah refused, arguing that the Koran slavery is not prohibited and there is no above law).

He was a rather tough and despotic person. During his reign, in 1856, the Bab was executed, the founder of a new religion, Babism, which later developed into Bahaism, whose doctrine affirms the equivalence of all monotheistic religions, united by faith in one God, social and gender equality, rejection of racial, political, religious and other prejudices, etc. Attempts were organized on the Shah, and in 1896, after 47 years of rule,. Buried in the Golestan Palace. It should be noted that in modern Iran one can find everywhere a huge number of images of Nasreddin Shah in everyday life - on dishes, hookahs, bedspreads, souvenirs.

Son of Nasruddin Shah, Mozafereddin Shah Qajar(1853-1907), who ruled from 1896 to 1907, although he continued his father's reforms, strengthening the army with the help of European instructors, he was considered a weak and sick ruler who squandered the state's economy by selling concessions to European companies on the cheap. From the good - he laid the foundation for Iranian cinema and saved Iranian Azerbaijanis from hunger. In 1906, under pressure from society, he was forced to create Mejelis (parliament) and adopt a Constitution. Soon after, he died - his heart could not stand it.

Mohammad Ali(1872-1925), heir to the deceased, in 1908 organized a coup and dispersed Mejelis. Helped him in this Persian Cossack Brigade... Yes, there was one in Iran - since 1879. In the Golestan Palace you can, on which the Persian Cossacks are in full dress. During his visit to Russia, Nasreddin-Shah fell in love with the Terek Cossacks, and he wanted the same at home, in which Russia was happy to help; the command of the Persian Cossack brigade consisted of Russian officers, a brigade, and later a division, was considered the Shah's personal guard.

But the people rebelled against the Shah, and already in the next year, 1909, he was deposed and fled to Russia. In 1911 he tried to regain power again, having landed with a Russian landing, reached Tehran, besieged it, but was defeated and went to live in Odessa. After the revolution in Russia, he first went to Istanbul, and then to San Remo, where he died in 1925.

After the removal of Mohammed Ali Shah, his eleven-year-old son was enthroned Sultan Ahmad Shah (1898-1930).

Sultan Ahmad Shah Qajar

Of course, he was an exclusively decorative figure in the hands of the regents.

In the summer of 1918, the British army invades Iran and occupies its entire territory with the aim of organizing a springboard for suppressing the Bolshevik revolution in Russia. A year later, the Anglo-Iranian treaty was signed, which regulated the complete control by Great Britain over the military and economic spheres of Iran's life.

The intervention in Soviet Russia failed. In 1920, the Bolsheviks took advantage of the pretext of the need to take control of the British-guarded Caspian Flotilla, which had been brought to Iran by the Whites, and landed at the port of Anzali on May 19. There was no serious resistance, the ships were withdrawn to Baku, but part of the landing force remained in Persia with the intention of raising a popular uprising. Taking advantage of the support of the Bolsheviks, local nationalists captured the city of Rasht - the center of the province - and announced the creation Gilyan Soviet Republic, from where, in the future, a campaign against Tehran was organized twice, but both times without much success due to the scarcity of resources. Nevertheless, Iran, weakened by the war, was forced to sign rather humiliating agreements with Soviet Russia. The territory of Iran was essentially controlled by Soviet and British troops.

In February 1921, with the support of the British Reza Khan Pahlavi(1878-1944), colonel of the same Persian Cossack brigade (in which he once began his military career as a private), organized a military coup. At the head of only 3,000 Persian Cossacks with 18 machine guns, he almost bloodlessly occupied Tehran and appointed a new government to restore order in the country. Reza Pahlavi himself initially assigned the role of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief and Minister of Defense.

Reza Khan Pahlavi

Pahlavi agreed in March 1921 from the RSFSR to stop attempts to export the revolution to Persia, signing a peace treaty with her, according to which the Soviet side renounced the rights to the royal property (ports and railways) in Persia and secured the right to send troops to Iran in case of conducting an anti-Soviet policy by him. Soon after this, the Gilan Soviet Republic fell, tormented by internal political quarrels.

In 1921, Ahmad Shah went on a long trip to Europe for medical treatment. Two years later, Pahlavi obtained from Mejelis the overthrow of the Qajar dynasty, and in 1925 - proclaiming himself the new shah, reviving the historical title of the Persian rulers - shahinshah (“king of kings”). In 1930, Sultan Ahmad Shah died in Europe after a long illness.

In 1935, the country officially changed its name to Iran, in line with the tradition of the Persians calling themselves "Irani". In the history of Iran, Reza Pahlavi has an ambiguous role. In the course of large-scale modernization, recognized as one of the most successful for the developing countries of that time, the industry and infrastructure were significantly improved. At the same time, the reign of Reza Pahlavi was tough and authoritarian. The opposition was virtually destroyed by 1930, its leaders (and often former associates) were thrown into prison or executed.

In November 1940, during negotiations between the USSR and Germany, options for the distribution of the spheres of world influence of the Axis countries (Germany, Italy, Japan) with the participation of the USSR were discussed. Stalin was interested in access to the ports of the Indian Ocean with their year-round (in contrast to the northern Soviet ports) navigation. The negotiations did not yield results - Stalin was not ready at that time to oppose Britain, whose interests would inevitably be affected by the invasion of Iran. But he began preparations for the seizure of Iran.

However, the German attack on the USSR changed the balance, making Britain an ally. Hitler, on the other hand, negotiated with Iran on the construction of a railway from Turkey through its territory. This would allow him to transfer military supplies to the Caucasus. In addition, there were risks of blocking the Trans-Iranian route, along which Lend-Lease supplies to the USSR were carried out and the Middle East group of Allied troops was supplied, and the transfer of Iranian oil fields to the Germans, which provided a significant share of the Allies' fuel needs.

Knowing about Pahlavi's historical sympathies for the Germans (Germany, unlike Russia and Britain, never fought Iran), the allies demanded an ultimatum from Reza Shah to expel all Germans from Iran and agree to the deployment of Soviet and British garrisons. Reza Shah ignored the demand. As a result, the USSR took advantage of the provision of the peace treaty with Iran, allowing the entry of troops into Iran in the event of a threat to the USSR, and, in the course of a joint Operation "Consent" On August 24, 1941, Soviet and British troops invaded Iran.

In some areas, the Iranian army resisted Soviet-British occupation of Iran fiercely. However, the cowardice and unprofessionalism of many officers, Pahlavi's refusal to blow up roads and bridges (which he had previously rebuilt with such difficulty) and the significant superiority of the Allies over the Iranians in numbers and technology forced the Shah to issue a ceasefire order 5 days after the start of the invasion.

The losses of the parties amounted to:

• USSR - 40 people, 3 planes;
• Britain - 22 killed, 50 wounded, 1 tank
• Iran - killed about 800 military and 200 civilians, lost 2 patrol boats, 2 patrol ships, 6 aircraft. The allies took control of the oil fields and railway junctions.

Furious at defeat, Pahlavi dismissed the pro-British prime minister, Ali Mansour, and reinstated the previous prime minister, Mohammed Ali Forugi, in charge of negotiations with the Russians and the British. But Forugi hated Pahlavi - in the past, he persecuted him for opposition activities, and executed Forugi's son. Therefore, during negotiations with the occupation authorities, Forugi said that he would greet the liberators together with the Iranian people.

The occupation authorities demanded that all German citizens be handed over to them. Realizing that this would mean imprisonment or death for them, Reza Shah was in no hurry to answer, but secretly ordered to organize the evacuation of the Germans from the country through Turkey, which was done by 18 September. It is worth noting that earlier the Iranian embassy in Berlin saved more than 1,500 Jews by secretly providing them with Iranian passports.

On September 16, upon learning that the Germans were allowed to leave the country, the Soviet command moved tanks to Tehran. On September 17, 1941, Reza Shah Pahlavi abdicated the throne, was arrested by the British and sent into exile in Johannesburg, where he died in 1944. The British wanted to reinstate the Qajars on the throne, but their only heir was a British citizen and did not speak Farsi. At the suggestion of Foruga, the son of Reza Shah was elevated to the throne (1919 - 1980).

Already in 1942, Iran regained sovereignty by signing a cooperation agreement with the allies, which declared that Iran was not occupied, but was an ally. The treaty also provided for the complete withdrawal of foreign troops from Iranian territory no later than six months after the end of hostilities. In 1943 Iran officially declared war on Germany, and American units were added to the British and Soviet garrisons in the country - Iran considered that the United States, not involved in “ Big Game”(The traditional name for the historical geopolitical struggle between Russia and England for dominance in Central and South Asia), will create a certain counterbalance to the USSR and Britain. On the whole, Iran's hopes for the United States were justified. The Americans paid considerable attention to the training of the Iranian army, tried to help put things in order in the financial system (unsuccessfully).

The occupation of Iran led to serious problems in the administration of the state. Inflation was 450%. There was a severe food shortage, exacerbated by the fact that the Soviet occupation administration in the north of the country confiscated most of the harvest. A hunger riot even broke out in Tehran, brutally suppressed.

From the very beginning of the Soviet occupation of Iran, work was actively carried out to prepare the annexation of Iranian Azerbaijan, and separatist sentiments were fueled. Reza Phlevi during his reign cultivated the ideas of Iranian nationalism and the assimilation of small peoples. Oppression of national minorities led to the growth of their national identity.

In September 1945, Britain and the United States began withdrawing their units from Iran in accordance with the terms of the 1942 treaty. The USSR was in no hurry to withdraw Soviet troops and even expanded the region of its presence.

In September 1945, with the direct support of the USSR, the pro-Soviet Democratic Party of Azerbaijan was created in Iranian Azerbaijan. On November 26, 1945, the DPA “unexpectedly” wins the elections in Tabriz, the capital of Iranian Azerbaijan, held under the control of the Soviet contingent of troops, which ensured “free expression of the will of the people” (everything new is well forgotten old). 12.12.1945, under the reliable protection of the Soviet contingent, the creation of an independent Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan... On the basis of the 77th division of the Red Army, the army of the new state is being formed. Inspired by the example of their neighbors, the Kurds proclaim their Mehabad Republic.

The second resolution of the newly created UN Security Council was dedicated to the conflict between the USSR and Iran.

On January 01, 1945, the US military left Iran. The British announced that they would complete the complete withdrawal of their troops by March 2, 1942. The USSR announced that it would begin to withdraw its units on March 2. But on March 4-5, Soviet tanks, instead of returning to the USSR, moved in the direction of Tehran, and to the borders of Iran with Turkey and Iraq. This was met with violent protests from Iran and the world community. Iran's complaint against the Soviet Union was the first to be considered by the UN.

Under pressure from Western countries and having received assurances from the Iranian prime minister that the USSR would transfer the rights to produce oil in northern Iran, the Soviet army returned home in May 1946. As a result, the USSR did not receive oil concessions - the Medzhelis rejected the ratification of the agreement.

Already on June 13, 1946, the government of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan (since Seyid Jafar Pishevari at the head) in the course of negotiations with the Iranian authorities renounced sovereignty, recognizing the supremacy of Tehran's power.

With the Mehabad Republic, it did not work out so easily. It was headed by Kazi Muhammad(President of the Republic, 1900-1947) and Mustafa Barzani(Minister of Defense, 1903-1979). Behind Barzani's shoulders was already a serious experience of the guerrilla struggle for the independence of the Kurds in Iraq. Kurdish self-defense units ( peshmerga ) with experience of guerrilla warfare in Iraq, and Kurds who served as officers in the Iraqi army formed the backbone of the army of the armed forces of the Mehabad Republic. The size of the republic's army was about 10,500 people. Already on April 29, they inflicted the first sensitive defeat on the Iranian units. Nevertheless, realizing that after the withdrawal of Soviet troops against the Iranian army, they could not resist, Kazi Mohammed tried to negotiate with the Iranian authorities on autonomy, but to no avail.

Kazi Mohammed and Mustafa Barzani

In December 1946, under the same pretext of “ensuring the freedom of holding elections,” the Iranian Majelis (parliament) introduced 20 divisions into the rebellious republics, having dealt with the insurgents. Pishevari fled to the USSR (where in 1947 he died in a car accident in Baku). Barzani fought for Iraq. Then, again with battles, he successfully penetrated the screens of the Iranian army, withdrawing 2,000 fighters and 2,000 civilians to the USSR. Kazi Mohammed refused to leave the republic, saying that he would remain with his people until the end, and was hanged in 1947. Barzani continued his struggle for the independence of the Kurds in Iraq, successfully enjoying the support of the USSR, the United States, and Iran. He died in 1979 in the States from cancer.

It is believed that the Iranian crisis of 1946, along with the territorial claims of the USSR against Turkey, marked the beginning of Cold war... Churchill mentioned the concern of Iran and Turkey about the pressure on them by the USSR in Fulton speech... Stalin seriously considered a strike against Turkey. The United States responded with a plan for a nuclear war against the USSR, which stopped Stalin. As a result, the demonstrative readiness of the Soviet Union for a military solution instead of strengthening its position led to the rallying of the Western coalition, the creation of NATO and the admission of Turkey to it to guarantee its security. It seems that this rake is quite familiar to us.

After the end of the war in Iran, reforms began aimed at Europeanization and reducing the influence of Islam, which did not always find support among the people. After his coronation in 1941, the young Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi was not particularly interested in politics and was considered a rather weak ruler. But in 1946, an attempt was made on his life. The attacker managed to shoot three times before he was killed by the guards. Two bullets passed by, only one scratched the shah's cheek. But the Shah was shocked by the reaction of the people - the attempt was met with approval.

After that, Mohammed Reza became more active in politics - he created the Senate (provided for by the 1907 constitution, but never convened), achieved legislative consolidation of expanded powers for himself. It was announced that Tude ( Tudeh) - Marxist-Leninist Party of Iran(created, naturally, by the Soviet occupation authorities in 1941 on the basis of the remnants of the Iranian Communist Party defeated by Pahlavi), which was then banned. Historians believe that the assassination attempt was organized Fedayeen of Islam- a radical organization created in 1946, whose goal was to establish an Islamic state in Iran.

The next known crisis in Iranian history happened in 1952 (“ Abadan crisis“). A year earlier, the head of government, with the strong support of the Popular Front, which united the opposition forces, was appointed a convinced supporter of democracy, who served under Reza Pahlavi for opposition activities, who advocated restricting the rights of the monarchy (“reign but not rule”), who also belongs to the Qajar dynasty , overthrown by the Phlevi, who consider the latter to be usurpers. Mossadegh initiated major reforms in the oil sector. Reza Pahlavi in ​​1930 already tried to revise the terms of an agreement with Britain on the development of Iranian oil fields, but in 1933 the concession was renegotiated for a period until 1993 on conditions unfavorable for Iran. In 1951, the terms of the concession were recognized by Mejelis at the suggestion of Mossadegh as bonded, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (to protect the fields of which from their possible transfer to the hands of the Germans in 1941, in particular, British troops were sent to Iran) was nationalized.

This led to a serious conflict between Iran and Western countries and its economic blockade. Due to the blockade, as well as since Iran did not have its own oil specialists, and the rest of the country's oil-producing countries refused to provide their own, oil production in 2 years fell from 241.4 million barrels to 10.6 million. In July 1952, Mossadegh demanded from the Shah extended powers, including command of the army. The Shah refused. Mossadegh resigned. The post of prime minister was given, who successfully resolved the 1946 crisis with Stalin and the republics he created. Qawam's announcement of his intention to return everything to the British sparked a wave of street protests. Qawam ordered the army to suppress the unrest, but as a result, the unrest only intensified. About 250 protesters were killed in five days. On the sixth day, the army command returned the military to the barracks, refusing to participate in the massacre. Shah Mohammed Reza, frightened, returned Mossadegh, giving him all the powers he requested.

Meanwhile, a split occurred in the ranks of the Popular Front. After an unsuccessful attempt on his life in 1952, Mossadegh took a tougher stance towards his political opponents. The discontent of ordinary Iranians grew with the deterioration of living conditions due to the blockade. The Islamists who had previously supported Mossadegh became disillusioned with him due to his convinced position of the need to separate religion from the state. But Mossadegh was actively supported by the revived Tudeh Communist Party, despite the fact that Mossadegh never showed her public sympathy. Tudeh has done Mossadegh a disservice with harsh actions (including murders) towards his opponents, damaging his reputation.

Since Iran, despite the blockade, did not compromise with the British, the latter considered that a military solution to the problem could be more effective. British intelligence SIS (aka MI6) has requested support from the CIA in organizing a coup in Iran. Harry Truman, then the President of the United States, refused to interfere in the internal affairs of Iran. But on January 20, 1953, Combat General Dwight Eisenhower, a determined and staunch anti-communist, became the President of the United States. Considering (largely due to the efforts of Tudeh) the government of Mossadegh to be pro-communist (and at that time the war in Korea was in full swing - in fact, a military confrontation between capitalism and communism), Eisenhower approved the CIA's participation in the overthrow of Mossadegh.

In the CIA, the operation was codenamed "TPAjax" (TPAjax - under TP meant the communist "Tudeh party"), the British - "Boot" (Kick). The CIA allocated a large budget (either one or two million dollars) to prepare a coup, aimed at a powerful campaign to discredit Mossadegh and bribe key officials.

Kermit Roosevelt, one of the CIA leaders, personally secretly met with Shah Mohammed Pahlavi, promising him a million dollars if the operation was successful. It is not entirely clear whether the shah took the offered bribe or refused. It seems that he refused. But after long hesitation, the shah in August 1953, under the influence of his sister Ashraf (who received a mink coat and money from the conspirators for her help), and also after receiving information that the CIA would carry out a coup "with or without him," agreed to sign two drafted CIA decree: one displaced Mossadegh, the other that a general was appointed prime minister. Zahedi was a suitable candidate: in 1941 he was arrested by the British for inciting riots, hiding food and on suspicion of collaborating with the Germans, and exiled to Palestine until the end of the war. During a search in his bedroom, they found "a collection of German-made automatic weapons, a rich selection of silk underwear, some opium and an illustrated catalog of Isfahan prostitutes." As Vysotsky sang: “Epiphanes seemed greedy, cunning, clever, carnivorous. He did not know measure in women and in beer, and did not want to. In general, so: John's henchman was a godsend for a spy. This can happen to anyone, if drunk and soft ”.

Fazlollah Zahedi, "Spy's Handyman"

The formal reason for the Shah's decrees was the dissolution of the Mejelis by Mossadegh, which became possible after the referendum on granting the prime minister almost unlimited powers, approved by 99.9% of the vote. This was seen as an act of dictatorship.

However, Mossadegh managed to find out about the decree on his displacement in advance. As a result, the head of the Shah's personal guard, who appeared on August 15, 1953 to arrest the Prime Minister, was himself arrested. Mossadegh's supporters took to the streets. The Shah and his family flew to Baghdad, from there to Rome. Zahedi was hiding in safe houses. Many members of the conspiracy were arrested. Mossadegh considered that he had won the victory.

But Zahedi secretly met with Shah Islamic leaders, who helped organize mass protests for their followers. The country was in shock from the flight of the Shah, the dissolution of the Mejelis, the attempted coup and the threat of communism. On August 19, provocateurs Zahedi, disguised as communists, provoked riots in Tehran “in support of Mossadegh and the“ communist revolution ”, trashing shops and bazaars. Another group, also led by provocateurs who advocated “stability” and “if not a shah, then who,” came up against them, dragging along the indignant townspeople, catching the communists and beating them up. Local crime bosses paid for by the CIA took an active part in organizing the massacre, in which about 300 people died. General Zahedi ordered the “military loyal to the Shah” to “stop the riots committed by the communists,” and by evening the army, using tanks and aircraft, overcoming resistance, seized government offices. Mossadegh surrendered to Zahedi, unwilling to intensify the bloodshed with calls for resistance.

Shah Pahlavi returned to the country from Rome accompanied by Alain Dulles, director of the CIA. Zahedi took over as prime minister and received $ 900,000 from the CIA for services (according to other sources, Zahedi received more than $ 70 million). Mosaddegh was sentenced to death, but by decree of the Shah he was replaced by a three-year imprisonment, after which he was under house arrest until the end of his life in 1967. British rights to the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company were restored. Iran, however, received more favorable terms compared to previously available.

In the 60s-70s, Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi was actively engaged in the transformations of Iran, which received the name "White revolution". He bought land from large landowners, selling it in installments at a price one third below market prices to more than 4 million small farmers. Polygamy was banned, marriages with children were banned, women were granted civil rights, and miniskirts were common in cities. For workers - participation in the profits of enterprises through participation in corporatization is provided. Much attention was paid to education, schools were provided with free meals, many students were given the opportunity to study abroad - in the West and in India. The economy of Iran during this period reached unprecedented heights, telecommunications, petrochemical, automotive industries, steel and electricity production received serious development. In foreign policy, Iran has developed the closest ties with the United States, although the Shah sometimes allowed himself to go against American interests. Iran was the first of the Middle Eastern states to recognize Israel. At the same time, the shah also maintained good-neighborly relations with the USSR.

Nothing boded catastrophe. Just a few months before the revolution, American intelligence presented a report according to which no serious threats to the Shah's power were foreseen for the next decade. Meanwhile, among the people, discontent was ripening with high inflation, corruption, shortages, ambitious expensive super-projects, and the defiantly luxurious life of the elites.

Iran did not have its own Olympics. Instead, in October 1971, there was a celebration of the 2500th anniversary of the establishment of the monarchy in Iran, on which 100 million dollars were spent (about 400 million in today's purchasing power of the dollar). Near the ruins of Persepolis, huge tents, with a total area of ​​0.65 sq. Km, were set up - the "Golden City". The food for the guests was prepared by Michelin-level Parisian chefs, served on Limoges porcelain and Baccarat crystal. All of this was in stark contrast to the poor villages in the neighborhood.

"Golden City" at the ruins of Persepolis

It is believed that the Shah's pride, the White Revolution, was poorly planned and haphazardly executed. Therefore, its results remained far from ideal. For example, many Iranians received a good education thanks to the reforms. But, upon completion of their studies, they could not find a job for themselves, which formed a layer of intellectuals dissatisfied with the government.

In addition, the people, especially in the outback, were dissatisfied with the imposition of Western values, restrictions on the clergy, and the concentration of power in the hands of the shah. In 1976, the Shah changed the Islamic calendar, traditional for Iran, to the Imperial one, which takes the countdown from the date of the conquest of Babylon by King Cyrus, and calculated in such a way that the 2500-year-old date fell on the moment of the ascension of Mohammed Reza Pahlavi to the throne in 1941. Thus, the Iranians immediately found themselves from 1355 to 2355. A couple of years later, the traditional Islamic calendar was returned.

In 1975, the Shah founded the Rastokhez (Renaissance) party and abolished the multi-party system, proclaiming that the people of Iran must rally in one party with those who support the monarchy, the constitution, and the White Revolution. Those who do not want to join a new party without supporting its values, then a place in prison or exile from the country, because these people are "not Iranians, people without a nation, their activities are illegal and subject to persecution."

SAVAK, the Shah's secret police, was notorious. Physical and psychological torture was actively used against the detainees. In 1978, there were at least 2,200 political prisoners in the country. At the same time, Iran did not have a police force specially trained and equipped to suppress riots - these functions were assigned to the army. As a result, demonstrations often ended tragically.

(1902-1989), leader of the Islamic revolution, became an orphan early - his father was killed shortly after his birth, his mother lost at 15 years old. Since childhood, he studied diligently in Islamic educational institutions, by the age of 23 he was already teaching Islam. From an early age he fought against secular power and for the Islamization of Iran, enjoying high authority among his followers. Ayatollah San, the highest in the Shiite spiritual hierarchy, received in the late 50s. The confrontation with the secular authorities intensified most with the proclamation of the White Revolution, which the Ayatollah called for a boycott, for which he was placed under house arrest in 1963. During the protests against his detention, about 400 people died. In 1964 he was expelled from Iran and continued to fight the regime from abroad. He equally hated the Shah, the United States, Britain, Israel, and the USSR.

The chain of events leading up to the Islamic Revolution began with the unexpected death of Ayatollah Khomeini's eldest son, Mustafa, on October 23, 1977. The official cause of death was a heart attack, but Khomeini's followers suspected the murder. Unrest began, for which new reasons continued to arise. Victims appeared. The victims provoked increased protests.

Another impetus to the performances was given by the death of 422 people on 08/19/1978, who were burned as a result the arson of the Rex cinema in the city of Abadan... Until September 11, 2001, it was considered the largest terrorist attack in modern history. Khomeini accused the SAVAK of the Shah's secret police of the arson. The people picked up, despite the denial of guilt by the authorities. After the revolution, it became clear that the arsonists were actually Khomeini's supporters, who, on their own initiative, intended to provoke unrest.

September 8, 1978 ( Black Friday), the military in Tehran opened fire on demonstrators protesting against the introduction of martial law. The deaths of 88 people have been documented, although the press initially claimed 15,000 were killed. Black Friday is believed to have been the point of no return on the road to the Islamic revolution.

On October 2, 1978, the Shah announced an amnesty for political opponents expelled from the country. It did not help.

On November 6, the shah introduced martial law, appointed a temporary military administration, but at the same time made a speech on television in which he admitted his mistakes and stated that he shared the feelings of the people and could not help but be with him in his revolution. Pahlavi even arrested 200 high-ranking officials on corruption charges. But this did not help either - Khomeini saw weakness in the Shah's actions, and, “feeling the blood,” urged him to fight until victory.

In December 1978, up to 9 million people took part in the protests - about 10% of Iran's population - a colossal number for revolutions, only a few of which (French, Russian and Romanian) overcame the 1% threshold. The army was demoralized - the soldiers were ordered to confront the protesters, but the use of weapons was prohibited under threat of punishment. Desertion began, the murder of officers and the transition to the side of the rebels.

On January 16, 1972, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi was appointed Prime Minister Shapur Bakhtiyar(1914-1991), one of the leaders of the opposition Popular Front, hoping that he could soften the situation. It was assumed that the Shah would leave the country “on vacation,” and in three months a referendum would decide whether Iran would become a republic or remain a monarchy. Bakhtiyar agreed because, being a convinced agnostic and democrat, he hoped to prevent the country's transformation into an Islamic state. On the same day, the last Shah of Iran flew with his family to Cairo, never to return. The people greeted the news of Pahlavi's departure with enthusiasm - over the next two days, practically not a single intact statue of the shah remained in the country.

Bakhtiyar disbanded SAVAK, released all political prisoners, ordered the army not to interfere with the demonstrators, promised free elections, called on all interested parties to cooperate, invited Khomeini to return to Iran and in the city of Kom to organize an Islamic city-state like the Vatican.

02/01/1979 Khomeini returned from Paris in a charter Boeing 747 AirFrance, and was greeted by a huge cheering crowd. As gratitude for the invitation to return to the country, Khomeini promised to "knock out the teeth" of the Bakhtiar government and appoint his own. On February 5, Khomeini appointed his prime minister and called on the army to obey him as a religious leader, because “this is not just a government, but a Sharia government. Rejection of it is rejection of Sharia and Islam. A rebellion against the government of Allah is a rebellion against Allah. And rebellion against Allah is sacrilege. "

Bakhtiyar, being a resolute man (in the past, he participated in the Spanish civil war against Franco), said that he would not allow Khomeini to do arbitrariness. Khomeini responded by urging his followers to take to the streets. In the course of a short confrontation, the Islamists seized an arms factory, distributing 50,000 machine guns to their supporters, and the army, after several skirmishes, chose not to participate in the conflict. On February 11, 1979, Bakhtiyar had to flee to Europe. In 1991, he was killed in Paris by Iranian agents.

The Islamic revolution in Iran has won. Another major turn has taken place in the history of Iran. As a result of a referendum held in the country on April 1, 1979, the monarchy was finally abolished, and Iran was officially proclaimed an Islamic republic.

A theocratic regime is established in Iran, the basis of which was the Muslim clergy. Large-scale Islamization begins in all spheres of society. This was reflected in foreign policy, which has undergone major changes. In November 1979, an unprecedented incident occurred - seizure of the US embassy in Tehran... Several embassy workers managed to go unnoticed to take refuge in the Canadian embassy, ​​from where they were later evacuated in a covert CIA operation (“ Operation Argo"). The rest of the diplomatic missions were held hostage for 444 days. The United States undertook a special operation with the involvement of special forces and transport helicopters to free the hostages, but it failed. Only in 1981, with the mediation of Algeria, the hostages were able to return home. This incident led to the severance of diplomatic relations with the United States and sharply worsened relations with the West, laying the foundation for economic and political sanctions against Iran. In 2012, Ben Affleck made an excellent film "Operation Argo", dedicated to these events.

Iraqi President Saddam Hussein decided to take advantage of the situation of instability in Iran, making a number of territorial claims against the neighboring country. In particular, he challenged Iran's right to certain coastal areas of the Persian Gulf and Khuzestan, whose main population was Arabs, and which had rich oil fields. The Iranian government did not take Hussein's ultimatum seriously, and the Iraqi invasion of Khuzestan, which followed in September 1980, marked the beginning of Iran-Iraq War turned out to be extremely unexpected for the Iranian leadership.

At the beginning of the war, the Iranians suffered heavy casualties, both among the military and among civilians. The Iraqi troops had a tangible advantage, but their advance was soon stopped. Having concentrated its forces, the Iranian army with a powerful counterattack in the summer of 1982 threw the enemy out of the country. Now Khomeini decided to seize the opportunity and continue the war to export the Islamic revolution to Iraq, where he expected to find significant support in the person of the Shiites, who densely populated the eastern part of the country. However, the Iranian offensive stalled, progress in advancing deep into Iraq turned out to be insignificant, and the war passed into a protracted stage. In 1988, Iraq went on the offensive again and managed to reclaim previously lost lands. After that, the Iranian-Iraqi war came to an end, its logical conclusion was the signing of a peace treaty. The border between the countries remained the same. The loss of life for each of the parties to the conflict is estimated at half a million people.

In 1997, Mohammed Khatami was elected head of state, who embarked on a course of rejecting radicalism and rapprochement with the West. However, after 8 years, the new president, again curtailed the program of liberal reforms and returned to the policy of confrontation. Not everyone in the country supported the policy of Ahmadinejad, which led in 2009 to an acute pre-election struggle between the incumbent president and opposition candidates. This was the first Iranian election to feature a televised debate among candidates. The main opponent of Ahmadinejad was an active figure in the Islamic revolution who headed the government during the Iran-Iraq war. He established himself as a pragmatic politician who won the sympathy of many people, but in 1989, disillusioned with his comrades-in-arms, left the political arena of Iran, deciding to return again to the painting and architecture left by him in the name of the revolution.

Mousavi was supported by progressive youth, the intelligentsia and the middle class, tired of the country's radical clericalization, corruption, a weak economy and an aggressive foreign policy. Preliminary polls predicted Mousavi's victory, the turnout was unprecedented - 85%, but on June 12, it was announced that Mousavi received just under 34% and defeated Ahmadinejad with over 62% of the vote.

The opposition accused the authorities of falsification, the protesters took to the streets demanding the president's resignation and placards "Death to the dictator!" The brutality of the police, who used special means to disperse the demonstrations, only increased the resistance, which grew into riots, the largest since the Islamic Revolution. In an attempt to restore order, the authorities blocked social networks and cellular communications in the city.

Mousavi called on supporters to protest peacefully and applied for a nationwide demonstration on June 15, but was refused. This did not stop the opposition, and on the appointed day in Tehran alone, about a hundred thousand Iranians took to the streets. Clashes began with supporters of the president, the police used firearms. On June 20, 20-year-old Neda Agha-Soltan was shot dead during a demonstration.

Amateur video hit the net, flying around the world. In the end, the police managed to brutally suppress the mass protests, the death toll is estimated from 29 to 150, dozens were injured, many were sent to prison, and others were forced to flee the country. The authorities laid the blame for the protests in Iran in 2009, naturally, on the West and Israel.

In 2013, he became the President of Iran by election results. He has a Ph.D. and is fluent in five foreign languages, including Russian and three European. Thanks to his moderate policy aimed at liberalizing the state and rapprochement with the West, restoration of cultural monuments began, foreign tourism was actively developing, an agreement was reached on the lifting of sanctions - Iran's oil supply to the international market was again allowed, an agreement was reached on the resumption of interbank transactions, on foreign investments to Iran. I would like to believe that the next turn towards Islamic fundamentalism will not happen - in personal communication, one feels that the Iranians are really tired of living this way. According to my feelings, what is happening now in Iran is similar to our Perestroika - the majority eagerly absorbs information from foreign tourists about other life in distant countries, and hopes that they themselves will soon begin to live a free and well-fed life.

If you like this post, I will be very grateful if you share it on social networks by clicking on the appropriate buttons below - this will help promote the site. Thanks!

Photos from a trip to Iran can be viewed.

Well, if you click on the form for buying tickets, it will be very good :)

Often these days we can hear a story about a country in the southwestern part of Asia called Persia. Which country has replaced it now? Since 1935, Persia has been officially called Iran.

In ancient times, this state was the center of a huge empire, whose territory stretched from Egypt itself to the Indus River.

Geography

It is worth saying that at one time the state of Persia did not have clear boundaries. It is rather problematic to determine which country is on these lands now. Even modern Iran is only approximately located on the territory of Ancient Persia. The fact is that in some periods this empire was located in most of the world known at that time. But there were also the worst years when the territory of Persia was divided among themselves by local rulers, hostile to each other.

The relief of most of the territory of present-day Persia is a high (1200 m) highland, which is crossed by a chain of stone ridges and individual peaks, rising up to 5500 m. In the northern and western parts of this area are the Elbrus and Zagros mountain ranges. They are arranged in the form of the letter "V", framing the highlands.

Mesopotamia was located west of Persia. This is the homeland of the most ancient civilizations on Earth. At one time, the states of this empire greatly influenced the culture of the still nascent country of Persia.

History

Persia (Iran) is a country with the greatest past. Its history includes aggressive and defensive wars, uprisings and revolutions, as well as brutal suppression of all political actions. But at the same time, Ancient Iran is the homeland of the great people of that time, who led to the flourishing of the art and culture of the country, and also built amazingly beautiful buildings, the architecture of which still amazes us with its splendor. The history of Persia has a large number of ruling dynasties. It is simply impossible to count them. Each of these dynasties enacted its own laws and rules, which no one simply dared to break.

Historical periods

Persia went through a lot on the way of its formation. But the main milestones of its development are considered to be two periods. One of them is pre-Muslim, and the second is Muslim. The Islamization of Ancient Iran was the cause of fundamental changes in its political, social and cultural spheres. However, this does not at all mean the disappearance of the former spiritual values. They were not only not lost, but also significantly influenced the new culture that emerged in the country at the turn of two historical periods. In addition, many pre-Muslim rituals and traditions have survived in Iran to this day.

Achaemenid rule

As a state, Ancient Iran began its existence with Cyrus II. This ruler became the founder of the Achaemenid dynasty, which ruled from 550 to 330 BC. BC NS. Under Cyrus II, the two largest Indo-Asian tribes, the Persians and the Medes, were united for the first time. This was the period of the greatest power of Persia. Its territory extended to the Central and the Indus Valley and Egypt. The most important archaeological and historical monument of the Achaemenid era is the ruins of the capital of Persia - Persepolis.

Here is the tomb of Cyrus II, as well as an inscription carved by Darius I on the Behistun rock. At one time, Persepolis was burned by Alexander the Great during his campaign to conquer Iran. This conqueror put an end to the great Achaemenid empire. Unfortunately, no written evidence of this era has survived. They were destroyed by order of Alexander the Great.

Hellenistic period

From 330 BC to 224 BC NS. Persia was in a state of decline. Together with the country, its culture also degraded. During this period, Ancient Iran was under the rule of the Greek dynasty of the Seleucids, which was ruling at that time, being part of the state of the same name. The culture and language of Persia has changed. They were influenced by the Greeks. At the same time, Iranian culture has not died. She influenced the settlers from Hellas. But this happened only in those areas where there were no self-sufficient and large Greek communities.

Parthian Kingdom

Years passed, the power of the Greeks in Persia came to an end. The history of Ancient Iran has entered its new stage. The country became part of the Parthian kingdom. The Arshakid dynasty ruled here, considering itself the descendants of the Achaemenids. These rulers freed Persia from Greek rule, and also protected it from the invasion of the Romans and the raids of the nomads.

During this period, the Iranian folk epic was created, a large number of plots with heroic characters appeared. One of them was Rustema. This Iranian hero is in many ways similar to Hercules.

In the Parthian period, the feudal system was strengthened. This weakened Persia. As a result, it was conquered by the Sassanids. A new stage began in the history of Ancient Iran.

Sassanid state

Between 224 and 226 A.D. NS. the last Parthian king Artaban V was overthrown from the throne. Power was seized by the Sassanid dynasty. During this period, the borders of Ancient Iran were not only restored, but also expanded to the western regions of China, including the Punjab and Transcaucasia. The dynasty waged a constant struggle with the Romans, and one of its representatives, Shapur I, even managed to capture their emperor Valerian. The Sassanid dynasty also waged constant wars with Byzantium.
During this period, cities developed in Persia, and the central government was strengthened. At the same time, Zoroastrianism arose, which became the official religion of the country. In the Sassanid era, a four-stage system of the existing administrative division and stratification of all strata of society into 4 estates was developed and approved.

During the Sassanid era, Christianity penetrated into Persia, which was negatively greeted by the Zoroastrian priests. At the same time, some other oppositional religious movements appeared. Among them are Mazdakism and Manichaeism.

The most famous representative of the Sassanid dynasty was Shah Khosrov I Anushirvan. The literal translation of his name means "with an immortal soul." His reign lasted from 531 to 579. Khosrov I was so famous that his fame remained for many centuries after the fall of the Sassanid dynasty. This ruler remained in the memory of posterity as a great reformer. Khosrov I showed great interest in philosophy and science. In some Iranian sources, there is even a comparison with Plato's "king-philosopher."

The Sassanids were significantly weakened by the constant wars with Rome. In 641, the country lost a major battle to the Arabs. The Sassanian stage in the history of Iran ended with the death of the last representative of this dynasty - Yazdegerd III. Persia entered the Islamic period of its development.

Rule of local dynasties

The Arab Caliphate gradually expanded eastward. At the same time, his central government in Baghdad and Damascus could no longer maintain strict control over all provinces. This led to the emergence of local dynasties in Iran. The first of them is the Tahirids. Its representatives ruled from 821 to 873. in Khorasan. This dynasty was replaced by the Saffarids. Their domination in the territory of Khorasan, southern Iran and Herat lasted throughout the second half of the ninth century. Further, the throne was seized by the Samanids. This dynasty proclaimed itself the descendants of the Parthian military commander Bahram Chubin. The Samanids held the throne for more than fifty years, extending their power over large territories. The country of Iran during the years of their rule ran from the eastern outskirts of the highlands to the Aral Sea and the Zagros ridge. Bukhara was the center of the state.

Somewhat later, two more clans ruled on the territory of Persia. In the second half of the tenth century, these were the Ziyarids. They controlled the territory of the Caspian Sea coast. The Ziyarids became famous for their patronage of art and literature. During the same period, the Bund dynasty was in power in central Iran. They conquered Baghdad and Force, Khuzistan and Kerman, Rey and Hamadan.

Local Iranian dynasties sought power in the same way. They seized the throne, raising an armed rebellion.

Dynasties of Ghaznavids and Seljukids

Starting from the eighth century, Turkic nomadic tribes began to penetrate. Gradually, the way of life of this people became sedentary. New settlements arose. Alp-Tegin - one of the Turkic tribal leaders - began to serve the Sassanids. In 962, he came to power and ruled the newly created state, the capital of which was the city of Ghazni. Alp-Tegin founded a new dynasty. The Gaznevites held power for a little over a hundred years. One of its representatives - Mahmoud Ghaznavi - kept under vigilant control the territory from Mesopotamia to India. The same ruler settled in Kharasan a tribe of Oghuz Turks. Subsequently, their leader Seljuk raised an uprising and overthrew the Ghaznavid dynasty. The city of Rey was declared the capital of Iran.

The Seljuk dynasty belonged to the devout Muslims. She subdued all local rulers, but for her reign she waged constant wars for many years.
During the years of Seljuk power, architecture flourished. During the reign of the dynasty, hundreds of madrasahs, mosques, public buildings and palaces were erected. But at the same time, the reign of the Seljukids was hampered by constant uprisings in the provinces, as well as the invasions of other tribes of the Turks, who were advancing to the western lands. Constant wars weakened the state, and by the end of the first quarter of the twelfth century, it began to disintegrate.

Mongol domination

The invasion of Genghis Khan's troops did not pass Iran either. The history of the country tells us that in 1219 this commander managed to seize Khorezm, and then, moving westward, plundered Bukhara, Balkh, Samarkand, Nashapur and Merv.

His grandson, Hulagu Khan, plunged into Iran again in 1256 and, seizing Baghdad, destroyed the Abbasi Caliphate. The conqueror took the title of Ilkhan, becoming the ancestor of the Hulaguid dynasty. He and his successors adopted the religion, culture and way of life of the Iranian people. Over the years, the position of the Mongols in Persia began to weaken. They were forced to wage constant wars with feudal rulers and representatives of local dynasties.

Between 1380 and 1395 the territory of the Iranian Highlands was captured by Amir Timur (Tamerlane). He conquered all the lands that adjoined the Mediterranean Sea. Descendants up to 1506 kept the Timurid state. Further, it was subordinated to the Uzbek dynasty of Sheibanids.

History of Iran from 15th to 18th centuries

Over the next centuries, wars for power continued in Persia. So, in the 15th century, the Ak-Koyundu and Kara-Aoyundu tribes fought among themselves. In 1502, Ismail I seized power. This monarch was the first representative of the Safavids, an Azerbaijani dynasty. During the reign of Ismail I and his successors, Iran revived its military power and became an economically prosperous country.

The Safavid state remained strong until the death in 1629 of its last ruler Abbas I. In the east, the Uzbeks were expelled from Kharasan, and in the west, the Ottomans were defeated. Iran, whose map pointed to the impressive territories belonging to it, subjugated Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. It existed within these boundaries until the nineteenth century.

On the territory of Persia, wars were fought against the Turks and Afghans, who sought to conquer the country. These were the times when the Afsharov dynasty was in power. The southern lands of Iran from 1760 to 1779 were ruled by a dynasty founded by Zendov Kerim Khan. Then she was overthrown by the Turkic tribe of the Kajars. Under the leadership of its leader, it conquered the lands of the entire Iranian plateau.

Qajar dynasty

At the very beginning of the nineteenth century, Iran lost the provinces located on the territory of modern Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. This was the result of the fact that the Qajar dynasty was never able to create a strong state apparatus, a national army and a unified tax collection system. The power of its representatives turned out to be too weak and could not resist the imperial desires of Russia and Great Britain. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the lands of Afghanistan and Turkestan were seized under the control of these great powers. At the same time, Iran unwittingly began to serve as an arena for Russian-British confrontation.

The last of the Qajar family was a constitutional monarch. The dynasty was forced to adopt this main law under the pressure of the strikes carried out in the country. The constitutional regime of Iran was opposed by two powers - Russia and Great Britain. In 1907, they signed an agreement to partition Persia. Its northern part went to Russia. Great Britain exerted its influence in the southern lands. The central part of the country was left as a neutral zone.

Iran in the early 20th century

The Qajar dynasty was overthrown as a result of a coup d'état. It was headed by General Reza Khan. A new Pahlavi dynasty came to power. This name, which in translation from Parthian means "noble, brave", was intended to emphasize the Iranian origin of the family.

During the reign of Reza Shah Pahlavi, Persia experienced its national revival. This was facilitated by numerous radical reforms carried out by the government. The beginning of industrialization was laid. Large investments were allocated for the development of industry. Highways and railways were built. The development and production of oil was actively carried out. Sharia courts have been replaced by legal proceedings. Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century, extensive modernization began in Persia.

In 1935, the state of Persia changed its name. Which country is his successor now? Iran. This is the ancient self-name of Persia, which means "the country of the Aryans" (the highest white race). After 1935, the pre-Islamic past began to revive. Small and large cities of Iran began to be renamed. Pre-Islamic monuments were restored in them.

Overthrow of the royal power

The last Shah of the Pahlavi dynasty came to the throne in 1941. His reign lasted for 38 years. In carrying out his foreign policy, the Shah was guided by the opinion of the United States. At the same time, he supported the pro-American regimes that existed in Oman, Somalia and Chad. One of the Shah's brightest oppositionists was the Islamic priest Kma Ruhollah Khomeini. He led revolutionary activities against the existing government.

In 1977, the President of the United States forced the Shah to ease the crackdown on the opposition. As a result, numerous parties of critics of the current regime began to appear in Iran. An Islamic revolution was being prepared. The activities carried out by the opposition have exacerbated the protest moods of the Iranian society, which opposed the country's internal political course, oppression of the church and foreign pro-American policy.

The Islamic revolution began after the events of January 1978. It was then that a demonstration of students who opposed a slanderous article about Khomeini published in a state newspaper was shot by the police. The unrest continued throughout the year. The Shah was forced to introduce martial law in the country. However, it was no longer possible to keep the situation under control. In January 1979, the Shah left Iran.
After his escape, a referendum was held in the country. As a result, on April 1, 1979, the Islamic Republic of Iran emerged. In December of the same year, the country's updated constitution was released. This document approved the supreme power of Imam Khomeini, which after his death was to be transferred to his successor. The President of Iran, according to the constitution, stood at the head of political and civil power. Together with him, the country was governed by the prime minister and an advisory council - mendzhlis. The President of Iran was legally the guarantor of the adopted constitution.

Iran today

Persia, known since time immemorial, is a very colorful state. What country today can so closely match the saying "The East is a delicate matter"? This is confirmed by the entire existence and development of the state in question.

The Islamic Republic of Iran is undoubtedly unique in its identity. And this makes it stand out among others. The capital of the Republic is the city of Tehran. It is a huge metropolis, one of the largest in the world.

Iran is a unique country with a large number of attractions, cultural monuments and its own peculiarities of life style. The republic possesses 10% of the world's black gold reserves. It is thanks to its oil fields that it is among the top ten exporters of this natural resource.

Persia - what country is it now? Highly religious. More copies of the Holy Quran are published in its printing houses than in all other Muslim countries.

After the Islamic Revolution, the republic took a course towards universal literacy. The development of education here is proceeding at an accelerated pace.

2014-05-11

Various tribes have long settled on the territory of Iran. In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. Cyrus the Great created the Persian Empire, which existed until 333 BC. AD when it was conquered by Alexander the Great. In the next century, Persia regained its independence, and the Persian kingdom lasted until the 7th century. n. e. With the arrival of Islam on the territory of Persia, the country was included in the Medina, and later - in the Damascus Caliphate. The old Zoroastrian religion of Persia has practically disappeared, completely suppressed by Islam.

In the XI century. Iran was captured by the Turks, and later by the Seljuks, the Mongols of Genghis Khan, the army of Tamerlane and the Turkmens, who held out in Iran longer than others - until 1502. In 1502, Iran won its independence again with the coming to power of the Persian Safavid dynasty, which ruled the country until 1722. The outstanding ruler of this dynasty was Shah Abbas I. After his death, the country began a gradual decline, leading in 1722 to its conquest by the Afghan army. However, a few years later, a new dynasty was founded, which again directed Iran to relative prosperity. In 1906, a constitutional monarchy was proclaimed in the country, which existed until 1979, when Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi was overthrown from the throne. In January of the same year, Ayatollah Khomeini proclaimed Iran an Islamic Republic. Another important event for the country was the Iraqi invasion (1980-1988), but under pressure from the international community, Iraq was forced to retreat. In 1996, President Mohammed Khatami came to power in the country. Gradual democratic transformations began in Iran. The parliamentary elections in February 2000 were won by the advocates of reforms who abandoned Islamic fundamentalism. Iran is a member of the UN, IMF, OPEC.

There are two calendars in Iran: lunar (one year equals approximately 354 days) and solar (one year - 365 days). The solar calendar is used for official and administrative purposes. In it, the year begins on the first day of spring (March 21, when the Iranians celebrate Navruz, or New Year) and ends on March 20 of the following year. The lunar year is 11 days shorter. It is used for Islamic traditions and rituals and is followed by religious holidays and memorable dates. Navruz is the most popular and important among the many national holidays. 15 days before its start, grain is sown in special vessels in each family to decorate the festive table with fresh green sprouts. In the evening before the New Year, a festive New Year's table is prepared, candles are lit in the rooms, a mirror, bread, a vase of water with live fish floating in it, green plants, a glass of rose water, nuts, fruits, painted eggs, fried chicken, fish are placed on the table and etc..