Introduction

In Russia there is more than 10% of the area of \u200b\u200bthe world farmland. According to media data, our country remained the last major reserve of agricultural land on the planet, in any case - in the "civilized" world. Therefore, knowledge of our land resources suitable for agriculture is acquired recently exceptional importance. According to the founder of Russian soil science, V.V. Dokuchaeva "Our vegetable ground soils (a representative of which serves as a chernozem) is not the essence of some mechanical, random, lifeless mixtures, but, on the contrary, naturally historical bodies defined and subordinate to the well-known laws" (1).

1. Characteristics of the chernozem

Structure

The chernozem provides a rather heterogeneous mass: here they come across together and pieces of quartz, and flakes of humus, and sometimes fragments of limestone, field spat and even pebbles of granite.

It is very rich in humus (dark organic matter, it can be said, natural manure) and most important anti-soluble nutritional substances, what are the phosphoric acid, nitrogen, alkali, etc. Typical chernozem usually fine-grained, crumbly and always detects a close related relationship (as in structure and composition) with the underlying rocks (subsoil), which themselves (loss) in the vast majority of cases are very rich in soluble nutrients and are endowed with excellent physical properties.

Structure

Chernozem is such a vegetable ground soil, the thickness of which is an average of about 60 cm. Under the turf at 5-8 cm, the thickness is a dark homogeneous loose mass - humid, consisting of grains or grains, sometimes round, but more often representing incorrect polyhedra. This horizon on nonpaja, virgin places is overflowing with hundreds of thousands of living and dead underground parts of herbaceous plants. The average thickness of the horizon A (adopted the designation according to VV Dokuchaev) 30-45 cm. At the bottom of the soil horizon merges completely unnoticed with the transitional horizon, which really for all its features (physical and chemical) is a gradual transition from the top (a) horizon to the bottom (c) subsurface. The thickness of the horizon is also equal to 30-45 cm. Substate - the base (c) in a vast majority consists of a lessa (light yellow, very loose, rich in carbonate loams), but often it is also squeez, chalk, limestone, mergel, etc. ., Moreover, the subsoil (C) gradually passed into the upper soil horizons (A and B), giving them a strictly defined mineral character. Thus, the chernozem in all natural, not disturbed (in one way or another) represents the gradual, the most close genetic connection with the subsoil, what would it be in its composition.

Types

Distinguish the following subtypes of black soil soils:

Chernozems are apodoline,

Smelted black soils

Typical black soils

Chernozem ordinary

Chernozem South.

Properties

1. Due to its composition, the black soil always has more or less dark color and favorably relates to warmth and moisture. Color is a typical outdoor sign: Chernozem color, whether the latter will contain humus to 15% or no more than 3-4%, always turns out to be more or less dark,

2. The replenishment of the chernozem, that is, the ability to become much rather ripe (in the agricultural sense), that is, such a subfect horizon of which is approximately the same composition in the structure as arable.

3. Another typical constant feature is the average thickness of the chernozem, which ranges from 60 to 140 cm.

2. Areas of distribution

According to V.V. Dokuchava is always a chernozem and everywhere is the result of aggregate activities:

a) indigenous rocks (subsoil) on which it lies and at present;

b) the climate that surrounds this soil now and surrounded in former time (latitude and longitude, the nature of atmospheric precipitation, temperature, winds);

c) Wild vegetation, which grown there and grows more at this time in places not touched by culture.

The distribution areas of fertile plains in the world is: Steppes of Europe and Asia, Savannah Africa, Australia, Prairie North and Pamp of South America, Venezuela, Brazil.

In Russia, chernozems are distributed in the regions of the Volga region, the Northern Caucasus, the Nizhny Don and Western Siberia. The heart of the Black Earth Strip - Voronezh and Saratov region. An array of black soil in the world is 48%, in Russia - 8.6%, which is 1.53 million km 2.

3. Application

Chernozem soils withstand without any fertilizer long culture and every time, with favorable climatic conditions, give excellent rice crops, grain, sunflower, beets, feed, fruits, grapes and other technical and vegetable crops. The natural fertility of chernozem soil makes it possible to fully satisfy the population in food, gives a significant part of the raw material for light industry, provides animal husbandry.

For characteristics of chernozem Black or very dark ground color is the very first, visual sign. Such a color gives it an organic matter humus. The intensity of the dark color depends on the number of humus present in the soil. The chernozem layer in different places can be very different: from 30 cm to 1.5 m.

A humus in a layer can be from 3% to 15%. And so, the content of humus and determines the fertility of the soil. The humus is formed from organic residues of plants under the influence of moisture, heat, microorganisms and rainworms, mold fungi. A particularly important role in the recycling of plant residues is played by microorganisms.

According to studies, the total weight of all microorganisms in 1 hectare of the soil can be several tons. Imagine how much they are in the soil! And hence it follows that the site brings a good harvest, you need to provide a large number of microorganisms, and this is possible only with sufficient quantities of organic residues.

And at the same time it is especially careful to process arable layer so as not to violate the balance of everything alive in it. On the chernozem, the subferee layer is also fertile. But it is not enough in it, the roots of the plants do not germinate there, it is more dense and microorganisms contained quite a little. As the arable layer decreases, it can be changed gradually.

The acidity of black erect soils has a neutral reaction or alkaline. Just like the majority of garden and garden plants like such. Fresh, non-exhausted chernozem gives good yields without making any fertilizers.

, apodoline, leached and typical silozles of forest-steppe.Typical black soils.Typical black soils are soils in which the characteristic properties inherent in chernozem soils are most pronounced. They are common mainly in the western regions of the forest-steppe zone of the European part of the USSR and only individual stains penetrate into the area of \u200b\u200bthe Black Earth Steppe. The small arrays are also available on the Western slopes of the Altai Mountains, in a situation of several enhanced moistening.

Typical black soils are characterized by intensely black colorful, clearly expressed horizon structure A, the greatest marking in the humus layer, a gradual transition from one horizon to another, boiling on the horizontal boundary A and B or in the horizon in the horizon and a clearly pronounced carbonate horizon of considerable power.

We present a description of the soil profile of a typical powerful chernozem (Poltava region, K. I. Bozhko).

Horizon A - 0-46 cm.Dark gray, humus, up to 20 cmdepths - arable land-grained, from 20 cm- Granular. There are drowning worms.

Horizon B - 46-90 cm.Also a dark gray with a fawn tint (at the bottom), circular and lumpy, at a depth of 52 cm- deposits of coals in the form of carbonate "mold". Binding from acid at a depth 46 cm.

Horizon C - 90-130 cm.Dirty-fawn carbonate lessisa, strongly exist earthwood, circular-chucky. Many coals in the form of "mold" and in the form of thin "residents".

For typical powerful chernozems, a very deep penetration of humus is characterized, the presence of calcium carbonates and magnesium, depicted at a depth of 52-120 cmin the form of carbonate "mold", and a large existence of the soil stratum.

In their profile, the movement of iron and aluminum hydroxides is not detected. As for calcium, then a sharp increase in it with depth is due to the presence of calcium coals in the carbonate horizon. In this regard, in typical black soils, they do not detect the differentiation of their genetic horizons on mechanical composition.

The results of the agrochemical analyzes given in Table. 50 shows the presence of extremely insignificant acidity in typical black soils (pH fluctuates in the upper horizon from 6.0 to 6.8).

Hydrolytic acidity is expressed weakly and is mostly 0.4-2.8 m-eq.at 100. g.soil /

In the lower horizons of these soil, the value of exchange and hydrolytic acidity is even more reduced. The colloidal fraction of typical black soil is saturated predominantly CA ++ and Mg ++ with the ratio of the latter from 10: 1 to 8: 1. The degree of saturation is very large and reaches 94-99%.

By entering into a large amount of humus and or or difficult particles and being highly rich bases, typical black soils have a well-pronounced grainy structure that causes a favorable water and air regimens. Apartment chernozem. Apartment chernozems are developing mainly under the broader forests of the forest-steppe zone, where due to the more humid climate, the leaching and appearance processes and the soils are manifested in a noticeable extent. For a number of signs and properties, the centered black soils are very close to dark gray forest-steppe soils.

Apartment black soils are characterized by a small margin of humus in the humus horizon in a deep running of the carbonate horizon between the humus and carbonate horizon there is a necarbonate layer. In these soils, carbonates are locked at such a depth, where their lift to the humus horizon is not always ensured. Therefore, in the lower part of the humus horizon, calcium deficiency in the soil solution and a weakly acidic reaction can be established periodically.

The weakly acidic medium causes some solubility of humus and contributes to the movement of the alley. In the upper part of the humus horizon, under the influence of the turf, there is an intensive accumulation of ash elements of plant residues and there is a neoplasm of organic-mineral colloids with high absorption capacity.

The lower part of the humus horizon is characterized periodically a weakly acidic reaction, as it is limited to the receipt of the bases both from above and below. Here and detect signs of appearance, which are morphologically expressed in the form of "silica sinking" on the border of humus and transition horizons.

In the illuvial horizon (B) there is a nutty structure. In some cases, chernozem has signs of significant surface appearance. (Removal of one-hour oxides and or or fraction).

The morphological structure of the apodoline chernozems can be represented by the description of the next section (Bashkir ASSR; D. V. Bogomolov).

Horizon a n - 0-20 cm.Dark gray, almost black, self-dusty.

Horizon A 1 -20-29 cm.Dark gray, almost black; The structure of fine and medium-sized with well-pronounced angular faces.

Horizon A 2 - 29-40 cm.Dark gray, with a clearly ribbed-ribbed medium and coarse-grained structure; On the edges of the structure, a small flip of silica sinking, serving most clearly when soil dried.

Horizon B 1 -40-59 cm.Dark-brown, self-walled; Seal is somewhat condensed, a fragmented silica powder plant.

Horizon in 2 - 60-82 cm.Reddish-brown, self-prismatic, and walnut; Seal.

Horizon Sun - 82-96 cm.Brown, with a reddish tint and with the same character structure, but somewhat worse than expressed; Seal.

Horizon C - 96-120 cm.Yellowish-brown, dense deluel clay; Weak boils from hydrochloric acid.

Weakly apodoline black soils in morphological terms are distinguished by intense dark gray intense humus horizon, the presence of a well-pronounced grainy structure, appearance in the lower part of the humus horizon and at the top of the illuvial signs of the appearance.

The illuvial horizon of weakly apodoline chernozems is noticeably pronounced, significantly sealed and, having a nutty and self-prismatic structure, in its structure approaches a similar horizon of dark gray weakly apodoline forest-steppe soils.

The mechanical composition of weakly apodoline chernozems varies on the profile not very much.

Higher content of the illustrated fraction is observed in a humoring and accumulative horizon. Departure of the soil profile The number of illustrated particles gradually decreases, and then slightly increases in the illuvial horizon. Such a distribution of the illuminated fraction according to the soil profile indicates the presence of appearance in them, although weakly pronounced.

The content of absorbed bases in these soils is quite high, but depending on the mechanical composition changes significantly. In heavier on mechanical composition soils, the amount of metabolic reasons is 48.2-61.54 m-eq.for calcium and 4.7-16.0 m-eq.for magnesium, in lighter - the number of absorbed bases is reduced to 43-44 m-eq.for calcium and 4.3-5.4 m-eq.for magnesium.

Weakly apodoline chernozems have a weakly acidic reaction, while the exchange acid is changed within pH \u003d 4.7-6.6.

The degree of saturation of the bases of these soils is very high and usually ranges from 80 to 90%, often reaching 95%. The content of moving molds p 2 o 5 in the apodoline chernozem is rather low and, according to many analyzes, the most part ranges from 1.5 to 7.5 mg.at 100. g.soil. In this regard, the opodrugated black soils in most cases strongly need phosphoric fertilizers.

Holded chernozem. The leached chernozems are widespread in the forest-steppe, as well as partially in the steppes, away from the forests, in conditions of increased moisture.

They have more significant gumus reserves in the humus layer (Table 49). The power of the humus horizon (A + B) in the leached chernozem in various parts of the described zone varies greatly. Within the Ukrainian SSR humus layer reaches 120 cmand more, in the eastern regions, it decreases significantly and, with the exception of some foothill areas, rarely exceeds 70 cm.Carbonates in these soils locate less deeply than in the apodoline chernozem. Therefore, in the leached chernozem, a periodic lift them with soil solutions to the humus horizon occurs.

The depth of boiling carbonates in these soils is highly fluctuated, but most often lies at the level of 90-120 cmfrom the surface, and in the areas of a wet forest-steppe - at a depth of 150-200 cm.

As a result of leaching processes, a noticeable sealing of the transition horizon is also characterized by a sealing of the transition horizon, which detects a slightly elevated content of colloidal substances and one-hour oxides. The structure of this horizon is grainy or nutty.

From the apodoline chernozems, leached black soils are distinguished by the lack of silica clusters in the lower part of the horizon.

In the absorbing complex of the leached chernozem, along with absorbed calcium and magnesium, a very small amount of absorbed hydrogen is contained.

Depending on the depth of boiling, the degree of severity of the illuvial horizon and the associated nutty structure, as well as depending on the greater or smaller content in the absorbing soil complex of the absorbed hydrogen, the leached black soil are divided into weakly leached, medium leached and highly leached. The latter includes such leached chernozems, which do not boil not only the horizon in, but also the soil-forming breed.

The morphological structure of the leached chernozem can be represented by the next typical profile (Bashkir ASSR, D. V. Bogomolov).

Horizon A N - 0-18 cm.Dark gray, almost black, quite strongly sprayed; In the lower part of the arable layer, seal is noticed.

Horizon A 1 - 18-30 cm.The same coloring, loose, structure of fine and medium-sized, several rounded shape, with poorly pronounced faces.

Horizon A 2 - 30-39 cm.The same coloring, with a small brown tint; The structure is somewhat enlarged and becomes predominantly a medium-sized.

Horizon AB - 39-50 cm.Dark gray with a clearer browned tinge; Seal is somewhat, grain-linked.

Horizon B 1 - 50-66 cm.Dark-brown, weakly sealed; The structure is a mercury, elongated, several prism form.

Horizon at 2 - 66-85 cm.Reddish-brown, somewhat denser; The structure of the self-prism is aid, with a pressure decaying into smaller commercial and grainy separates.

Horizon Sun - 85-115 cm.Brown, with a reddish tint, the seal decreases somewhat; The structure is expressed worse; In the middle of the horizon, weak boil from hydrochloric acid and loving bodies appear.

Horizon C - CO 115 cm.Yellowish-brown dense deluel clay.

The characteristic morphological signs of the leached chernozem are the presence of a compacted illuvial horizon with a nomotically prismatic structure, a reduced level of boiling and along with this lack of signs of appearance.

Differentiation of the soil profile for mechanical composition is manifested in leached chernozem to a much lesser extent than in the apodoline chernozem. The illuminated fraction in the leached chernozem gradually increases the book of the soil profile to the horizon in 2, and then slightly decreases in the Sun and S. horizons

Lash black soils are distinguished by a large absorption capacity and a relatively high content of absorbed CA ++ IMG ++. The ratio between the absorbed calcium and magnesium in these soils is quite wide (8: 1 and 7: 1). The leached black soils have a slight exchange acidity, which usually varies within pH \u003d 5.7-6.1. The hydrolytic acidity is relatively reduced in them, in most cases not exceeding. 3-6 m-eq.at 100. g.soil.

The amount of absorbed bases is expressed in large values \u200b\u200band fluctuates most often in the range of 30-40 m-eq.at 100. g.soil. At the same time, the leached chernozems are distinguished by a high degree of saturation of the bases reaching 87-95%. At the same time, the content of digestible phosphoric acid in these soils is very small.

Quantity p 2 o 5 ranges from 1.5 to 9.0 mg.per 100 g of soil and only in isolated cases expressed by higher numbers. In this regard, the leached chernozems need phosphoric fertilizers to the same extent as the appearance of chernozem.

A significant part of the leached chernozem in the content of humus belongs to the polyhumus chernozem. However, in nature it is often found to develop the development of mediath and low-chummy leached chernozems.

The zone of ordinary and southern chernozem steppe. Southern Chernozem.Southern black soils are common in the southern, the most arid areas of the Black Earth Zone. The precipitation in this part of the zone falls in the year about 350-400 mm,soils are missed little.

The vegetation is developed here meager and is represented mainly by the southern species of pounds with significant participation of ephemers. Due to the weak soil missing, the root plant of plants penetrates a small depth.

The productivity of plant cover in this subzone is very small, and an insignificant amount of organic mass arrives in the soil. The processes of mineralization of plant residues in more dry and warm climatic conditions are more vigorously. Therefore, the content of humus in southern chernozem is significantly less compared to other chernozem subtypes and usually ranges from 4 to 6% (Table 53).

The power of the humus horizon of southern chernozems is small; In Western, more moisturized areas, it reaches 60-70 cm,in the eastern regions, in particular in Siberia, rarely exceeds 40 cm.

The color of the southern black soils is dark gray or gray with a brownish tint.

Due to the weak lasing, calcium and magnesium carbonates are within the humus layer, and in the eastern regions sometimes from the surface. In such cases, the soil boil from the surface or at the top of the humus horizon.

In this regard, the absorbing complex of southern chernozems is saturated mainly by SA and MG. Often, the composition of the absorbed bases are included in minor quantities and absorbed by Na, which informs these soil signs of weak solonventibility (Table 54).

The absorption capacity of the southern black soils is quite large and often reaches 30-40 m-eq.at 100. g.soil. The reaction of the water extract is low-alkaline. The structure they most often have a mercury, slightly grainy.

For water-air, thermal and biochemical properties, as well as the content of the main nutrient elements, the southern black soil is not inferior to ordinary. A peculiar representative of the Southern Chernozem is the Priazovsky, or the Precaucasian Chernozem.

Priazovsky, or the Pre-Caucasis Chernozem, first studied and described Acad. L. I. Prasolov, go to the east of the Azov Sea, extending up to the Forn of the Caucasus. These black soils are distinguished by a highly developed humor, the power of which reaches 1.5-1.8 m or more. The content of humus is relatively small - 4-6%. Due to a minor number of humidations, these subtypes of the chernozem have a brown or dark gray color.

The boiling of carbon dioxide is detected from the surface of the soil or at a slight depth. Possess well-pronounced coarse-grained structure. The reaction of the soil solution is slightly alkalo.

Possessing a powerful humus horizon, and consequently, the large content of organic matter, the priazovsky or predo-excavation black soils are characterized by high performance. In this regard, they are almost not inferior to other groups of black soil soils.

Features of other chernozem subtypes.Along with the soils described above in the Black Earth Zone, there are meadow-black earth soils, carbonate chernozem, salt-beyond chernozem and inland chernozem.

Meadow-chernozem soils develop in those places of the black earth zone, where the soil formation takes place with the participation of groundwater, occurring at a depth of 3-5 m.They are found mainly on flat, wide, weakly-shaped watersheds of the window-dontal lowland and on the wide ones of the left-bank terraces of the Dnieper and Volga. Extremely widespread meadow-chernozem soils in the Western Bulk Lowland have.

Developing with the participation of groundwater, meadow-black earth soils in the lower part of the profile usually have signs of reducing processes in the form of rusty and pepper spots. They are characterized by a higher content of humus reaching sometimes 14-18%.

Due to the periodic capillary tightening of the soil solution to the surface in all horizons of meadow-black-earth soils, there are in a small amount of easily soluble salts, which are reported by the symptoms of solonity, brainstorm and easement.

Carbonate black soils are chernozems, boiling from the surface and containing a significant amount of carbonates throughout the profile.

The primary carbonate and secondary-carbonate chernozems distinguish. %

Primary-carbonate chernozems are not widely distributed and are found in the form of separate spots, dedicated to the exits of tertiary carbonate clay, limestone, limestone sandstones, markels and their eluvia.

Thus, primary-carbonate chernozems are soils enriched with carbonates due to the strong-circular soil-forming rock.

Secondary-carbonate black soils are developing under a weaker plain, where in the hot season of the year, the ascending currents of soil solutions and the enrichment of the top horizons are enriching the carbonates.

Primary-carbonate chernozems are found in the Western regions of Ukraine, at the Volga hill, in a high voltage, secondary-carbonate - in the flat predfabcasus and in Northern Kazakhstan.

Soloncent chernozems are soils, in the absorbing complex of which contains more than 5% of the sum of the exchange bases of the absorbed sodium. They are distinguished by the fragile horizon structure A, strong seal, rigorous and horizon chloride in, a slightly alkaline reaction, the ability to swim and the formation of the crust.

Soloncentuated chernozems have less favorable water and air properties and in connection with this somewhat less productivity. They usually occur in small spots, timed mainly to small microreliefs, or submissions. Significant distribution have in the Wastener Lowland.

Effective chernozems are formed from brainseed chernozem as a result of the leaching and easement process. According to morphological features, they are somewhat resembled leached, or apodulated, chernozem, possessing a nutty structure of the transition horizon and detecting silica stains at the bottom of the horizon A.

In the absorbing complex of these soils, the sodium is absorbed and a minor amount of absorbed hydrogen. In this regard, the reaction of the soil solution in surface horizons is weakly acidic, and in the lower - alkaline. They are also characterized by the formation of an illwall horizon. Effective black soils are most often found in Western Siberia.

Such in the main features are those essential features that are characterized by individual soil subtypes of a black-grinding soil type.

To this, it should be added that salons, solonges and sulfas are found among black east soils. These soil education in the West Siberian lowland are especially widespread. But since these soils are more detained somewhat lower, here we will not stop on them.

All chernozem subtypes discussed above in turn are divided into mechanical composition on clay, heavy-chilly, luggy, light-coded and sugal. The most common of them are sublibric and light-coded black soils. Ordinary chernozem.Ordinary black soils are distributed mainly in the steppe zone, under conditions of somewhat low humidification. Due to greater climate dryness, vegetation develops here weaker here, and in connection with this, therefore, the enrichment of the soil by organic substances is made in more than limited quantity.

Ordinary chernozems contain about 6-8% of humus (Table 51).

The total power of humus and humus transitional horizons in ordinary chernozem is 70-80 cm.At the same time in the northern part of the subzone adjacent to the southern border of the forest-steppe, the power of the humid layer of ordinary chernozem increases to 90 cm,and when switching to the subzone, dry steppes humus layer decreases to 60-70 cm.

Several greater power, ordinary chernozems acquire on pre-emergency decreases, as well as for barely noticeable hopes of the plateau. These black soils are usually more deeply leached from calcium and magnesium coals. On the contrary, there are ordinary chernozems with highly raised carbonates with carbonates highly raised to the surface. These facts indicate the complexity of the soil cover in the distribution band of ordinary chernozem.

In ordinary black soils of the European part of the USSR at a depth of about 3-4 m.it is often observed a horizon of isolation of easily soluble salts and plaster (salt horizon). In ordinary chernozem Western Siberia, the salt horizon appears at a depth of about 200 cm.

Ordinary black soils in morphological features are somewhat different from typical black soils. They have a less intense color of the humus horizon, usually lower its power, a less distinct grainy and more lubricated structure.

The amount of humus in them is very gradually decreasing with the depth of the soil profile, and the intensity of the color gradually decreases with humus.

In some cases, for example, in Western Siberia, the transitional horizon of the chernozem has an inhomogeneous lies, or a pocket, painting due to subnewed humus from the humus horizon into the underlying horizons.

Education of humus languages \u200b\u200bin West Siberian chernozem, software. According to C. P. Gorshenina, due to the influence of a cold, sharp continental climate, in which in the winter time there is a sharp cooling of the soil by autumn rains, as a result of which cracks are formed in it. The same cracks can be formed in summer with severe soil drying. On these cracks in the warm and humid time of the year, humus penetrates a significant depth, forming the specified languages.

The predominant part of humus in ordinary chernozem is humic acids. As for the fulvocoslot, they have a subordinate value here.

In contrast to the apodoline and leached black soil, ordinary black soils do not contain absorbed hydrogen. Ordinary chernozems are saturated with CA ++ and Mg ++ and only in some cases there are traces of the absorbed Na + (Table 52).

Due to such saturation of soil colloids, the bases of the pH of the salt exhaust of ordinary chernozem fluctuates about 7.0; Neutral or close to it the reaction in the surface horizon with depth goes into a weakly alkaline.

Ordinary chernozems are distinguished by high porosity, increased moisture intensity and aeration, and at the same time significant water permeability. Big dutch in these soils provides fast and complete water absorption water absorption, and the high value of field moisture complex allows a large amount of water in capillaryly suspended state. Within the 1.5-meter soil layer, according to N. P. Rezhezov, can be kept about 500 mM.water.

The most profound missing of these soils is observed in the spring, the autumn precipitates penetrate into a smaller depth than spring. In the summer, the upper part of the soil profile almost completely delays all the precipitation precipitates, which are then used by plants for transpiration and organic synthesis.

Dark brown and chestnut soils of a dry steppe. Mountain provinces.
Towing chestnut soils

Chestnut soils are developing in the field of subboridal subarid (semi-samidal) climate, which is characterized by warm dry summer and cold winter with a slight snow cover. Temperature July 20-25 ° C, January from -5 to -25 ° C. The average annual temperature is 2-10 ° C. The sum of the active temperatures (\u003e 10 ° C) is 2200-3500 ° C. The annual precipitation of 200-400 mm, the maximum of precipitation falls for the summer, they often fall out in the form of a rain. Evaporability exceeds the amount of precipitation, the humidification coefficient is 0.25-0.45. Parts of dry. Climatic indicators determine the impaired type of water regime, due to which the movement of substances occurs only within the soil profile. Relief area of \u200b\u200bchestnut soils is predominantly plain or impudent, associated with ancient water-accumulative lowlands. Steppe bearendins are widespread, in which saline soils, solonts, sulfium, meadow-brown soil are formed, creating a greater complexity of soil cover. Soil-forming rocks are lessoidal carbonate loams, saline sea rocks, eluvel-delueli of various indigenous breeds - saline and undeveloped, carbonate and loose. Brown soils are formed in the zone of dry steppes, under a canopy of a low-spirited integrated herbaceous cover. Degree of coating 50-70%; It decreases as the climate of the zone becomes more dry. Within the limits of the Caspian Sea and Kazakhstan, three subzones of dry steppes are distinguished: from the north to the south, each other is replaced by sacchalovoy-nice, long-tipchal, ticker-hinged steppes. On saline and salt-tathed chestnut soils, peculiar associations from wormwood, aprint, chamifier are formed. The surface of the soil is covered with crusts of lichens and cinema and diatoms of algae. In the dry steppes, biomass of plant communities averages about 200 c / ha, while more than 90% falls on the roots. Annual green mass increase of about 30 c / ha, the increase in the roots of 110 c / ha. Every year about 600 kg / hectares of ash elements and about 150 kg / hectares of nitrogen are involved in the biological circulation; Return is approximately equal to consumption. Among the elements involved in the cycle are dominated by N, Si, K. in the number of microorganisms, brown soils differ little from chernozem, but the total biological activity for the year here is weaker due to a longer arid period.

general characteristics

Chestnut soils are soils with a type A-BCA-C profile, which are formed in the conditions of dry steppes of the subboral belt. The humus horizon and these soils has a chestnut color, in the first meter of the soil profile there are abundant allocations of carbonates, and in the second- (in many cases) of the gypsum. Chestnut soils on the northern border of distribution on the structure and properties are close to southern chernozem (dark brown soils), and on the southern border - to brown semi-desert soils (light brown soils). The separation of them from the soil of neighboring types is made by the totality of bioclimatic indicators. The term "brown soil" was introduced by V. V. Dokuchaev in 1883 as a special type of chestnut soils allocated to them in the 1900 classification together with brown semi-deserted. In the study of geography, genesis, properties, methods of rational use of these soils, S. S. Neztrusev, A. A. Rode, E. N. Ivanova, and others. Chestnut soils occupy on the globe of 262.2 million hectares, located Almost exclusively in the northern hemisphere. In Eurasia, they form a strip of south of the Black Earth Zone, in North America - the west of the Black Earth Zone at higher absolute marks. In the USSR, the area of \u200b\u200bchestnut soils is 107 million hectares (4.8%).

Starting with V. V. Dokuchaeva and N. M. Sibirtsev, the origin of brown soils was associated with climate disruption and the xerophilic nature of vegetation, the active mineralization of plant residues and humus, the weakening of humidoplation compared with the chernozem. Aridity also causes a weak leachy of the profile from carbonates, plaster and easily soluble salts. V. A. Kovov was expressed by the point of view of the Paleohydro-morphine past of brown soils, forming on the reduced plains of the dry steppe. This point of view was confirmed for a number of regions, in particular for the chestnut soils of the Caspian lowland (I. V. Ivanov et al., 1980). So, it was established that over the past 9 thousand years, the light-chestnut soils of the faceless plain of the Northern Caspiana passed in their development stages and stages of stakeholders, salinization, discretion, cavaluation, and ameal. In the formation of chestnut soils, the same processes are involved as in the formation of chernozem. The main ones are the dery, as well as the process of migration and accumulation of carbonates. In chestnut soil, the turde process is weaker than in chernozem. For the chestnut soil zone, the complexity of the complexity of soil cover is characterized. Chestnut soils form complexes with solon and meadow-chestnut soils. The reason for the high complexity of the soil cover is a microrelief, which causes differences in the water-salt soil mode, as well as the distround in the properties of the soil-forming rocks, agricultural activity, spotting vegetation against the background of the dry climate and the unfortunate territory. An example of an exceptionally high complexity of soil cover in the chestnut soil area can serve as the territory of Caspiani

IV. Characteristics of the professional activity of graduates of undergraduate programs in the direction of preparation 05.03.06 Ecology and environmental management

Chernozem is a high-grade earth, dark color, chernozems are rich in humus, with a pronounced grain-sensitive structure, usually a chernozem is formed in forests, loams or clays, in conditions of moderately continental climate.

The chernozem is considered to be the best soil for agriculture, is formed by the chernozem - under long-term herbal vegetation, in the climatic conditions of the steppe and forest-steppe territorial zones.

On the territory of our country - chernozems are located in centrally black earth areas, the Volga region, in Western Siberia and in the North Caucasus, there are many black earth earth in Ukraine, as well as in some European countries, China, South and North America.

Chernozem, as the soil is rich in humus, is formed on lesing loams or clays, as a rule, in conditions of moderately continental climate, with periodic precipitation, under long-term vegetation, usually herbal.

Conditions of soil formation of chernozem

For persistent soil formation of chernozem, the following conditions are needed - the climate is moderate, or moderately continental, there must be an alternation of moisturizing and draining, with the domination of the positive temperature regime. The average annual temperature should not be below +3 +7 degrees Celsius, and the annual amount of precipitation is 300-600 mm.

The relief of the chernozem occurs - the wavy-flat, in some places is cut with stocks, ravines, river terraces.

Read more:

Vegetation on chernozem - long-term grassy, \u200b\u200bmeadow-steppe. In appropriate climatic conditions, it is decomposition, as a result of which humus compounds are formed, which, accordingly, accumulate in the upper layers of the soil.

Together with humus in chernozem soil, in the form of complex organic, mineral compounds, such elements are formed, for plants as nitrogen, iron, phosphorus and sulfur, other. Website / Node / 2879

On the properties of the chernozem

Chernozems in their properties - have sufficiently good water and air qualities, it is distinguished by a chernozem with a mercury or a grainy structure, a large content in calcium soil from 70 to 90%, inherent in the chernozem - neutral or almost neutral reaction.

Chernozem on Earth is valued - increased fertility, natural and intense humification, quite high, about 15%, content of humus, in the upper layers of the soil.

What are the types of chernozem

Black soils are divided into the following types:

Chernozem is an apodoline - distributed chernozem data in wide herbaceous forests;

Leached by the black solar - such black soils are formed, under the meadow divergent-cereal steppes of the forest-steppe zone;

Typical black solar - the formation of this type of chernozem occurs under the diverse-zlakova, i.e. meadow-steppe, vegetation in forest-steppe zones, lesid and coating loams;

Chernozem ordinary - these black soils can be found in the northern part of the steppe zone, and they are formed under the dispensing vegetation;

Southern Chernozem - these black soils are formed under ticker-welcoming vegetation, it is possible to meet them in the southern part of the steppe zone.

Having a large amount of humus - chernozem is valued as highly fertile soil, giving a high and stable harvest. It also contains a fairly large number of other beneficial substances, for fertility, so necessary plants: nitrogen, sulfur, iron and phosphorus. Chernozem in its structure - has a dense lubricant structure, and one of the most fertile, is considered the South Chernozem, it is even called "fat black soil."

Because of its fertility, black soils are always valued all over the world. And now, in the modern time, the chernozem is the best view of the earth, for growing on it - vegetables, fruits, berries, trees and shrubs. Although it is worth knowing that for some plants, when landing them into the ground (chernozem) - should be mixed by peat, sometimes sand or compost, to break the ground (soil), because the black soil is tight enough, it does not differ in high rubble.

Application chernozem

As we already know - the chernozem for plants is the best soil. As follows from the very name of the chernozem - this land (soil) of dark color and very fertile.

Apply a chernozem like vegetable soil and is used when dealing with lawns, in vegetable garden and as a garden land, so on. It is also applied to the black soil, with an extrusion of land with a large clay composition, lands with poor drainage, to create a favorable air-water regime, as well as if necessary, creating a loose meal structure of the soil.

Find out:

The black mill is rich fertile soils, which can be called the pride of Russia, its national heritage. The magnificent properties of Chernozem are mentioned in the ancient chronicles of the V-VI century: "The Black Earth Earth is the best feed of the people, because it is not afraid of chills, no winds and shower, nor drought.

Gumat +7, 10g 12 rubles
Russian vegetable

OMA Humat-wagon for all types of crops, 0.5 l 98 rubles
seedSpost.ru.

Barrel and four buckets® Fertilizer Organic Water-soluble in Tablet Humat Potassium, 14 g 75 rubles
seedSpost.ru.

Humat potassium "Sufler" Univ. (250ml) Aqua 64 rubles
Agrofirm search

Application Chernozem in the country

Many tons are crying for their country sites, counting: times - For many years, good yields are provided. Alas, it is not. Please note that after 2-3 years, even a highly hydrochloric soil has disappeared and needs fertilizers. The part of the beneficial substances is washed with water, the part is absorbed by the roots of plants, and the microorganisms living in the chernozem brought from the side, falling into the unusual habitat, partially die. Consequently, the soil refuses, and the crops every year are becoming lower.

Chernozem Country Plot

In addition, consider that the lack of plants on the plant with a powerful root system is significantly affected to reduce soil fertility. After all, the developed roots of large trees and shrubs break the ground, thereby ensuring the influx of oxygen. And if you grow mainly small gardening plants, then with the point of the soil will turn into a solid heavy substrate and your green pets will feel extremely uncomfortable, with all the ensuing consequences.

Therefore, it is better to use a black mill where you plan to plant large plants (trees, tall shrubs), and for garden beds and under plants with a weak root system better to add it in small quantities, to improve the physiological properties of the soil. Usually, the garden land under the planting of vegetable crops is diluted with a black mill in a ratio of 3: 1.

Do I need to fertilize the black mill

Typical black sooths with a normal (from 7 pH) acidity in the deoxidation do not need. As needed, they can make sour fertilizers: potassium sulfate, saltper (except sodium), ammonium sulfate and others. And the rest of the black mill, as well as other types of soil, needs conventional standard additives: (0.5-1 t per hundred), organic and mineral fertilizers. Useful once every 5-6 years to sung in the site (plants grown as) followed by sealing into the soil.

And here acidic (below 5 pH) blacklooms need. To do this, it is enough to put into the ground a greased lime from the calculation: 0.2 kg per 1 m². And if the soil is poor in the content of magnesium, replace the lime of dolomite flour in the same proportions.

By the way, there is a special indicator paper on sale, with the help of which with a small error you can determine the acidity of soils in the country area.

Views of Chernozema

Chernozem is deservedly called the standard of soil, since it mainly consists of humus (humus), which is formed by the natural way when the remains of plant and animals are flushed. Depending on the territorial location of fertile soil, their composition is noticeably different. The black mill is typical, leached, fused, loosely, and so on, but any kind of it is characterized by the highest fertility. I will not describe the chemical properties of each of the types of Chernozem, in our country, it is unlikely to use anyone. I will only note that the chernozem soils in the power of the humus layer can be divided into:

• heavy duty, where humus lies at a depth of 1.2-1.5 m;
• powerful, depth of humus from 0.7 to 1.2 m;
• middle and low-power with depth of the humus layer from 25 cm to 0.7 m.

Heavy duty black, depth of humus - 1.5 m

Also, the chernozem differs in the percentage of "pure" humus to the soil:

• silnogulum (fat) soils (9-10%);
• mediterranean (5-9%);
• low-hummous (4-5%);
• wem-minded (up to 4%).

The farmers appreciate the chernozem for the natural humification and mineralization, the formation of colloidal organic components, humic and fulvocoslot, microelements, nutrients. They accelerate the development of root systems of plants and soil microorganisms, improve the quality of the soil.

It is distinguished on a dark brown and black shades, a fat trail on his palms after compression of a coma, long graze after the rain.

The only drawback of the soil is a water-resistant commercial-grain structure.

However, the dense black soil does not sneeze with a strong heat, protected from through mischief and erosion.

Advantages of chernozem

The main characteristics showing the level of fertility of this soil:

• Special soil structure
• Neutral level of acidity
• High percentage of humus content (up to 15%)
• A large number of useful substances, calcium, as well as microorganisms present in the soil

How are the chernozem form?

To create a humus profile, certain weather, biological and geological conditions are needed.

1. Continental weakly arid climate with average annual values \u200b\u200b+ 3 ... + 7 ° C and precipitation 350-550 mm.
2. Moderate evaporation of moisture up to 25%.
3. Consistent drying and soil moisturizing.
4. Growing thick vegetation with powerful roots.
5. The underlying rock with an alkaline earth surface.

In Hungary, Romania, the eastern part of Austria, the Chernozem appeared in the post-year period and is considered to be relic. Today, in Russian steppe and forest-steppe zones, the fertile soil is formed by the area of \u200b\u200bplants. A considerable role is played by soil waters that impair its properties. Of these, the roots of trees:

• absorb useful substances;
• impregnate earthen kom;
• split it to the aggregates;
• improve air circulation and tearned soil;
• accelerate rotting.

The land is powered by organic residues in the amount of 12-15 t / ha in the calculation of the dry matter. With the opde of the leaves, it receives 700-1100 kg of nitrogen and coarse substances with minerals.

Typical black solar profile

During the soil formation, humus-accumulative horizons are formed, distinguished by shades, structure, chemical composition. Everyone has the name and designation. Transitions between the horizons and the shape of the boundaries determine the morphological signs of the soil. The chernozem highlights the horizons with a capacity of 60-100 (180) cm.

1. A0 is a surface layer (3-5 cm) with a uniformly painted structure.
2. A - dark grainy or lumpy (30-50 cm) from humoring with coughing to the bottom.
3. AB (10-60 cm) is a humus-transitional horizon of brown color with a rolling linguistic boundary, divided into sinking and carbonate semi-cores.
4. VK-SK-transition to the mother breed.

The soil profile varies depending on the geographic direction. For the north, leached chernozems are characteristic. The sour forest humus is quickly decomposed, forms another structure and weakens the power of the horizon. Dispersed humic acids due to iron content give it a darker color. Southern soils contain less humoring and more carbonates suspending oxidation.

Classification of chernozem

Chernozem soil is divided into subtypes:

• Apothed With a silica structure and whitewall, a fluffy powder are formed in the forest-steppe zone under meadow vegetation. The content of humus varies within 5-12%. The reaction of the upper layer is close to neutral.
• Latch Soils are formed from a varnoped-cereal flora. According to the properties similar to the apotrole, but do not have silica sinking. Carbonates are beyond the boundaries of the horizon.
• The best features possess typical and z. Horing steppe spreading. The concentration of organic matter sometimes reaches 18%.
• Ordinary and southern The layers are formed with dry weather from the Ticker-nude plants of the steppe. Contain a smaller power horizon and 4-7% humus.
• Micellar-carbonate Prefer wet warm climate. Different in the content of carbonates, a strong humus horizon. The percentage of humus is 4-6%.

Features of the use of chernozem in the country

To raise a crop on a garden and not disturb the ecosystem, comply with certain rules.

No need to replace the entire soil to replace the black soil and give up fertilizer.

Without filling nutrients, the Earth is quickly depleted.

The removal by water from the upper layers of clay particles, aluminum oxides, calcium and iron leads to a decrease in the concentration of humus in the upper layer and reduce yield.

Rough mistake - excessive fitting under vegetables and flowers.