Makhs l m. Books Heating. Types, installation, operation of the modern heating system
In the book Scanavi, Makhov - Heating The device and principle of action of various systems of building heating are presented. The methods of calculating the thermal power of the heating system are given. Receptions of design, methods for calculating and methods for regulating modern systems of central and local heating are considered. Ways to improve systems and saving thermal energy during the heating of buildings are analyzed.
Book Skanavi, Makhov - Heating will be useful for university students enrolled in the direction "Construction" for the specialty 290700 "Heat and ventilation".
Section 1. General heating
Chapter 1. Characteristics of heating systems
§1.1. The heating system ................................................................................................................... 18
§ 1.2. Classification of heating systems ...................................................................................... ..20
§ 1.3. Coolants in heating systems ................................................................................ ..22
§ 1.4. The main types of heating systems ........................................................................ ..26
Chapter 2. Heating Heating Power
§ 2.1. Heat balance room ................................................................................. ..30
§ 2.2. Losses of warmth through the fence of the room ................................................................. ..31
§ 2.3. Warm loss on heating of infiltrant outer air ......... ..37
§ 2.4. Accounting for other sources of receipt and cost of heat .................................... .41
§ 2.5. Determining the estimated thermal power of the heating system ......................42
§ 2.6. Specific thermal characteristic of the building and the calculation of heat-consumption
heating, with aggregate ........................................................................ .43
§ 2.7. The annual costs of heat for the heating of buildings ....................................................46
Section 2. Heating Systems Elements
Chapter 3. Thermal points and their equipment
§ 3.1. Heat supply of water heating system ................................................................. ..49
§ 3.2. The thermal item of the water heating system ...................................................... 51
§ 3.3. Heat generators for the local water heating system .............................. 56
§ 3.4. Circulating pump of water heating system ..................................................... ..61
§ 3.5. Mixing installation of water heating system ........................................68
§ 3.6. Expansion tank of water heating system ............................................. 73
Chapter 4. Heating Instruments
§ 4.1. Requirements for heating devices .................................... ..80
§ 4.2. Classification of heating devices ................................................................ 82
§ 4.3. Description of heating devices ........................................................................ .84
§ 4.4. Selection and placement of heating devices ...................................................... 90
§ 4.5. The heat transfer coefficient of the heating device .........................................96
§ 4.6. The density of the heat flux of the heating device ........................................105
§ 4.7. Thermal calculation of heating devices ...........................................................107
§ 4.8. Thermal calculation of heating devices with a computer .............................112
§ 4.9. Regulation of heat transfer of heating devices .................................... 115
Chapter 5. Heating Heating Systems
§ 5.1. Classification and material of heat lines ......................................................... 118
§ 5.2. Placing heat lines in the building .................................................................. .121
§ 5.3. Attaching heat lines to heating devices .............................. .128
§ 5.4. Placement of shut-off adjusting reinforcement ................................................................. 132
§ 5.5. Removal of air from the heating system ............................................................ .141
§ 5.6. Insulation of heating pipes ....................................................................................... 148
Section 3. Water Heating Systems
Chapter 6. Designing Water Heating Systems
§ 6.1. Schemes of the system of pumping water heating ................................................ ..151
§ 6.2. The system of heating with natural circulation of water .................................... ..159
§ 6.3. Water heating system of high-rise buildings ................................................ ..163
§ 6.4. Decentralized system in up-water heating .................................... 166
Chapter 7. Calculation of pressure in the water heating system
§ 7.1. Change pressure when water moves in pipes ........................................................... 169
§ 7.2. Pressure dynamics in the water heating system .......................................... ..172
§ 7.3. Natural circulating pressure ............................................................ .193
§ 7.4. Calculation of natural circulation pressure in water heating system
§ 7.5. Estimated circulation pressure in the pumping system of water heating
Chapter 8. Hydraulic Calculation of Water Heating Systems
§ 8.1. The main provisions of the hydraulic calculation of the water heating system 211
§ 8.2. Ways of hydraulic calculation of the water heating system ..................... 214
§ 8.3. Hydraulic calculation of the water heating system by specific linear
pressure loss ............................................................................................................... .217
§ 8.4. Hydraulic calculation of the water heating system by characteristics
resistance and conductivity .................................................................................... 238
§ 8.5. Features of the hydraulic calculation of the heating system with pipe devices
§ 8.6. Features of the hydraulic calculation of the heating system with risers
unified structure .................................................................................... ..254
§ 8.7. Features of the hydraulic calculation of the heating system with natural
water circulation ............................................................................................................ 256
Section 4. Systems of steam, air and panel-radiant heating
Chapter 9. Steam Heating
§ 9.1. steam heating system 260 .................................................................................
§ 9.2. Schemes and device of the steam heating system ............................................. 261
§ 9.3. Equipment of steam heating systems ...................................................... .267
§ 9.4. Systems of vacuum steam and subatmospheric heating .............................. ..274
§ 9.5. Selection of initial pair pressure in the system .................................................................... ..275
§ 9.6. Hydraulic calculation of low pressure steam lines ..................................276
§ 9.7. Hydraulic calculation of high pressure steam lines .............................. ..278
§ 9.8. Hydraulic calculation of condense pipes ...................................................... 280
§ 9.9. The sequence of calculating the system of steam heating .............................. .283
§ 9.10. Using a pair of secondary boiling ...................................................... 287
§ 9.11. System of steaming heating .....................................................................................289
Chapter 10. Air Heating
§ 10.1. Air heating system ........................................................................ ..292
§ 10.2. Schemes of the air heating system ............................................................ .293
§ 10.3. The number and temperature of the air for heating .......................................... .296
§ 10.4. Local air heating ......................................................................................... 299
§ 10.5. Heating units ....................................................................................... 299
§ 10.6. Calculation of air supply heated in the heating unit ............................302
§ 10.7. Apartment system of air heating ...................................................... 307
§ 10.8. Recycling air heaters ............................................................ 308
§ 10.9. Central air heating ................................................................................ ..317
§ 10.10. Features of calculating air ducts of central air heating. 323.
§ 10.11. Mixing air-thermal curtains ...................................................... 328
Chapter 11. Panel-radiant heating
§ 11.1. System of panel-radiant heating ............................................................ 333
§ 11.2. Temperature setting indoors with panel-radiant heating
§ 11.3. Heat exchange indoor with panel-radiant heating ................................... ..340
§ 11.4. Design of heating panels .................................................................. 345
§ 11.5. Description of concrete heating panels ...................................................... 348
§ 11.6. Coolants and schemes of the panel heating system ................................. 353
§ 11.7. Area and surface temperature of heating panels ........................ .355
§ 11.8. Calculation of heat transfer of heating panels .................................................... 362
§ 11.9. Features of the design of the panel heating system ..................... ..367
Section 5. Local heating systems
Chapter 12. Foreign Heating
§ 12.1. Characteristics of furnace heating ....................................................................370
§ 12.2. General description of heating stoves ..............................................................................372
§ 12.3. Classification of heating stoves .................................................................. 373
§ 12.4. Designing and calculating toprooms with heat furnaces ............................376
§ 12.5. Designing and calculating gas ducts of heat furnaces ................................. 379
§ 12.6. Designing flue pipes for furnaces ...................................................... .383
§ 12.7. Modern heatheat heating furnaces ................................................ ..384
§ 12.8. Do not heat heating stoves ................................................................................... 391
§ 12.9. Design of furnace heating .................................................................. .393
Chapter 13. Gas Heating
§ 13.1. General information ....................................................................................................399
§ 13.2. Gas heating furnace .............................................................................. ..399
§ 13.4. Gas-high heat exchangers ........................................................................ 402
§ 13.5. Gas-air radiant heating ................................................................................ .403
§ 13.6. Gas radiant heating .............................................................................. ..405
Chapter 14. Electric heating
§ 14.1. General ................................................................................................... .407
§ 14.2. Electric heating devices .......................................................................... ..409
§ 14.3. Electric accumulation heating ................................................................. ..416
§ 14.4. Electric heating with a heat pump ................................. 421
§ 14.5. Combined heating using electrical energy ...... 426
Section 6. Designing heating systems
Chapter 15. Comparison and selection of heating systems
§ 15.1. Technical indicators of heating systems ...................................................... .430
§ 15.2. Economic indicators of heating systems ................................................ ..432
§ 15.3. Areas of application of heating systems ............................................................ .436
§ 15.4. Conditions for choosing a heating system .................................................................. 440
Chapter 16. Development of the heating system
§ 16.1. Design process and the composition of the heating project .................................... .442
§ 16.2. Norms and rules for designing heating ................................................................. 444
§ 16.3. Sequence of the design of heating ..............................................444
§ 16.4. Designing heating with a computer ................................................................. 447
§ 16.5. Typical heating projects and their application ................................................ .449
Section 7. Improving the efficiency of the heating system
Chapter 17. Mode of operation and regulation of the heating system
§ 17.1. The mode of operation of the heating system ..................................................................... 451
§ 17.2. Regulation of the heating system ...................................................................... 455
§ 17.3. Managing the work of the heating system ....................................................................... ..459
§ 17.4. Features of the mode of operation and regulation of various heating systems
Chapter 18. Improving the heating system
§ 18.1. Reconstruction of the heating system .................................................................. ..467
§ 18.2. Two-pipe water heating system with high heat
Sustainability ...................................................................................................................... 469.
§ 18.3. Single-tube water heating system with thermophone heating
devices ........................................................................................................................ ..472.
§ 18.4. Combined heating .............................................................................. 474
Section 8. Energy Saving in Heating Systems
Chapter 19. Savings of heat for heating
§ 19.1. Reduced power consumption for the heating of the building ..................................................... ..477
§ 19.2. Improving the efficiency of the heating of the building ................................................ .481
§ 19.3. Heating pumps for heating ........................................................................482
§ 19.4. Saving heat when automation of the system of heating ............... 488
§ 19.5. Intermittent building heating ...................................................................................... ..489
§ 19.6. Rationing of heating of residential buildings ....................................................................... ..494
Chapter 20. Using Natural Heating In Heating Systems
§ 20.1. Low-temperature heating systems ...................................................... ..497
§ 20.2. Sun heating systems ........................................................................ ..500
§ 20.3. Geothermal heating systems .................................................................. 506
§ 20.4. Heating systems using reset heat .............................. .508
Applications
Appendix 1 Indicators for calculating the fifth furnaces of heating furnaces .................. .510
Appendix 2 Indicators for calculating gas ducts of heating furnaces ........................ 511
311 Likes 21 Talking ABOUT THIS. Entrepreneur.
Here are the books devoted to the topic "Heating".
Selection of heating systems for a country house.
IN AND. Rydenko
2007
This book is designed not only for a home master, but also for those who want to establish water heating in their domains. The information given in it will introduce you to various types of water heating, their advantages and disadvantages, which will help you to take an optimal solution to arrange your home.
Some aspects of the use of water warm floors. (Thermophysical parameters).
V.S. Potapov
In Russia the construction community increasingly broad interest is the low-temperature heating systems and sources and, especially, water heated floors (ECP) and heat pump (HP).
Specialists in the design and operation of buildings have long known the principles for the construction and operation of such systems. However, the rates of their use are far behind the European. Suffice it to say that for example in Sweden, about 85% of modern housing built with only heating the probe and approximately 185,000 heat pumps (heat output of 7-25 kW) annually delivered to the market in Scandinavia.
Heating of a country house.
Leshchinskaya L.V.
Malyshev A.A.
2005
This book introduces the reader with the main types of country house heating. Why a country house, not an urban apartment? Because the owners of the houses have more opportunities and alternatives. In urban conditions, choose the type of heating does not have. Centralized water heating - and no alternatives. Well, really, not to build a Russian oven on the twentieth floor of the urban new building. And they will not be allowed! In the extreme case, you can buy an electric heater or pave "warm floors" in the kitchen, and then as an additional source of heat. On the other hand, the book can provide useful and for citizens, as there are many interesting information about modern heating devices that can be used for heating both country houses and urban apartments.
Electricity, water supply and heating in your home.
Marta Dorokhova
Pavel Erokhin
2009
The circle of work of homemade craftsmen is quite wide. And in this edition we tried to tell you how to equip the dwelling by sewer, water, heating and electricity without the help of specialists. The book is equipped with a large number of schemes and illustrations that perfectly serves the clarity of the material. The authors offer the reader recommendations for conducting wiring, internal and external water supply, sewage, heating, heating.
"Heating" Scanavi A.N.
Scanavi A.N.
Makhov L.M.
2002
This textbook was developed at the Department of Heating and Ventilation of the Moscow State Construction University (MGSU) in accordance with the current Typical Program based on the course of lectures, read by prof. A.N.Skanavi since 1958. Without changing the basic theoretical and methodological foundations of the course, taking into account modern trends in heating technology and technology since 1996. This course at the department is proceeded by prof. LM Mach.
Design of water heating systems.
Zaitsev O. N.
Lyubarez A. P.
2008
The life of a modern man is unthinkable without a certain level of comfortable facilities. In essence, any building (both man-made and natural) cannot be viewed without engineering systems. The emergence of such directions as energy saving in architecture, construction is a vivid testimony of this. At the same time consideration of any questions separately, without complex analysis, can not solve the problem of quality maintenance of comfortable conditions (e.g., reduction in temperature of hot water in the boilers, on the one storo¬ny, reduces fuel consumption and on the other - reduces the temperature difference In heating devices, which requires an increase in their area, that is, increasing capital costs).
Heating, water supply water supply.
Smirnova L.N.
2007
The book describes the types of heating systems and instruments, methods of laying pipelines, wiring them around the house, as well as about cold and hot water supply. Types of water boilers and different types of fuel are considered in detail. Much information about fireplaces, furnaces, method of warm floors.
The device and principle of action of various systems of building heating are presented. The methods of calculating the thermal power of the heating system are given. Receptions of design, methods for calculating and methods for regulating modern systems of central and local heating are considered. Ways to improve systems and saving thermal energy during the heating of buildings are analyzed. For students of higher educational institutions studying in the direction of "Construction", for the specialty 290700 "Heat-shaping and ventilation".
Preface
Introduction
Section 1. General heating
Chapter 1. Characteristics of heating systems
§ 1.1. Heating system
§ 1.2. Classification of heating systems
§ 1.3. Heating coolants
§ 1.4. Main types of heating systems
Chapter 2. Heating Heating Power
§ 2.1. Thermal balance of the room
§ 2.2. Warm loss through room fence
§ 2.3. Warm loss on heating of infiltrating outdoor air
§ 2.4. Accounting for other sources of receipt and cost of heat
§ 2.5. Determination of the estimated thermal power of the heating system
§ 2.6. Specific thermal characteristic of the building and the calculation of heat-consumption of heating on integrated indicators
§ 2.7. The annual costs of heat for the heating of buildings
Control tasks and exercises
Section 2. Heating Systems Elements
Chapter 3. Thermal points and their equipment
§ 3.1. Heat supply of water heating system
§ 3.2. Thermal item water heating system
§ 3.3. Heat generators for the local water heating system
§ 3.4. Circulation pump of water heating system
§ 3.5. Mixing installation of water heating system
§ 3.6. Expansion tank of water heating system
Control tasks and exercises
Chapter 4. Heating Instruments
§ 4.1. Requirements for heating devices
§ 4.2. Classification of heating devices
§ 4.3. Description of heating devices
§ 4.4. Selection and placement of heating devices
§ 4.5. The heat transfer coefficient of the heating device
§ 4.6. Heating device thermal flux density
§ 4.7. Thermal calculation of heating devices
§ 4.8. Heat calculation of heating devices using computers
§ 4.9. Heating device heat transfer regulation
Control tasks and exercises
Chapter 5. Heating Heating Systems
§ 5.1. Classification and thermal pipelines
§ 5.2. Placing heat lines in the building
§ 5.3. Connection of heat pipelines to heating devices
§ 5.4. Placement of shut-off adjusting reinforcement
§ 5.5. Removal of air from the heating system
§ 5.6. Insulation of heat lifting
Control tasks and exercises
Section 3. Water Heating Systems
Chapter 6. Designing Water Heating Systems
§ 6.1. Schemes of the system of pumping water heating
§ 6.2. System of heating with natural water circulation
§ 6.3. Water heating system of high-rise buildings
§ 6.4. Decentralized Water Heating System
Control tasks and exercises
Chapter 7. Calculation of pressure in the water heating system
§ 7.1. Changing pressure when water moves in pipes
§ 7.2. Pressure dynamics in water heating system
§ 7.3. Natural circulating pressure
§ 7.4. Calculation of natural circulation pressure in water heating system
§ 7.5. Estimated circulation pressure in the pumping system of water heating
Control tasks and exercises
Chapter 8. Hydraulic Calculation of Water Heating Systems
§ 8.1. The main provisions of the hydraulic calculation of the water heating system
§ 8.2. Ways of hydraulic calculation of water heating system
§ 8.3. Hydraulic calculation of the water heating system by specific linear loss of pressure
§ 8.4. Hydraulic calculation of water heating system according to resistance characteristics and conductors
§ 8.5. Features of the hydraulic calculation of the heating system with pipe devices
§ 8.6. Features of the hydraulic calculation of the system of heating with risers of the unified design
§ 8.7. Features of the hydraulic calculation of the heating system with natural water circulation
Control tasks and exercises
Section 4. Systems of steam, air and panel-radiant heating
Chapter 9. Steam Heating
§ 9.1. Steam heating system
§ 9.2. Schemes and device of steam heating system
§ 9.3. Equipment of steam heating systems
§ 9.4. Vacuum steam and subatmospheric heating systems
§ 9.5. Selection of initial pair pressure in the system
§ 9.6. Hydraulic calculation of low pressure steam pipelines
§ 9.7. Hydraulic calculation of high pressure steam lines
§ 9.8. Hydraulic calculation of condense pipes
§ 9.9. Sequence of calculating steam heating system
§ 9.10. Using a pair of secondary boiling
§ 9.11. Watering heating system
Control tasks and exercises
Chapter 10. Air Heating
§ 10.1. Air heating system
§ 10.2. Air heating system schemes
§ 10.3. The amount and temperature of the air for heating
§ 10.4. Local air heating
§ 10.5. Heating units
§ 10.6. Calculation of air supply heated in the heating unit
§ 10.7. Apartment air heating system
§ 10.8. Recycling air heaters
§ 10.9. Central air heating
§ 10.10. Features of calculating air ducts of central air heating
§ 10.11. Mixing air-thermal curtains
Control tasks and exercises
Chapter 11. Panel-radiant heating
§ 11.1. Panel-radiant heating system
§ 11.2. Temperature setting indoors with panel-radiant heating
§ 11.3. Heat exchange indoor with panel-radiant heating
§ 11.4. Design of heating panels
§ 11.5. Description of concrete heating panels
§ 11.6. Coolants and panel heating schemes
§ 11.7. Area and surface temperature of heating panels
§ 11.8. Calculation of heat transfer heating panels
§ 11.9. Features of the design of the panel heating system
Control tasks and exercises
Section 5. Local heating systems
Chapter 12. Foreign Heating
§ 12.1. Characteristics of furnace heating
§ 12.2. General description of heating stoves
§ 12.3. Classification of heating stoves
§ 12.4. Designing and calculating toprooms with heat furnaces
§ 12.5. Designing and calculating gas supplies of heat furnaces
§ 12.6. Designing flue pipes for furnaces
§ 12.7. Modern heat heating furnaces
§ 12.8. Non-heat heating furnaces
§ 12.9. Design of furnace heating
Control tasks and exercises
Chapter 13. Gas Heating
§ 13.1. General
§ 13.2. Gas heating furnaces
§ 13.4. Gas-high heat exchangers
§ 13.5. Gas-posted radiant heating
§ 13.6. Gas radiant heating
Control tasks and exercises
Chapter 14. Electric heating
§ 14.1. General
§ 14.2. Electric heating equipment
§ 14.3. Electric accumulation heating
§ 14.4. Electric heating with a heat pump
§ 14.5. Combined heating using electrical energy
Control tasks and exercises
Section 6. Designing heating systems
Chapter 15. Comparison and selection of heating systems
§ 15.1. Technical indicators of heating systems
§ 15.2. Economic Indicators of Heating Systems
§ 15.3. Areas of applying heating systems
§ 15.4. Conditions for selecting the heating system
Control tasks and exercises
Chapter 16. Development of the heating system
§ 16.1. Design process and the composition of the heating project
§ 16.2. Norms and Rules for Designing Heating
§ 16.3. Sequence of the design of heating
§ 16.4. Design of heating with a computer
§ 16.5. Typical heating projects and their application
Control tasks and exercises
Section 7. Improving the efficiency of the heating system
Chapter 17. Mode of operation and regulation of the heating system
§ 17.1. Mode of operation of the heating system
§ 17.2. Regulation of the heating system
§ 17.3. Management of heating system
§ 17.4. Features of the mode of operation and regulation of various heating systems
Control tasks and exercises
Chapter 18. Improving the heating system
§ 18.1. Reconstruction of the heating system
§ 18.2. Two-pipe water heating system of increased heat stability
§ 18.3. One-pipe system of water heating with thermophone heating devices
§ 18.4. Combined heating
Control tasks and exercises
Section 8. Energy Saving in Heating Systems
Chapter 19. Savings of heat for heating
§ 19.1. Reducing the power consumption for the heating of the building
§ 19.2. Improving the efficiency of the building
§ 19.3. Heat pumping plants for heating
§ 19.4. Saving heat when automation of the heating system
§ 19.5. Intermittent building heating
§ 19.6. Normation of residential buildings heating
Control tasks and exercises
Chapter 20. Using Natural Heating In Heating Systems
§ 20.1. Low-temperature heating systems
§ 20.2. Sun heating systems
§ 20.3. Geothermal heating systems
§ 20.4. Heating systems using waste heat
Control tasks and exercises
Appendix 1. Indicators for calculating the fifth furnaces of heating stoves
Appendix 2. Indicators for calculating gas ducts of heating stoves
Bibliography
Preface
Discipline "Heating" is one of the preparation of health and ventilation and ventilation professionals. Its study involves obtaining fundamental knowledge on designs, principles of action and the characteristic properties of various systems of heating, according to methods for their calculation and methods of design, methods for regulating and management, promising routes of development of this industry of the construction industry.
For mastering theoretical, scientific and technical and practical knowledge relating to the discipline "Heating", a deep understanding and assimilation of physical processes and phenomena occurring both in heated buildings and directly in heating systems and their individual elements are needed. These include the processes associated with the thermal regime of the building, the movement of water, steam and air through pipes and channels, the phenomena of their heating and cooling, changes in temperature, density, volume, phase transformations, as well as the control of thermal and hydraulic processes.
Discipline "Heating" is based on the provisions of a number of theoretical and applied disciplines. These include: physics, chemistry, thermodynamics and heat masses, hydraulics and aerodynamics, electrical engineering.
The choice of a method of heating to a large extent depends on the characteristics of the constructive and architectural and planning solutions of the building, from the heat engineering properties of its fences, i.e. issues that are studied in general construction disciplines and in the discipline "Construction thermal physics".
Discipline "Heating" is closely connected with special technical disciplines that make up the specialty "Heat-sharing and ventilation": "Theoretical foundations of the creation of a microclimate in the room", "Heat generating installations", "pumps, fans and compressors", "Heat supply", "ventilation", " Air conditioning and cooling "," gas supply "," Automation and process management Heat-shaping and ventilation ". It includes in abbreviated form, many related elements of the listed disciplines, as well as the issues of economics, the use of computing equipment, the production of installation work, are detailed in the respective courses.
Previous textbook "Heating", developed by the team of authors of the Moscow Engineering and Construction Institute. V.V. Kuibyshev (MII), was published in 1991. Over the past decade, the rebirth of the market economy has occurred in Russia, including in the field of the construction industry. The volume of construction has increased markedly, the ratio in the use of domestic and foreign techniques has changed. There were new types of heating equipment and technologies, often not previously analogues in Russia. All this should have been reflected in the new edition of the textbook.
This textbook was developed at the Department of Heating and Ventilation of the Moscow State Construction University (MGSU) in accordance with the current Typical Program based on the course of lectures, read by prof. A.N. Scanavi since 1958, without changing the basic theoretical and methodological foundations of the course, taking into account modern trends in heating and technology and technology since 1996, this course on the department is proceeded by prof. LM Mach.
As in the previous editions of the textbook, the authors did not consider it necessary to give detailed descriptions of continuously upgraded equipment, common reference data, as well as calculated tables, graphs, nomograms. The exceptions are separate specific information necessary for examples and explanations of structures and physical phenomena.
Separate sections contain practical examples of calculating heating systems and their equipment. After each chapter is given control tasks and exercises intended for verifying the knowledge gained. They can be used in the scientific and educational work of students, as well as when conducting a state exam in the specialty.
The basis of this textbook is the material prepared by prof. A.N. Scanavi for the previous edition. The textbook also used sections of sections from the previous edition, drawn up: seeding. Scientist and Technology of the RSFSR, Prof., Doctor of N. V.N. Bogoslovsky (ch. 2, 19), prof., Ph.D. E.G. Malyavina (ch. 14), k.t.n. I.V. Meschaninov (ch. 13), k.t.n. S.G. Boquins (ch. 20).
The authors express deep appreciation to the reviewers - the Department of Heat Production and Ventilation of the Moscow Institute of Communal Services and Construction (Head of the Department, prof., Ph.D. E.M. Avdolimov) and Ing. Yu.A. Epstein (OJSC "Mosproekt") - for valuable advice and comments made when reviewing the manuscript of the textbook.
Scanavi A.N., Makhov L.M. Heating 2002 Scanavi, Alexander Nikolaevich Heating: Textbook for students of universities, students in the direction of "Builder in", specialty 290700 / L.M. Mach. M.: DRA, 2002. 576 p. : IL. ISBN 5 93093 161 5, 5000 copies. The device and principle of action of various systems of building heating are presented. We give methods for calculating the thermal power of the heating system. Receptions of KohCCt route, calculation methods and methods for the rerylation of modern systems of Central and Metehoro heating are considered. The ways of improving systems and saving TE Plot Energy are analyzed when building heating. For students of higher educational institutions, trained in the direction of "Building", for the specialty 290700 "Heating and Ventilation" Heating of BBK 38.762 UDC 697.1 (075.8) 2 Contents of the prediction SL ............. .................................................. .................................................. .......... 7 V in E de Nie .................................. .................................................. .......................................... . . .. 9 Section 1. General information about heating ........................................ ..................... 18 Rolava 1. Characteristics of heating systems ...................... ......................... 18 1.1. Heating system ................................................ .................................................. . 18 1.2. Classification of heating systems ............................................... ........................... 20 1.3. Heating coolants in heating systems .............................................. ...................... 22 1.4. The main types of heating systems .............................................. ............................ 2B control tasks and exercises ................. .......................................... 29 Rolava 2. Thermal power of the heating system ................................... 30 2.1. Thermal balance of the room ............................................... .................................... 30 2.2. Warm losses through the repair of the room ............................................. ........ 31 2.3. Warm losses on having fun infiltration outdoor air ........... 37 2.4. Accounting for other sources of receipt and cost of heat ..................................... 41 2.5. Determination of the estimated thermal power of the heating system ...................... 42 2.B. Specific thermal characteristic of the building and the calculation of heat-consumption for heating on integrated indicators. .................................................. ...................... 43 2.7. [Come costs of warmth for the heating of buildings ............................................. ......... 4b control tasks and exercises .................................... ....................... 48 Section 2. Elements of heating systems .................... ............................................ 49 Rolava 3. Thermal points AND THEM. Equipment ........................................... 49 Z.1. Heat supply of water-heating system .............................................. ....... 49 3.2. The heat point of the water-heating system ................................................. ......... 51 3.3. Heat generators for the local water heating system .............................. 5b 3.4. Circulating pump of the water heating system ......................................... B1 3.5. Mixing installation of a water-heating system ........................................ B8 3.B. Expansion tank of the water-heating system ............................................. 73 Control tasks and exercises ................................................. .............. 79 R Lava 4. Heating devices ............................. .............................................. 80 4.1. Requirements for heating devices ........................................ 80 4.2. Classification of heating devices ............................................... ................ 82 4.3. Description of heating devices ................................................. .......................... 84 4.4. Selection and placement of heating devices ............................................. ......... 90 4.5. The heat transfer coefficient of the device ......................................... 9B 4.B. The density of the flow of the flow of the device ........................................ 105 4.7. Thermal calculation of heating devices .............................................. ............. 107 4.8. The thermal calculation of the heating devices using a computer ............................. 112 4.9. Regraving heat transfer of heating devices .................................... 115 Control tasks and exercises ..... .................................................. .. 117 Rolava 5. Heating Heating Systems ......................................... ........ 118 5.1. Classification and material of heat lines ................................................ ........... 118 5.2. Placing heat lines in the building. .................................................. ................ 121 5.3. Attaching heat lines to heating devices ............................... 128 5.4. Placement of shut-off rerageous reinforcement .............................................. ..... 132 5.5. Removal of air from the heating system ................................................. ................ 141 5.B. Insulation of heat lines ................................................ ....................................... 148 Control Tasks and Exercises ...... .................................................. . 150 Section 3. Water-heating systems .......................................... .................. 151 Rolava b. Designing Water Heating Systems ................... 151 B.1. Hacochoro Water Heating Systems ............................................... ..... 151 3 6.2. The system of heating with natural circulation of water ...................................... 159 6.3. Watering system of heating of high-rise buildings ............................................. ..... 163 6.4. Decentralized system of water water heating .................................... 166 Control tasks and exercises .... .................................................. ... 168 Rolava 7. Calculation of pressure in the water-heating system ............... 168 7.1. Change pressure when water moves in pipes ........................................... .. 169 7.2. Pressure dynamics in the system of water heating .............................................. 172 7.3. Natural circulating pressure ................................................. .............. 193 7.4. Calculation of ectectBehhoro Circulating pressure in the water heating system .......................................... .................................................. ................................................ 196 7.5 . Estimated circulating pressure in the waterproof pumping system .......................................... .................................................. .................................. .............. 206 control Tasks and exercises ................................................. .......... 21 O Rlavaya 8. Ridolar calculation of water heating systems ...... 211 8.1. The main provisions of the Riidrahydric Calculation of the Water Heating System211 8.2. Methods of RiDrahydrated Calculation of the Water Heating System ..................... 214 8.3. Ridolar calculation of the water-heating system by specific linear pressure loss. .................................................. .................................................. ........... 217 8.4. Ridolar calculation of the system of water heating according to resistance characteristics and conductors ........................................ ............................................ 238 8.5. Features of the Riderlyl Communication of the heating system with instruments from pipes ........................................... .................................................. ................................... .............. 253. 8.6. Features of the Riderlyl Communication of the heating system with risers of a unified design ........................................... ............................................. 254 8.7. Features of the Riderlyl Communication of the heating system with the natural circulation of water ..................................................... .................................................. ................. 256 Tests and exercises ............................ ............................. 259 SECTION 4. SYSTEMS PERSONOP, AERPO AND PANELLY RADIO ON TR ON PLIA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 260 R Lav a 9. Couples about in about e o t about the play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 260 9.1. System of steam heating ............................................... .................................. 260 9.2. Schemes and device of the system of steam heating ............................................ . 261 9.3. Equipment of the system of steam heating .............................................. ......... 267 9.4. Systems Vacuum Vacuo and Subatmospheric Heating ................................ 274 9.5. Selecting the initial pressure of steam in the system. .................................................. ..... 275 9.6. Ridolar calculation of low-pressure steam pipelines .................................. 276 9.7. Ridolar calculation of steam pipelines highly pressure ................................ 278 9.8. Ridolar calculation of condense pipes ............................................... ....... 280 9.9. Sequence of calculating the system of steam heating ............................... 283 9.10. Using a pair of secondary boiling. .................................................. ... 287 9.11. System of steaming heating ............................................... ........................ 289 Control tasks and exercises ..................... .................................... 291 R Lav a 1 o. In the oh of the shower ....................................... .................................. 292 10.1. Air-heating system ................................................. ........................... 292 10.2. Schemes of the air-heating system .............................................. ............... 293 10.3. The number and temperature of the air for heating ........................................... 296 10.4. Local air heating ............................................... ............................ 299 10.5. Heating Ornaments ................................................ ....................................... 299 10.6. Calculation of air supply, Harpetoro in the heating arperate ............................ 302 1 0.7. The apartment system of air-heating .............................................. ........ 307 10.8. Recycling airrooms ................................................ ............ 308 10.9. Central air heating ............................................... ..................... 317 4 10.10. Features of calculating air ducts are centrally air-heating. 323 10.11. Mixing air thermal curtains .............................................. ........ 328 Tests and exercises ..................................... .................... 333 [Lava 11. panel radiant heating ...................... ................................ 333 11.1. The system panel radially heating .............................................. .............. 333 11.2. Temperature situation in the room with panel radiant heating .......................................... .................................................. ................................................ 336 11.3. . Heat-exchange indoor with panel radiant heating ....................... 340 11.4. Construction of heating panels ............................................... ................... 345 11.5. Description of concrete heating panels .............................................. ........ 348 11.6. Coolants and schemes of the system panel heating ................................. 353 11.7. The area and temperature of the surface of the heating panels. ........................ 355 11.8. Calculation of heat transfer of heating panels .............................................. ..... 362 11.9. Features of designing a system panel heating ....................... 367 Control tasks and exercises ................. ........................................ 369 Section 5. Systems Locally [about heating. .................................................. ........ 370 [Love A 12. Beculture ............................. .................................................. ..... 3 7 о 12.1. Characteristics of the heating ............................................... .................... 370 12.2. General description of heating stoves ................................................ .................. 372 12.3. Classification of heating stoves ............................................... ................... 373 12.4. Designing and calculating the toprooms of heat furnaces ............................ 376 12.5. Designing and calculating the rompoms of heat furnaces ................................. 379 12.6. Designing flue pipes for furnaces ................................................. .......... 383 12.7. Modern heat heating stoves .............................................. .... 384 12.8. Do not heat heating furnaces ................................................ ....................... 391 12.9. Designing Heating ............................................... .................... 393 Tests and exercises ......................... ................................ 398 [Lava 13. [AZO VO heating ........ .................................................. ...................... 399 13.1. General information .................................................. .................................................. .. 399 13.2. [Azov heating furnaces .............................................. .................................. 399 13.4. [Azzo-high heat exchangers ............................................... ......................... 402 13.5. [Azzi-raumous heating .............................................. ..................... 403 13.6. [Azov radiant heating .............................................. .................................. 405 Tests and exercises ........... .............................................. 407 [Lava 14 . Electric heating ........................................................... .................. 407 14.1. General. .................................................. ................................................. 407 14.2. Electric heating devices. .................................................. ........... 409 14.3. Electric accumulation heating ............................................... ...... 416 14.4. Electric heating with the thermal pump ................................. 421 14.5. Combined heating using electric power ...... 426 Control tasks and exercises ................................... ........................ 429 Section 6. Designing heating systems ................... ............................. 430 [Lava 15. Comparison and selection of heating systems ........... ........................... 430 15.1. Technical indicators of heating systems. .................................................. .... 430 15.2. Economic indicators of heating systems .............................................. .... 432 15.3. Areas of applying heating systems .............................................. ............... 436 15.4. The conditions for choosing the heating system .............................................. .................... 440 Control tasks and exercises ......................... ................................ 442 [Lava 16. Development of heating system .......... .......................................... 442 16.1. Design process and the composition of the heating project ..................................................... 442 16.2. Norms and rules for designing heating ................................................. ...... 444 16.3. Sequence of the design of heating .............................................. 444 5 1b.4. Designing heating with a computer ............................................... ...... 447 1B.5. Typical heating projects and their application ............................................ ..... 449 Tests and exercises ........................................ ................. 450 Section 7. Improving the efficiency of the heating system .................. 451 Rolana 17. Mode of operation and Regraving the heating system ...... 451 17.1. Mode of operation of the heating system .............................................. ....................... 451 17.2. Regraving the heating system ................................................. ...................... 455 17.3. Management of the heating system .............................................. ............. 459 17.4. Features of the mode of operation and reproduction of various heating systems. .................................................. .................................................. ......................... .............. 4b1 Tests and exercises ...... .................................................. . 4bb Rlava 18. Improvement of the heating system .............................. 4B7 18.1. Reconstruction of the heating system ................................................... ..................... 4B7 18.2. Two-pipe system of water-based heating of increased thermal stability ....................................................... .................................................. ..................... ... 4b9 18.3. One-tube system of watering heating with thermophone heating devices ............................................ .................................................. .............................. 472 18.4. Combined heating .................................................. .............................. 474 Tests and exercises ............... .......................................... 47b Section 8. Energy saving in heating systems .................................. 477 Rolava 19. Saving heat for heating ........ ........................................ 477 19.1. Reducing the energy consumption for the heating of the building .......................................... 477 19.2. Improving the efficiency of the heating of the building .............................................. ... 481 19.3. Heating pumping plants for heating .............................................. ............ 482 19.4. Saving heat when automating the operation of the heating system ............... 488 19.5. Intermittent building heating ................................................... ........................... 489 19.B. Rationing of the heating of residential buildings .............................................. ............. 494 Tests and exercises ................................ ......................... 49b Rlavaya 20. The use of natural heat in systems about T about the play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 497 20.1. Low-temperature heating systems. .................................................. ..... 497 20.2. Systems of sunny heating ............................................... ........................... 500 20.3. Systems recycled heating. .................................................. ............... 50b 20.4. Heating systems using reset heat ............................... 508 Control tasks and exercises ........ ................................................. 509. Printed 1 indicators for calculating the fifth furnaces of heating furnaces ................... 51 About the above 2 indicators for calculating the rommens of heating stoves ............. ........... 511 List of references .................................... .................................................. .............. 512 B Preface Discipline "Heating" is one of the factors in the process of heat and ventilation. Its studies involves obtaining funny knowledge of the designs, principles of action and the characteristic properties of various systems of heating, according to the methods of their calculation and methods of design, the methods of reproduction and management, promising routes of development of this industry of the construction industry. For mastering theoretical, scientifically, technical and practical knowledge, Otho, the discipline "Heating", a swill understanding and assimilation of physical processes and phenomena occurring both in the worldwide buildings and immediately in the systems of heating and their individual elements. These include the processes associated with the thermal regime of the building, the movement of water, steam and air through pipes and channels, the phenomena of their heating and cooling, changes in temperature, density, volume, phase of transformations, as well as the repring of thermal and rider. The discipline "heating" is based on the provisions of a number of theoretical and applied disk ciplines. These include: physics, chemistry, thermodynamics and heat and mass exchange, Riiderlica and aerodynamics, electrical engineering. The choice of the method of heating to a large extent depends on the peculiarities of constructive and AP Hitkelectively planning solutions of the building, from the heat engineering properties of Erora Proceeds, i.e. issues that are studied in general construction disciplines and in the discipline "Construction thermal physics". Discipline "Heating" is closely related to special technical disciplines that make up the specialty "Heat and Promotion and Ventilation": "Theoretical OCs of New Creating Microclimate Indoor", "Heat Receives", "Pumps, Fans and Compressors", "Heat Spa", "Ventilation", "Air conditioning and cold supply", "Razo-acquaintance", "Automation and control of processes of heat supply and ventilation". It includes in the abbreviated form of many adjacent elements of the listed disciplines, as well as issues of economics, the use of calculating technology, the production of installation work, in detail those considered in the coot of the respective courses. Previous textbook "Heating", developed by the team of authors Mockobckoro Engineering Construction Institute. V.V. Kuibyshev (MII), was published in 1991 r. Over the past decade, the Renaissance of the market economy has occurred RLUBOU who has children, including in the field of the construction industry. The volume of construction has increased markedly, the ratio in the use of the domestic and refugean equipment has changed. There were new types of heating equipment and technol, for frequent people who do not have earlier in Russia. All this should have been reflected in the new edition of the textbook. This textbook was developed at the Department of Heating and Ventilation of Mockobckoro Roca Domestic University of Construction (MRCY) in accordance with the current type of program based on the course of lectures, read by prof. A.N. Scanvavi since 1958 r. Without changes in the basic theoretical and methodological foundations of the course, taking into account modern Tehdehi in heating technology and technology since 1996 r. This course at the department is proceeded by prof. LM Mach. 7 As in the previous editions of the textbook, the authors did not consider it necessary to give detailed descriptions continuously upgraded equipment, common reference data, as well as calculated tables, rarafiki, nomrarm. The exception is ot of solid specific information necessary for examples and explanations of structures and physical phenomena. Separate partitions contain practical examples of calculating heating systems and their energies. After each rul, the tests and exercises are given to verify the knowledge gained. They are MORYT to be used in the scientific and educational research work of students, as well as when conducting a vocational exam in the specialty. The basis of the Tutorial is based on the material underground. A.N. Scanavi for the previous publication. In the textbook, the sections are also used in the premises of the publication, drawn up: seeding. Scientist and Technology of the RSFSR, Prof., Doctor of N. V.N. Baroslovsky (RL 2, 19), prof., Ph.D. E.R. Malyavina (RL 14), K.T.N. I.V. Meschaninov (RL 13), Ph.D. C.R. Boquins (RL 20). The authors bring blarlicity for their help in the design of the textbook prof., D.T.N. Yu.Y. Kuvshinov, as well as Ing. A.A. Serenko for technical assistance in ERO decoration. The authors express a swill of appreciation to the reviewers of the Department of Heatness and Ventilation Mockobckoro Institute of Municipal Economic and Construction (the reception of the Department, prof., Ph.D. E.M. Avdolimov) and Ing. Yu.A. Epstein (OJSC "Mosproekt") for valuable advice and comments made in reviewing the manuscript system. 8 Introduction Energy consumption in Russia, as well as around the world, is steadily increasing and, before BCERO, to ensure the warmth of engineering systems of buildings and structures. It is known that on the TE, the flat supply of the Raspansky and industrial buildings is consumed more than one third of BCERO produced in our country of oranic fuel. Over the past decade in XO, de conduct of economic and social reforms in Russia, the structure of the fuel energy complex of the country has been radically changed. It is noticeably reduced by the use of fuel in thermal engineer, fuel in favor of more cheaply and ecoloicly naturally Raz. On the other side, there is a constant increase in the value of all types of fuel. This is due both to the transition to the conditions of the market economy and the complication of fuel production in the development of rłuboki fields in new remote areas of Russia. In this regard, the problem of economical spending of heat at all stages from its development is becoming increasingly relevant and significant across the country. The main among the heat of the heat for utility household needs in buildings (heating, ventilation, air conditioning, Ralchaya water supply) are heating costs. This is due to the conditions of operation of buildings during the period of the CE region of the zone on most of the territory of Russia, the heat loss through their outer production giving structures significantly exceeds internal heat dissipation. To maintain the necessary temperature situation, it is necessary to equip the buildings with reinforcement or systems. Thus, heating is called artificial, with the help of a special Yctahob ki or system, having worked out the premises of the building to compensate for heat loss and maintain temperature parameters at the level determined by the conditions of thermal comfort for people in the room or the requirements of technological processes flowing in industrial premises . Heating is a branch of construction equipment. Installation of a stationary heater system is carried out during the construction of the building, its elements in design are linked to building structures and are combined with the planning and interior of the premises. At the same time, heating is one of the types of technological equipment. PA Parameters The heating system bots should take into account the heat of the physical features of KohctPyK tet elements of the building and be linked to the work of other engineering systems, before BCERO, with the operating parameters of the ventilation and air conditioning system. The functioning of heating is characterized by a certain periodicity during the ROD and the variability of the installation power used, dependent, before BCERO, from meteorological conditions in the construction area. With lowering the temperature of the Horo air and the wind enhancement should increase, and with increasing the temperature of HA, the heat transfer of the solar radiation to decrease the heat transfer from OTO installations to the room, i.e. The process of transmission of heat should constantly be roving. The change in external influences is combined with uneven heat steps from internal production and household sources, which also causes the need to reproduce the action of heating installations. To create and maintain thermal comfort in buildings, technical requirements are required and reliable heating plants. And the harshest of the MEctho 9 climate and the above requirements for the provision of braving thermal conditions in the building, the more powerful and Ribe, these installations should be. The climate of most of the territory of our country is characterized by severe winter, similar only with the winter in the northwestern provinces of Canada and in Alaska. In tab. 1 Compare Kli Matic conditions in January (the coldest month of the ROD) in Moscow with conditions in the major Rorsodes of the Cebephor Hemisphere of the Earth. It can be seen that the average temperature of January is significantly higher in them than in Moscow, and is characterized only for the most southern POC Rozhbies, differing by mop and short in winter. Table 1. The average temperature of the externally air in large celodes of Cebephoro Hemispheres during the most cold month of the Ropon R eORPAFIC Average themes of the latitude of the latitude. Jointers, OS Moscow 550 50 ".. [O 2, NY YORK 400 40" O 8 ,. Bej1in 520 30 ". & O T3 Paris 480 50 J" 2) 3 London 51 O 30 "+4 o The heating of buildings begin with a resistant (for 5 days) lowering the average temperature externally air to 8 OS and below, and end when Resistant to highlighting the temperature of externally air to 8 OS. The period of building heating during the rod is called the heating season. The duration of the season is installed on the basis of many observations as an average number of days in the rod with a stable average daily air temperature< 8 ос. Для характеристики изменения температуры наружноrо воздуха tH в течение отопитель Horo сезона рассмотрим rрафик (рис. 1) продолжительности стояния z одинаковой cpeДHe суточной температуры на примере Москвы, rде продолжительность отопительноrо сезона ZO с составляет 7 мес (214 сут). Как видно, наибольшая продолжительность стояния TeM пературы в Москве относится к средней температуре отопительноrо сезона (3,1 ос). Эта закономерность характерна для большинства районов страны. Продолжительность отопительноrо сезона невелика лишь на крайнем юrе (3 4 мес), а на большей части России она составляет 6 8 мес, доходя до 9 (в Арханrельской, Мурманской и друrих областях) и даже до 11 12 мес (в Маrаданской области и Якутии). 10 Z."Ч t5JO 500 1300 iOOO ,= 214 С)Т а + 8 з. 1 1 2 3 t с + 1 о CI 10,2 · 20 ..28..30 ...32 42 Рис. 1. Продолжительность стояния одинаковой среднесуточной температуры наружноrо воздуха за отопительный сезон в Москве Суровость или мяrкость зимы полнее выражается не длительностью отопления зданий, а значением rрадусо суток про изведением числа суток действия отопления на разность внутренней и наружной температуры, средней для этоrо периода времени. В Москве это число rрадусо суток равно 4600, а, для сравнения, на севере Красноярскоrо края доходит до 12800. Это свидетельствует о большом разнообразии местных климатических условий на территории России, rде практически все здания должны иметь ту или иную отопитель ную установку. Состояние воздушной среды в помещениях в холодное время rода определяется действи ем не только отопления, но и вентиляции. Отопление и вентиляция предназначены для поддержания в помещениях помимо необходимой температурной обстановки определен ных влажности, подвижности, давления, rазовоrо состава и чистоты воздуха. Во мноrих rражданских и производственных зданиях отопление и вентиляция неотделимы. Они co вместно создают требуемые санитарно rиrиенические условия, что способствует сниже нию числа заболеваний людей, улучшению их самочувствия, повышению производитель ности труда и качества продукции. в сооружениях аrропромышленноrо комплекса средствами отопления и вентиляции под держиваются климатические условия, обеспечивающие максимальную продуктивность животных, птиц и растений, сохранность сельхозпродукции. Здания и их рабочие помещения, производственная продукция требуют для cBoero HOp мальноrо состояния надлежащих температурных условий. При их нарушении значительно сокращается срок службы оrраждающих конструкций. Мноrие технолоrические процессы получения и хранения ряда продуктов, изделий и веществ (точной электроники, текстиль ных изделий, изделий химической и стекольной промышленности, муки и бумаrи и т.д.) требуют cTpororo поддержания заданных температурных условий в помещениях. 11 Длительный процесс перехода от костра и очаrа для отопления жилища к современным конструкциям отопительных приборов сопровождался постоянным их совершенствовани ем и повышением эффективности способов сжиrания топлива. Русская отопительная техника берет свое начало от культуры тех древнейших племен, KO торые заселяли значительную часть южных районов нашей Родины еще в неолитическую эпоху KaMeHHoro века. Археолоrи обнаружили тысячи построек KaMeHHoro века в виде пещер землянок, оборудованных печами, выдолбленными в rpYHTe на уровне пола и Ha половину выходящими своим rлинобитным сводом и устьем внутрь землянки. Печи эти топились "по черному", т.е. с отводом дыма непосредственно в землянку и затем наружу через проем, служивший одновременно входом. Именно такая rлинобитная ("курная") печь была в течение мноrих столетий практически единственным отопительным и пище варным прибором древнерусскоrо жилища. в России лишь в XY XYI вв. печи в жилых помещениях были дополнены трубами и стали называться "белыми" или "русскими". Появилось воздушное отопление. Известно, что в ХУ в. такое отопление было устроено в rрановитой палате MOCKoBcKoro Кремля, а затем под названием "русская система" применялось в rермании и Австрии для отопления крупных зданий. Чисто отопительные печи с дымоотводящими трубами еще в XVIII в. считались предме том особой роскоши и устанавливались лишь в боrатых дворцовых постройках. Отечест венное производство высокохудожественных изразцов для наружной отделки печей суще ствовало на Руси еще в XI XII вв. Значительное развитие печное дело получило в эпоху Петра 1, который своими именными указами 1698 1725 rr. впервые ввел в России основные нормы печестроения, строжайше запретившие постройку черных изб с курными печами в Петербурrе, Москве и друrих крупных rородах. Петр 1 лично участвовал в постройке показательных жилых домов в Пе тербурrе (1711 r.) и Москве (1722 r.), "дабы люди моrли знать, как потолки с rлиною и пе чи делать". Он же ввел обязательную во всех rородах России очистку дымовых труб от сажи. Большой заслуrой Петра 1 следует считать ero мероприятия по развитию фабричноrо про изводства всех основных материалов и изделий для печноrо отопления. Около Москвы, Петербурrа и друrих rородов строятся крупные заводы по выработке кирпича, изразцов и печных приборов, открывается торrовля всеми материалами для печестроения. Крупней ший в России Тульский завод становится основным поставщиком железных и чуrунных комнатных печей и металлических печных приборов. Капитальный труд, обобщающий печное отопление, "Теоретические основания печноrо дела" был написан И.И. Свиязевым в 1867 r. в Европе для отопления помещений широко использовались камины. ДО XVII в. камины устраивались в виде больших нишей, снабженных зонтами, под которыми собирался дым, уходящий затем в дымовую трубу. Иноrда эти ниши выделывались в толще самой стены. В любом случае наrревание комнат происходило только посредством лучеиспускания. С 1624 r. начинаются попытки утилизировать теплоту продуктов rорения для наrревания воздуха помещения. Первым предложил подобное устройство французский архитектор Саво, устроивший в Лувре камин, под KOToporo приподнят над полом, а задняя стенка OT 12 делена от стены. Так образовался канал, в который входит воздух от пола комнаты и, под нимаясь вдоль задней стенки, выходит в два боковых отверстия в верхней части камина. Друrим видом отопления в Европе и России было оrневоздушное. Примеры ero устройст ва встречались еще в X XIII вв. Устройства для центральноrо оrневоздушноrо подпольно ro отопления были обнаружены при раскопках на территории Хакассии в Сибири, ДpeB них Китая и rреции. Теоретические основы конструирования и расчета этих систем были даны нашим соотечественником Н.А. Львовым ("Русская пиростатика", 1795 и 1799 rr.). В 1835 r. rенерал Н. Амосов сконструировал и затем с большим успехом применил ориrи нальные "пневматические печи" для оrневоздушноrо отопления, а последующие теорети ческие и практические работы наших инженеров (Фуллона и Щедрина, Свиязева, Дершау, Черкасова, Войницкоrо, Быкова, Лукашевича и др.) способствовали широкому распро странению этоrо прообраза современной техники наrревания воздуха. Различные способы отопления помещений трудно отнести к определенным этапам исто рическоrо общественноrо развития. В одно и то же время встречались отопительные YCT ройства, стоящие и на самом низком, и на достаточно высоком уровнях. Самый простой и древний способ отопления путем сжиrания твердоrо топлива внутри помещения coceДCT вовал с центральными установками водяноrо или воздушноrо отопления. Так, в r. Эфесе, основанном в Х в. до н.э. на территории современной Турции, уже в то время для отопле ния использовались системы трубок, в которые подавалась rорячая вода из закрытых KOT лов, находящихся в подвалах домов. Система воздушноrо отопления "Хюпокаустум" ("снизу соrретый"), созданная в Римской империи, подробно описана Витрувием (конец 1 в. ДО н.э.). Наружный воздух наrревался в подпольных каналах, предварительно проrре тых rорячими дымовыми rазами, и поступал в отапливаемые помещения. Подобноrо же рода устройство отопления посредством наrревания полов применялось в северном Китае, rде в подпольях вместо столбов ставились стенки, образуя rоризонтальные дымоходы. Аналоrичные системы отопления часто использовались в русских церквях и крупных зда ниях. По такому же принципу обоrревались в средние века помещения замков в IAC са-[- 00 7 6 1 паросб(}РI1ИК 8 6 3 Рис. 1.6. Схемы системы паровоrо отопления: а замкнутая схема; б разомкнутая схема; 1 паровой котел с паросборником; 2 паропровод (Т7); 3 отопительный прибор; 4 и 5 самотечный и напорный конденсатопроводы (Т8); 6 воздуховыпускная труба; 7 KOHдeH сатный бак; 8 конденсатный насос; 9 парораспределительный коллектор в замкнутой системе конденсат непрерывно поступает в котел под действием разности давления, выраженноrо столбом конденсата высотой h (см. рис. 1.6, а) и давления пара рп в паросборнике котла. В связи с этим отопительные приборы должны находиться ДOCTa точно высоко над паросборником (в зависимости от давления пара в нем). в разомкнутой системе паровоrо отопления конденсат из отопительных приборов caMOTe ком непрерывно поступает в конденсатный бак и по мере накопления периодически пере качивается конденсатным насосом в котел. В такой системе расположение бака должно 27 обеспечивать стекание конденсата из нижнеrо отопительноrо прибора в бак, а давление пара в котле преодолевается давлением насоса. в зависимости от давления пара системы паровоrо отопления подразделяются на субат" мосферные, вакуум..паровые, низкоrо и высокоrо давления (табл. 1.2). Таблица 1.2. Параметры насыщенноrо пара в системах паровоrо отопления Абсолютное У дел ьная теплота Система давление, Температура С КОНДенсаци И 1 МЛа KДJКJ Kr Субатмосферная <0,10 <100 >2260 Vacua M..Parova<О, 1 1 <100 > 2260 N Overlooking Pressure J 1 O 5 O] 7 1 OO 115 2260 ..... 2220 Highly daving O) I 7 .. 0.27 115 130 2220 -2] 75 Maximum Pressure Pressure Orampniad to a permissible limit for a long-term maintenance of my temperature The surfaces of the heating devices and pipes in the rooms (excessive pressure 0.17 MPa corresponds to a pair temperature of approximately 130 OS). In Subatmospheric and vacuum systems, steam heating pressure in devices less atmospheric and pair temperature below 100 OS. In these systems, it is possible to change the vacuum value (permanent), reusing the temperature of steam. The heat pipelines of systems of steam-heating are divided into steam pipelines, along which pairs are reversed, and condensate condensate condensate. According to steam steam pipelines, it moves under the pressure of the RP in the boiler steamer (see Fig. 1.6, a) or in a steam distribution manifold (see Fig. 1.6, b) to heating devices. Condensatiproduks (see Fig. 1.6) Moryt to be sophisticated and pressure. The samotane pipes are packed below the heating devices with a bias towards the movement of KOH DENSATA. In pressure pipes, condensate moves under the action of the pressure difference generated by the pump or residual steam pressure in the instruments. In the systems of steam heating, two-pipe risers are predominantly used, but MORYT is also applied to one-tube. With air heating, the circulating over-heavy air is cooled, transmitting heat when mixed with air of heated rooms and otherwise through their bhytpeh. The cooled air returns to the heater. The air-heating systems by a method for creating air circulation are divided into systems with natural circulation (RRAVTIVITATIONAL) and with mechanical motion. Eating air movement using a fan. The RAGRATITION system uses a difference in the density of Harpetoro and the surrounding air intake. As in the water vertical rusting system, with different air density in vertical parts, natural movement of air in the system occurs. When using a fan in the system, a forced movement of air is created. The air used in heating systems is distinguished to a temperature usually not exceeding 60 OS, in special heat exchangers of carriers. MORYT calorificates are watered with water, ferry, electricity or Ralcium Razami. The air-heating system is respectively called the water-air, steam-air, electric. Time-friendly or ominous. Air heating can be local (fig. 1.7, a) or central (Fig. 1.7, b). a) b) 1 11. 11 N: I J i ii..t 1! IIII. \\ (Hi (J (111. "1 2 LR 2 ----...-.------- ... - __--- .. 3 --- - - - - - - - - T y T H \\ 5 4 Fig. 1.7. Schemes of the heating system: A local system; B is a central SIS topic; 1 Heating arperat; 2 Warm room (rooms in Fig. B); 3 Working ( served) area of \u200b\u200bpremises; 4 return air duct; 5 fan; 6 Heat exchanger (calorifer); 7 The supply air duct in the local system is obtained in the heating unit with a heat exchanger (KA Lorofeom or a friend heating device), which is in the Warming Indoor. in the central system heat exchanger (Calorifer) is located in a separate room (chamber). Air at a Tb temperature is supplied to the calorico in the recycling (recycling) air duct. Raluky air at TR is moved by a fan in the heated premises by feeding air ducts. Tests and exercise controls 1. Determine the climatic conditions in The course of the season in the main reironings of the territory of Russia. 2. O Appreciate the severity (number of revolts) of winter in your rinor compared to YC catching in R. Verkhoyansk. 3. Inscribe a fundamental scheme of heat supply, you lively (educationally) buildings. 4. Calculate the comparative supply of thermal energy for the purpose of heating in 1 kr of the three main coolants. 5. Describe the heating system for the classification features, the residential building. 29 6. What is explained by the distribution of water heating in the Redan and Air RO heating in industrial buildings? 7. Connect the riser and the Rorizonal branch of the Bifilar System of Water Opening. 8. Determine how soon the heat transfer is reduced by the device in the room (temperature 20 OS), if the absolute pressure of saturated steam in the instrument in one case will be 0.15, and in a 0.05 MPa friend, i.e. It will decrease 3 times. R LVA 2. Thermal power of the heating system 2.1. The heat balance of the room, the heating system is designed to create a temperature of the temperature about the formation, corresponding to a comfortable process for a person or the requirements of the TEX process. The heat allocated to the human organism should be given to the environment and in such a quantity so that the person who is in the process of executing Kakoro or the type of activity has not experienced a feeling of cold or regene. Along with the cost of evaporation from the surface of the skin and leek, the heat is given from the body surface through convection and radiation. The intensity of heat transfer convection in OC is new is determined by the temperature and mobility of the ambient air, and through the temperature of the surfaces of the surfaces facing inside the cohesion inwards. The temperature situation in the room depends on the thermal power of the heating system, as well as on the location of the having devices, the thermophysical properties of the exterior and internal rubs, the intensity of other sources of flow and loss of heat. In the cold time, the room mainly loses heat through the external progeneration and, to some extent, through the internal proges, separating this issue from adjacent air, having a lower air temperature. In addition to Toro, the heat is spent on the external air, which penetrates the room through non-density of orapets, as well as materials, vehicles, products, clothing, Ko-free cold fall outside to the room. Air ventilation system can be supplied with a lower CPABHE temperature with an indoor air temperature. Technology processes in the premises of production buildings MORYT be associated with the evaporation of liquids and other processes accompanied by the cost of heat. In the steady (stationary) mode of loss are equal to the receipts of heat. The warmth enters the room from people, technological and household equipment, sources of artificially lighting, from overroped materials, products, as a result of Vius on the solar radiation building. In the industrial premises of Moryt, technological processes associated with the release of heat (condensation of the vrais, chemical reactions, etc.) are carried out. The accounting of all the listed components of the losses and the receipt of heat is needed when the thermal balance of the premises of the building and the determination of the deficiency or excess of the game is necessary. The presence of a heat deficiency Q indicates the need for a device in the premium of heating. Excess heat is usually assimilated by ventilation. To determine the 30 thermal power of the heating system, Qot is the balance of heat spending for PAC even conditions of the cold period in the form Qot ": \u003d 6.Q \u003d\u003d QORP + Q: (8 TFT): T QT (Gen)" (2. 1) RDE Qorp Warm loss through outdoor terms; QH (BEHT) Consumption of warmth on Harpe enjoyed into the room outdoor air; Qt (6bit) technologically or would be allocated or heat consumption. The balance is compiled for the conditions, the greatest shortage of warmth shortcuts occurs. For Rresan (usually, for residential), buildings take into account the reroyal heat gain to the room from people, lighting, and other sources. In production buildings, the period of the technolry of the honestly cycle with the lowest heat dissipation is taken (the possible maximum thermal stems are taken into account when calculating ventilation). The thermal balance is constituted for stationary conditions. Not the stationarity of thermal processes occurring during the heating of premises, take into account special calculations based on the theory of heat resistance. 2.2. Warm losses through the premises of the room the greatest loss of heat through the I OE, the premises of the room Qi, W, determined by the Qi formula ;;;;; (AI j. I) (1p TEXJ Ni (1 L i)) (2.2) 2 RDE A I Area of \u200b\u200bProgenation, M; RO I resistance to heat transfer ORGER 2 "Denia, M.O.O / W; TP Calculated room temperature, OS; T EXT Calculated temperature Options Opaction, OS; P; coefficient, taking into account the actual decrease in the PAC of the even temperature difference (TPT EXT) for ORPENTION, which separated the heated room from not heated (basement, attic, etc.); Pl coefficient, taking into account additional heat loss through terms. The calculated temperature of the room TP is usually set equal to the WHO Spirit temperature in the room TB, OS, taking into account it is possible to increase it in height in Premises BY cells more than 4 m. Temperature TB is taken depending on the purpose of the decoction room, corresponding to the purpose of the heated building. Under the calculated temperature Outside, T EXT is implied by the temperature of Ha Part Air for the cold period of the Roda period when calculating the heat loss through the external regulation or air temperature cold premises when calculating the losses of TE rafts Ezor internal terms. The magnitude of the greatest heat loss through the external progeneration will correspond to the specified coefficient of the internal conditions in the room to about, taking into account Kotoporo and the value of Text \u003d\u003d Th is selected. In CootBetCTCC, with the active norms of the heat loss, for which the calculation of the thermal power of the heating system is determined, are taken equal to the heat loss through separate external regulations without taking into account their thermal inertia at th \u003d\u003d TH 5, i.e. At an average temperature, outwardly air is the coldest five days, correspond to "included to about \u003d\u003d 0.92. In addition to Toro, the losses or receipts of the heat of Che 31 cuts are internal, if the temperature in adjacent rooms below or above the temperature in the calculated room on 3 OS and more. The resistance to heat transfer control or Ero is the coefficient of heat carrier KO \u003d\u003d L / RO, K, included in formula (2. 2), accepted at a heat engineering calculation in accordance with the requirements of the SNOP "Building Heat Engineering" or (HA example, for windows, doors) according to the orotrization data. A special approach exists to calculate heat loss through the floors lying on RPYHTE. Larct heat from the floor of the lower floor through the floor design is a complex process. Considering the relatively small proportion of heat loss through the floor in the plastiflowers of the room, the simplified method of calculation is used. Heat loss through the floor, located directly on RPYHTE, is counting on zones. For this, the surface of the floor is divided into strips of 2 m wide, parallel to the outer walls. The strip close to the outer wall is denoted by the first zone, the next two bands of the second and third, and the rest of the floor of the fourth zone. If the Calculation of the heat leopoter is carried out over in Rpyht the premises, the countdown of the zones is carried out from the level of the ground along the Bhyt root surface of the outer wall and then on the floor. The surface of the floor in the zone, adjusting to the outer ural premises, has elevated heat loss, therefore its root at the place of the adjointment in determining the total area of \u200b\u200bthe zone is taken into account twice. The discharge of the heat loss of each zone is carried out according to formula (2.2), taking Ni (1 + VI \u003d\u003d L, o. For the value of RO, I, the conditional resistance of heat transfer is not insulation of the floor Rh P, m 2 OS / W, which for each zone is taken equal : for the first zone 2.1; for the second zo, 4.3; for the third zone 8.6; for the fourth zone 14.2. If in the structure of the floor, lying on RPYHTE, there are layers of materials, the thermal conductivity of which is less than 1.2 W / (M · OS), then such a floor is called insulated. In this case, the coating of the heat transfer of each zone is insulation of the floor R y. D, m 2. O C / W, take the PAB of Ry.L \u003d: .n + L :( OY.C J AU.C) "(2 3) RED 8US The thickness of the insulation of the layer, M; AUS thermal conductivity of the material insulation layer, W / (M.O.OD). Heat loss through the floors by Lamams also calculated by zones, only conditional co heat transition Each zone of Floor R L, M 2. About C / W is taken equal to 1.18 ry.n (here as insulation layers take into account the air layer and larming). The area of \u200b\u200bindividual operations Counting the loss of heat through them should be calculated in compliance with certain measurement rules. These rules, if possible, teach the complexity of the heat transfer process through the elements of rubbing and provide conditional increases and decrease in areas, the actual thermal loss of MORYT to be, respectively, more or less calculated by the adopted simplest mullas. As a rule, the area is determined by external rob. Square of windows, doors and lanterns are measured by the smallest construction work. The ceiling and floor areas are measured between the axes of the inner walls and the inner top of the outer wall. Floor areas on RPYHTY and LAMAM are determined with their conditional breakdown on the zone, as indicated above. The area of \u200b\u200bthe outer walls in the plan is measured at 32 outer perimeter between the outer coast of the building and the axes of the inner walls. The measurement of external walls in height is carried out :. in the first floor (depending on the structure of the floor) or from the outer surface of the floor by rpyhty, or from the surface of the windows under the structure of the floor on the lach, or from the bottom surface of the overlap over the underground or not heated under the cooled room to the purely floor of the Btoporo floor; . In the middle floors from the floor surface to the surface of the floor the next floor; . In the upper floor, from the surface of the floor to the top of the design of the ingredient overlap or bobbing coating. If it is necessary to determine the heat loss through the internal 02 generations of their area, they are taken by internal rob. The main heat loss through the progeneration calculated by formula (2.2) at Bi \u003d\u003d o, often turn out to be less than valid heat loss, since it does not take effect on the heat transfer process of some factors. MORYT warmth losses change significantly under the influence of infiltration and exofiltrate air through the thickness of theses and cracks in them, as well as under the action of irradiation with the Sun and "negatively" emitting the outer surface of the operation towards the sky. The heat loss of the room as a whole is MORYT as an expense of the temperature in height, breaking the cold WHO through the opening openings, etc. These additional heat losses are usually taken into account additives to the main heat losses. The magnitude of the additives and the conditional division by determining the factors followed. The additive to the orientation of the countries of light (sides of the Ranison) is made on all external vertical and oblique (their projection by vertical) ORGINE. The values \u200b\u200bof the additives are taken in accordance with the scheme in Fig. 2.1. For social, administrative household and industrial buildings, in the presence of two or more outer walls, additives on the orientation on the sides of the Rzerizont to all YKAs, the above-prodisses are increased by 0.05, if one of the production is drawn to the north, east, Cebepo Boctok and North West, or 0.1 in other cases. In typical proctions, these additives are accepted in the amount of 0.08 at one outer wall and 0.13 at two or more walls in the room (except for residential), and in all residential premises 0.13. For rugizantically arranged, the additive in the amount of 0.05 is entered only for non-measured floors of the first floor over the cold underground buildings in MEctHO with the estimated temperature of the external air minus 40 OS and below, from 33 s: :) N! About rice. 2.1. The distribution scheme of additives to the main heat loss on the orientation of outdoor operations by the countries of light (sides of the Rzerizont) additive to break cold air through external doors (not equipped with stuffy or air vents) when they are short-term discovered at the height of the building H, M, from the average planning Earth marks to the top of the eaves, the center of the exhaust holes of the lamp or the mouth of the ventilation mines is taken: for triple doors with two tamboursome between them in the amount of Bi \u003d\u003d 0.2h, for double doors with tamburas between them 0.27n, for double doors without a tambura 0.34n, for single doors 0.22n. For external gates, in the absence of a tambour and air thermal curtain, the additive is 3, if there is a tambura at the gate 1. The above additives do not belong to the summer and spare outdoor doors and goal. Previously, the norms provided for an additive to the height for rooms with a height of more than 4 m, equal to 0.02 per meter of the height of the walls above 4 m, but not more than 0.15. This surcharge teaches shaft an increase in heat loss in the upper part of the room, since the air temperature increases with a height. Later, this requirement was excluded from the norms. Now in high rooms it is necessary to make a special calculation of the temperature distribution according to the BY cell, according to which the heat loss through the walls and coatings are determined. In the staircase cells, the temperature change in height is not taken into account. Example 2.1. Calculate heat loss through the provisions of the premises of the two-storey building of the hostel, located in Moscow (Fig. 2.2). The estimated temperature is externally WHO Spirit for heating TH 5 \u003d\u003d 26 OS. The heat transfer coefficients of external rubbing k, W / (m 2. 0 C), determined by the technical calculation, as well as on regulatory or reference data, we accept equal: for external walls (NA) 1.02; For the attic overlap (PT) 0.78; For windows with double glazing in wooden bindings (up to) 2.38; For outdoor double depes of tweeted doors without tambura (ND) 2.33; for the inner walls of the staircase (Sun) 1.23; For a single interior door of the staircase in the corridors (VD) 2.07. 34 4.86 T 1. 2 T 3.2 (: 1t 3.2 f r "" "Oh ....,. .. ..;" T! ...... ...... C "" - J P M I O L ( 20 i) 11 102 2 02 3.2 / s: -i with Q rj Fig. 2.2. Plan and section of the premises of the building of the hostel (to examples 2. 1, 2.2 and 2.3) The floors of the first floor (pl) are made on Lah. Thermal resistance of the closed air layer R VP \u003d\u003d 0.172, m 2. А / W thick, the thickness of the flooring 5 \u003d\u003d 0.04 m with heat of the h \u003d\u003d 0.175 W / (m.). The thermal resistance of the insulation layers KohCC of the gentle of the floor is equal to: R b. RT + .3 I A \u003d\u003d O) [72 + O, 04/0 T 175 O 4Z M2.0C / BT heat loss through the floor on the laraks are determined by zones. The conditional resistance is heat transfer, m 2. И / W, and heat transfer coefficient, W / (m 2 .0c), for 1 and 11 zones: Ri \u003d\u003d!, 18 (2, 1 + 0.43) \u003d\u003d 3, 05; K :::; 1 / 3.05 :;; O 3 2 8 Ri \u003d 1118 (4.3 + 0.43) 5.6; k 1 \u003d\u003d 1 / 5t 6;: O 178. For not insulation of the floor of the staircase Ri; :::; 2 ,; k j \u003d o 46s; Rii \u003d\u003d 4 s; K II; ::; O 23 2 .. Heat loss through individual terms, we expect by formula (2.2). The calculation is summarized in Table. 2.1. 35 Table 2.1. Calculation of heat loss of premises 11;:;: ;; :; : R: "" 3 I! -: "::: \u003d.: About with I FAL1ms! Lorenche U: K: ./11 .O :: C: I: Premises and R: 1" () O N: M T CP RYP 1., .. with J 2 L.QL L LA: R KONN IP-I "URRY8DR) 20 NLT NNLJ I: D2. Residential Room R5ividual, 18 T IC. to pll plii sun 201 residential Connipe URL" 1O8Я R 20 Harsh "; -" 1 SRNS HI \u200b\u200b\\ I (IorPhiII O :; 11 [9 g. R! Ija MCP "L M :! II :;:;: T; 4 5 1" 01: I :. . In I :) 171.2 18.0 1 8 16.4 4.4 N, in Ca 6.4 6.4 11.4 15.1 15RB LT B 16.6 ... ......... o : Q: u o p .. T-O 1: \u003d ... ::. T: (1.10 :! :: \u003d; :; OJ G-RC: I. -E- 8 o 6 7 V s..j-: T: i .. P .. :: .. F: R ["(1 and about .... (Ici Ou n .. I :: :): IU. ..... 8: 46 46 46 46 4-4 F4 F4 44 (18 12) 46 46 4b BCHO I 9 -) i; 6A "im, ..... q .. (] o ;: R - IXI G about x ::: 1: o l "% i -o ::: 1: -u about 9 m7 844 113 2I7 zb 530 108 92 50 84 741 113 543 N: RCH / 2) (3.7 115: 0: 1,1 3,2) 0; 2 3 F2 x 2 3 F8 x 3 ° C 0/1 0.1 О О О О] 1,1 1,] 807 928 124 not yuz non np to nz nr i . -1/66 ": -: 3125 4186: -: 3/25 LT 5: (1 T2 4,2) (4 ot] 0.:1o about 247: 2142 797 2939 O 011 0.1 O O O 1! 1 JL 1 1 I 58]] / 2) (4 12.8 0.78 38, 9 3 "11. 1,341 PPI. 3 / .2x2 6 (0.465 38 113. 1 113 PPP 3 j 2 x2 ba 0,232 per 55 1 56 8d. 1, bh2 R 2 s / 5 2.07 (12 18) Az "L 4Z 2 (3T 8x6, 2) + 61 1.23 () IR and. 1 + L (6.p2 1T2a 2) /, 2 + L (6PZ)
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