Ancient China: periodization of history and culture. Periodization of the history of ancient China Who ruled in ancient China

Ancient China is the most ancient culture, which has practically not changed the way of life to this day. Wise Chinese rulers were able to lead the great empire through the millennia. Let's take a quick look at everything in order.

Ancient people probably reached East Asia between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. Currently, pieces of pottery, ceramics have been discovered in the Chinese hunter-gatherer cave, the approximate age of the cave is 18 thousand years, this is the oldest pottery ever found.

Historians believe that agriculture appeared in China around 7000 BC. The first crop was a grain called millet. Rice also began to be grown around this time, and perhaps rice appeared a little earlier than millet. As agriculture began to provide more food, the population began to increase, and this also allowed people to do other jobs other than constantly searching for food.

Most historians agree that Chinese civilization formed around 2000 BC around the Yellow River. China became home to one of the four early civilizations. China is different from other civilizations, the culture that developed has remained to this day, of course, changes have occurred over the millennia, but the essence of culture has remained.

The other three civilizations disappeared or were completely absorbed and assimilated by new people. For this reason, people say that China is the oldest civilization in the world. In China, the families that controlled the land became the leaders of family governments called dynasties.

Dynasties of China

The history of China from ancient times to the century before last was divided into different dynasties.

Xia dynasty

The Xia Dynasty (2000 BC-1600 BC) was the first dynasty in Chinese history. Her period lasted about 500 years and included the kingdom of 17 emperors - the emperor is the same as the king. The Xia people were farmers and wielded bronze weapons and earthenware.

Silk is one of the most important products that China has ever created. Most historians agree that the Xia Dynasty produced silk clothing, although silk production may have begun much earlier.

Silk is produced by mining cocoons of silk insects. Each cocoon yields one silk thread.

Not all historians agree that the Xia was a real dynasty. Some believe that the Xia story is just a mythical story, because some of the points do not correspond to archaeological discoveries.

Shang dynasty

The Shang Dynasty (1600 BC-1046 BC) was originally a clan living along the Yellow River during the Xia Dynasty. A clan is a group of very close families that are often seen as one big family. The Shang conquered Xia land and gained control of Chinese civilization. The Shang Dynasty lasted over 600 years and was led by 30 different emperors.

The Shang were the oldest Chinese civilization, leaving behind written records that were inscribed on turtle shells, cattle bones, or other bones.

Bones were often used to determine what nature or want. If the emperor needed to know the future, say which “the king will have a son” or “whether to start a war,” assistants carved questions into the bones, then heated them to cracks. The lines of cracks told the wishes of the gods.

During the Shang Dynasty, people worshiped many gods, probably like the ancient Greeks. Also ancestor worship was very important as they believed that their family members become godlike after death.

It is important to understand that other smaller Chinese families also existed in different parts of China at the same time as the Shang, but the Shang seems to have been the most advanced, as they left behind a lot of writing. The Shang were eventually defeated by the Zhou clan.

Zhou dynasty

The Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC-256 BC) lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history. Due to a split in the dynasty, over time, Zhou was divided into parts called Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou,.

The Zhou fought against the invading armies from the north (the Mongols), they built large mounds of mud and stone as barriers that slowed down the enemy - this was the prototype of the Great Wall. The crossbow was another invention of this time - it was extremely effective.

During the Zhou, the Iron Age of China began. Iron-tipped weapons were much stronger, and the iron plow helped increase food production.

All agricultural land belonged to the nobility (the rich). The nobles allowed the peasants to farm the land, similar to the feudal system that developed in Europe during the Middle Ages.

The Emergence of Chinese Philosophy

During the Zhou Dynasty, two major Chinese philosophies developed: Taoism and Confucianism. The great Chinese philosopher Confucius developed a way of life called Confucianism. Confucianism says that all people can be trained and improved if you find the right approach.

Basic postulates: people should focus on helping others; family is the most important value; the elders of society are the most revered. Confucianism is still important today, but it did not become widespread in China until the Han Dynasty.

The founder of Taoism was Laozi. Taoism is everything that follows "Tao" which means "the way". Tao is the driving force behind all things in the universe. The Yin Yang symbol is commonly associated with Taoism. Taoists believe that you should live in harmony with nature, be humble, live simply without unnecessary things and be compassionate to everything.

These philosophies differ from religions because they do not have gods, although the idea of ​​ancestors and nature is often seen as gods. The power of the emperor was also associated with religious beliefs. Zhou spoke of the Mandate of Heaven as a law that allowed Chinese emperors to rule - he said that the ruler was blessed by Heaven to rule over the people. If he has lost the blessing of heaven, he should be removed.

The things that proved that the ruling family had lost the mandate of Heaven were natural disasters and riots.

By 475 BC the provinces of the Zhou kingdom were more powerful than the central Zhou government. The provinces rebelled and fought each other for 200 years. This period is called the Warring States period. In the end, one family (Qin) united all the others into one empire. It was during this period that the concept of Imperial China appeared.

Qin dynasty

From 221 BC e. Until 206 BC e. The Qin dynasty gained control of civilized China. Qin's reign did not last long, but it had an important impact on the future of China. The Qin expanded their territory and created China's first empire. The cruel leader Qin Shi Huang declared himself the first true emperor of China. This dynasty created a currency standard (money), a wheel axle size standard (to make roads all the same size), and uniform laws that applied throughout the empire.

Qin also standardized the various writing systems into one system that is used in China today. Qin Shi Huang enforced the philosophy of "Legalism" which focuses on people who follow the laws and receive instructions from the government.

Mongol invasions from the north were a constant problem in China. The Qin government ordered that the walls built earlier be combined. This is considered the beginning of the creation of the Great Wall of China. Each dynasty built a new wall or improved the previous dynasty's wall. Most of the walls of the Qin period are now destroyed or have been replaced. The wall that exists today was built by a later dynasty called the Ming.

An amazing tomb was made for the emperor, bigger than a football field. It is still sealed, but legend has it that there are rivers of mercury within it. Outside the tomb is a life-sized clay army discovered in 1974.

The terracotta army has over 8,000 unique soldiers, over 600 horses, 130 chariots, as well as acrobats and musicians, all made from clay.

Although the Qin dynasty did not rule long, its standardization of Chinese life left a profound impact on later dynasties in China. It is from the period of this dynasty that we derive the name "China". The first emperor of this dynasty died in 210 BC. e. he was replaced by a weak and small son. As a result, a rebellion began, and a member of the Qin army took control of the Empire, which began a new dynasty.

Han dynasty

The Han Dynasty began in 206 BC and lasted 400 years until 220 AD. and is considered one of the greatest periods in the history of China. Like the Zhou Dynasty, the Han Dynasty is divided into Western Han and Eastern Han. Han culture defines Chinese culture today. In fact, most Chinese citizens today claim "Han" as an ethnic origin. The government made Confucianism the official system of the empire.

During this time, the empire grew greatly, conquering land in present-day Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, and even Central Asia. The empire grew so much that the emperor needed a larger government to govern it. Many things were invented during this time, including paper, steel, the compass, and porcelain.

Porcelain is a very hard type of ceramic. Porcelain is made from a special clay that is heated until it melts and almost turns into glass. Porcelain dishes, cups and bowls are often referred to as "Chinese" because a few hundred years ago all porcelain was made in China.

The Han Dynasty was also known for its military power. The empire expanded westward to the edge of the Takla Makan desert, allowing the government to guard trade flows in Central Asia.

The caravan routes are often referred to as the "Silk Road" because this route was used to export Chinese silk. The Han Dynasty also expanded and fortified the Great Wall of China to protect the Silk Road. Another important product of the Silk Road was the religion of Buddhism, which reached China during this period.

Chinese dynasties would continue to rule China until the Middle Ages. China has retained its uniqueness, because from time immemorial they have honored their culture.

Interesting Facts About Ancient China

1) XVIII-XII century BC The era of Shang (Yin). A large number of monuments of material culture, tools are made not only of stone and bone, but copper and bronze. The beginning of the formation of the cult of the Emperor. In the 17th century, the state of Shang was formed (neighbors called it Yin). Archaeological evidence testifies to the stratification of society.

2) XVII-V centuries BC The Zhou era (we are talking about the eastern and western regions). In this era, dozens of independent states fought each other on the territory of ancient China. There was a strengthening of the tribal nobility, the formation of state power. First person of the state – Tsar(or Wang) and his advisors:

a. Title of first advisor – Grand Mentor(He dealt with matters of religion).

b. The title of the second adviser is the Great Teacher(Public works, irrigation).

c. Title of the Third Councilor - Great Patron(Warfare)

Cults formed:

b. ancestor cult

c. emperor cult

d. Cult of nature

3) V-III centuries BC The era of Zhangguo (the era of the warring states). In the era of Zhangguo, there are seven large kingdoms, metal money appeared, economic recovery took place

a. Iron tool

b. crafts

The centralization of the country was facilitated by:

a. Expanding Trade

b. Irrational system

c. Opposition to nomads

4) 221-207 BC The era of the Qin state. The state of Qin was located in the western borders of China. In the IV century BC. dignitary Shang Yang spent a very important reforms. In the 3rd century the state Qin defeats Zhou and finally unites in the period 246-210 BC. Ruled by one of the mighty emperors - Ying Zheng.

5) 2006 BC - 9 AD First Han Dynasty. After the death of Qin Shi Huangdi, an uprising broke out in ancient China, as a result of which one of its leaders, Liu Bang, became the emperor of the new Han dynasty.

6) 25 -220 AD Second Han Dynasty.

After 220 AD China is divided into three kingdoms - beginning of the Middle Ages.

§2. Major Achievements of Chinese Culture

1) The cult of ancestors and the cult of the emperor

2) Chinese mythology. Myths tell about the sky, the first ancestors - cultural heroes: the emperor, dignitaries, nobles. In the Zhou era, finally formed cult of the sky(Tian) and the practice of divination.

Yin and Yang - two first patents that separated from chaos and created the whole world. yin- this is shady, northern, and Jan- illuminated south. yin– Femininity, darkness, water, death… In Taoism, it is these concepts that will help explain the whole world. Jan- masculine, sun, light, life.

traditional And stability being are the main priorities of Chinese culture. The gods in the representation of the Chinese embodied natural and cultural objects.

State of Shang (Yin) - about social and state system

In the history of ancient China, one can distinguish four periods each of which is associated with the reign of a particular dynasty:

» Shang (Yin) kingdom- from the 18th century BC e. until the 12th century BC e.;

» Kingdom of Zhou from the 12th century BC e. until 221 BC e.;

» kingdom of Qin from 221 BC e. until 207 BC e.;

» Kingdom of Han from 206 BC e. before 220 AD e.

A characteristic feature of the formation of the state in China is that the process of transition from the primitive communal system to a class society was activated by the conquest of one people by another. Since the organs of the primitive communal system were not adapted to manage the conquered people, a special state apparatus was created.

During the reign of the dynasty shang, at a later time named yin, society and the state were slaveholding. Slaves were owned by both private individuals and the state. Yin ruling class made up priestly nobility, seculararistocracy And an aristocracy of subordinate themes. The social position of the secular aristocracy was determined by land holdings, the presence of slaves, proximity to the king, and the position held. In accordance with this, titles were assigned that gave certain privileges.

Most of the population were free community members. The land was considered state property and was at the disposal of the kings. All lands were divided into two categories:

A public field that was cultivated jointly by the entire community. The whole harvest went to the headman of the community and was eventually sent to the king;

Private fields that were in the individual use of the family, but were not, however, the property of their holders.

Private property included slaves, houses, and tools. Slaves could not have a family or property. Main sources of slavery were:

~ capture of prisoners in the war;

~ sale into slavery for debts;

~ slavery for certain crimes;

~ receiving slaves from subject tribes as tribute.

In the State of Shang, (Yin) political system retained features at an early stage tribal military democracy.

Subsequently, it is observed the transfer of all power to the king - vanu. Elders from tribal leaders become sole rulers. Among the subjects, the idea of ​​them as "sons of Heaven", who received power at the behest of divine forces, is being strengthened. The king was the largest slave owner, supreme military leader, supreme judge and high priest. He also headed the state apparatus. The highest positions were occupied by the appointment of the king by his close relatives. Smaller positions are professional officials: scribes, tax collectors, judges, etc. In ancient China, there was a division of officials into three main categories:

◊ senior civil officials;

◊ military officials;

◊ advisers, soothsayers.

In the XII century. BC e. in the state of Shang (Yin), internal contradictions are aggravated. At the same time, he strengthens his forces and expands the possessions of the Zhou tribe, which was under the rule of the Yin vans. Under the leadership of this tribe, a number of tribes unite to fight against the Yin state.

In 1076 BC. e. The Zhou tribes defeated the Yin army. The Shang state fell and was replaced by the Zhou kingdom.

Western Zhou, Eastern Zhou and zhangguo

Rule in ancient China Zhou dynasty(from the XII century BC to 221 BC) is divided into three main periods:

› period Western Zhou- 1122 - 742 years. BC e.;

› period Eastern Zhou - 770 - 403 BC e.;

› period zhangguo("seven warring kingdoms") - 403 - 221 years. BC e.

During the period Western Zhou(1122 - 742 BC) the slave-owning state was strengthened, its structure became more complicated. Society is characterized by a higher level of development of productive forces, an increase in the number of slaves, and the development of large land ownership.

supreme power belonged to the hereditary king (wang), but a centralized state was not created during the entire Zhou period. Wang directly controlled only the metropolitan area, and the rest of the country was divided into principalities, which were ruled by sovereign princes (zhuhou). The territories of the principalities were subdivided into smaller administrative units that developed on the basis of the former tribal division. The lowest administrative-territorial unit was the rural community. State machine, which was led by the highest dignitary (xiang), consisted of close personal servants of the van and trusted slaves. Xiang was the head of the administrative apparatus and the Wang's closest assistant in governing the country. In the Zhou kingdom, there was a palace management system: palace employees were at the same time officials. It included a large number of officials with a variety of competencies. Senior officials (dafu) were divided into three classes - senior, middle, junior.

At the top of the social ladder was slaveholding aris-tocracy, which consisted of the Zhou hereditary and military nobility, and also partly survived after the conquest of the Yin aristocracy.

During this period, large-scale land ownership is intensively developing, there is a tendency to turn possessions into private land ownership. Formally, the king was considered the owner of the land, but the slave-owning aristocracy could freely dispose of their possessions. Over time, the right of large slave owners to own land turns into the right to own land. Communal land use during the Western Zhou period continued to play a prominent role. Position farmers(nunfu) was generally heavy. Many went bankrupt and moved into the category of landless tenants. Number slaves replenished during this period due to:

prisoners of war;

Conquered civilians;

State criminals.

Army in the Zhou kingdom it was only partly constant, being made up of small cadre detachments and the militia that joined them during the war.

In the middle of the VIII century. BC e. Western Zhou collapsed due to the weakening of ties between the central government and the rulers of dependent principalities, as well as unsuccessful wars with nomads. When the country broke up into a number of independent states, the Zhou kings turned into the rulers of a small domain - Eastern Zhou.

The economic and political life of the country during the period Eastern Zhou(770 - 403 BC) is characterized by the following changes:

~ the development of crafts and trade, which led to an increase in the role of merchants in public life;

~ the decline of hereditary landownership of the tribal aristocracy. Her lands are gradually being transferred to the service nobility.

Significant land holdings are concentrated in the hands of military commanders, service people, and merchants. The private ownership of land by slave owners is being strengthened.

During the period "Warring States" - Zhangguo(403 - 221 BC) the development of large land ownership continues. It is accompanied by the destruction of the old type of land tenure - communal. With an introduction land taxha, when, instead of cultivating communal fields, farmers were obliged to pay a tax from their land, one of the first blows was dealt to communal land ownership.

State of Qin and R shang yang shapes

The third period of the history of ancient China - kingdom of qin, from 221 BC e. before 207 BC

From the middle of the 8th century BC e., after the destruction of the Western Zhou monarchy, the country broke up into many independent states. They waged aggressive wars among themselves, during which weaker states were absorbed by stronger ones. The Qin kingdom arose around the 10th century. BC e. Initially, it was dependent on the Zhou dynasty, and then, during the Zhangguo period, it became one of the seven powerful "warring states". In the III century. BC e, it subjugated the rest of the Chinese states.

In 359 - 348 years. BC. statesman, chief adviser to the emperor shang Yang carried out a series of reforms that strengthened the central government.

Shang Yang was one of the founders of the philosophical school legalists, putting the law of the state above all else. Under him, strict observance of the laws was considered a paramount condition for order in the country. During this period, the emperor approved laws binding on all, introduced uniform written signs, and streamlined measures of weight and length. As a result of Shang Yang's transformations:

. legitimized private ownership of land and the free purchase and sale of land was officially allowed, which dealt a blow to communal land ownership;

. was carried out forced fragmentation of large patriarchal families, which also accelerated the disintegration of the community;

. in order to centralize the entire territory of the state was divided into administrative counties - the new administrative division was carried outdeno on a territorial basis;

. taxes began to be charged based on the amount of cultivated land;

. army was rearmed and reorganized.

In the centralized Qin Empire head of state was the emperor - huangdi. In his hands was concentrated all the fullness legislator-body, executive and judiciary.

There was a branched state machine, headed by two ministers - left and right chensyanami. Chenxiang's deputies were secretaries. Other senior government officials were the head of the palace guard, the official in charge of the cult of the emperor's ancestors, and the official in charge of foreign relations. Imperial advisers played an important role in the activities of the state apparatus.

When the kingdom of Qin subjugated the rest of the ancient Chinese kingdoms, Shang Yang's reforms were extended to the whole country. The following transformations were made in the empire:

› administrative. The territory was divided into 36 regions, which, in turn, were divided into counties, counties - into volosts, and volosts - into tin, which was the lowest administrative unit;

› agricultural. Agriculture was encouraged;

› financial;

› military.

Each region was headed by two rulers - representatives of the military and civil authorities, appointed and dismissed by the emperor. Firmly established uniform laws punishing the slightest misconduct guided the activities of imperial officials. Former aristocratic titles were destroyed, wealth and services to the state became the criteria for nobility.

In the Qin Empire, there was a special judiciary, which indicates the separation of judicial functions from general administrative ones.

As highest court the emperor himself spoke, who could directly examine court cases. The judiciary supervised the application of criminal laws. All cases of the most serious crimes passed through his hands, especially cases related to the abuse of power by officials. Tingwei was at the head of this department.

The provincial judge was at the same time the head of the prisons in the district.

Army played a huge role in ancient China, which was determined by frequent wars and peasant uprisings.

Gradually, a standing army was formed, which was maintained by the treasury. At first, it was made up of the emperor's bodyguards and units guarding the capital. Police functions were also assigned to these units.

In the Qin Empire, there was military service. Men from 23 to 56 years old were taken into the army, who had to undergo a year of training, carry out garrison service for a year and serve in the militia at their place of residence for a month of the year. Without specifying the terms of service, delinquent officials, criminals, wandering merchants, as well as those who lost their freedom for debts, were sent to protect state borders.

State of Han and the fall of the Han Empire

Due to social contradictions in the Qin empire, uprisings constantly broke out, the most powerful of which was in 207-206. BC e. led to the death of the Qin monarchy. The founder of the new dynasty - the Han dynasty - was one of the leaders of this uprising, the village head Liu Bang.

Imperial Han Dynasty ruled from 206 BC e. to 220 AD e. This period is usually divided into the following:

» Western, or Early (Elder), Han(206 BC - 8 AD);

» governing body Wang Mana(9 - 23 AD) and the reign of Liu Xuan, or Gengshi (23 - 25 AD);

» Eastern, or Late (Younger), Han(25 - 220 AD).

Liu Bang, who proclaimed himself Emperor Gaozu, at the beginning of his reign made a number of concessions to farmers, reducing taxes and abolishing the harsh laws of the Qin dynasty. However, his reforms did not stop the growth of slavery and large private landownership. A new moment in the agrarian relations of the Western Han was that landholdings of "strong houses" appeared, original estates-fortresses with their own armed guards.

Slavery, combined with the feudal system, reached its greatest development, which was the reason that exacerbated social contradictions. Leaving the former structure of the central and local state apparatus, the tsarist government directed its efforts towards the centralization of the country. A new territorial-administrative division was carried out - into 13 large districts, with an increase in the number of regions and counties. District auditors were placed at the head of the districts - governors of the emperor, who exercised control over the local administration. Regions and counties were headed by three officials appointed from the center: the ruler and his assistants in civil and military affairs. The activities of the local administration were controlled by inspectors from the center.

In 8 AD e. throne as a result of a palace coup seized Van Man. Having proclaimed himself emperor (in AD 9), he made a new attempt to mitigate class contradictions by reforms. The inspirers of his reforms were the Confucians, who replaced the legalists.

In the region of land ownership Wang Man did the following:

By banning the sale and purchase of land, private ownership of it was abolished;

All lands were declared royal;

The system of communal land tenure was restored.

In the region of slavery:

◆ private slavery was abolished - the sale and purchase of slaves was prohibited;

◆ the state received the legal right to own slaves, that is, slaves became state-owned.

Van Mun also carried out other reforms, including monetary ones, new taxes were introduced, special departments were established that were supposed to regulate market prices and regulate loan interest.

However, all this did not lead to the stabilization of the political situation, but only to the deepening and aggravation of class contradictions, to the destruction of the country's economy.

In 18 AD an uprising broke out, the participants of which were called "red-browed".

In the course of the struggle against the rebels, the landowning aristocracy founded a new dynasty - Late(Junior, or Eastern) Han. The uprising of the "red-browed" was suppressed at the end of 27 AD. e., but the country was united only by 37 AD. e.

Returning in 23 AD. e. to the throne, the Han dynasty canceled the decrees and orders of Wang Mang. Some concessions were made to the peasantry, and the tax burden was partly eased.

The state apparatus underwent significant changes - an imperial council was created, the highest advisory body under the emperor; the functions of governing the country were divided among themselves by five departments. The country's economy began to stabilize.

In the second half of the II century. n. e. the power of the Eastern Han dynasty fell into decay as a result of powerful peasant uprisings. In the course of the fight against the rebels, the major military leaders who led various armed political groups became independent from the central government. This led to a political crisis and to the destruction of the economic system of the country. In 220 unified Hanthe empire was destroyed- it broke up into three independent kingdoms, the period of existence of which was called Sango (Three Kingdoms).

Second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. in society Ancient China It was called Zhangguo - the Fighting Kingdoms. It was an era of constant wars between small principalities and kingdoms, formed on the ruins of the once powerful state of Zhou. Over time, seven of the strongest stood out among them, who subjugated weak neighbors to their power and continued to fight for the inheritance of the Zhou dynasty: realms of Chu, Qin, Wei, Zhao, Han, Qi and Yan. But it was also an era of changes in all areas of life, production and social relations. Cities grew, crafts improved, and agriculture developed, iron replaced bronze. Scientists and writers created wonderful interpretations in the field of natural science, philosophy, history, romance and poetry that continue to excite the reader to this day. Suffice it to say that it was at this time that Confucius and Lao Tzu lived, the founders of two philosophical and religious schools - Confucianism and Taoism, the adherents of which even now consider themselves to be the majority of the Chinese.

Despite the borders, it was a single world, one civilization, it created all the conditions not only for unification, but also for going beyond its geographical boundaries. Such unification within the framework of a single empire took place at the end of the 3rd century. BC e. under the rule of the dynasty of one of the "seven strongest" - Qin kingdoms. The dynasty ruled unified China for only one generation, only 11 years (from 221 to 210 BC). But what a decade it was! The reforms affected all aspects of Chinese society.

Map of ancient China during the Qin and Han era

It has been replaced by a new dynasty - Han, which not only did not cross out everything done first emperor Qin Shi Huang, but preserved, multiplied its achievements and extended them to the surrounding peoples, from the Gobi wasteland in the north to the South China Sea in the south and from the Liaodong Peninsula in the east to the Pamir mountains in the west. The empire of ancient China, which took shape by the end of the 3rd century. BC e., lasted until the end of the II century. n. e., when new, even more significant changes brought her to crisis and collapse.

In the further history of the civilization of ancient China, many more dynasties, both local and alien, changed. Epochs of power have more than once been replaced by periods of decline. But China emerged from each crisis invariably retaining its originality and multiplying its cultural wealth. Witnesses of another rise of Chinese civilization we are with you now. And the beginning of this amazing constancy and originality was laid in that distant era when the Celestial Empire of China was born.

Street of a Chinese city of the Eastern Zhou era

The emergence of the civilization of ancient China

Kingdom of Qin among other large formations of Ancient China, it was not the strongest and most enlightened. It was located in the north of the country, had heavy soils and coexisted with numerous nomadic tribes. But protected by natural boundaries - the Yellow River and mountain ranges - the kingdom of Qin was more or less protected from enemy invasions and at the same time occupied convenient strategic positions for attacking neighboring powers and tribes. The lands of the kingdom, lying in the basins of the Weihe, Jinghe and Luohe rivers, are very fertile. In the middle of the III century. BC e. Simultaneously with the creation of the Zheng Guo canal, work was carried out here to drain the marshes, which significantly increased the yield. Important trade routes passed through the territory of the Qin kingdom, and trade with neighboring tribes became one of the sources of its enrichment. Of particular importance for the state was trade with the northern tribes - intermediaries in the trade of the ancient Chinese kingdoms with the countries of Central Asia. From Qin, mainly iron and products from it, salt and silk were exported. From the pastoral tribes of the north and northwest, the inhabitants of the Qin kingdom received wool, skins and slaves. In the southwest, the Qin kingdom traded with the inhabitants of the Mu and Ba regions. The fertile lands and mountain riches of these areas, which also lay at the junction of trade routes that led far to the southwest as far as ancient India, became the reason for the expansion of the Qin kingdom.

From the reign of Xiao Gong (361-338 BC), the rise of Qin began. And it was not only the success of the economy and conquests. The same thing happened in other kingdoms of ancient China.

In the middle of the IV century. BC e. in the Qin kingdom were carried out important reforms contributed to its comprehensive strengthening. They were conducted by the dignitary Shang Yang, one of the most prominent representatives and zealous followers of the Fajia teachings. The first was land reform, which dealt a decisive blow to communal land tenure. According to Shang Yang's regulations, land began to be bought and sold freely. In order to centralize the state, Shang Yang introduced a new administrative division according to the territorial principle, which violated the previous borders established by the old tribal division. The whole kingdom was divided into counties (xiang). The counties were divided into smaller formations, each headed by state officials. Associations of five and ten families bound by mutual responsibility became the smallest administrative units. Second reform was tax. Instead of the previous land tax, which was 1/10 of the crop, Shang Yang introduced a new tax corresponding to the amount of cultivated land. This provided the state with an annual permanent income independent of the harvest. Droughts, floods, and crop failures now weighed heavily on the farmers. The new taxation system provided the huge funds needed by the rulers of the Qin kingdom to wage wars.

According to military reform Shang Yang, the Qin army was rearmed and reorganized. It included cavalry. War chariots, which formed the basis of the military power of the former hereditary aristocracy, were excluded from the army. Bronze weapons were replaced by new ones made of iron. The long outer clothing of the warriors was replaced by a short, like that of barbarian nomads, a jacket, comfortable in campaign and battle. The army was divided into fives and dozens, connected by a system of mutual responsibility. Soldiers who did not show due courage were severely punished. After the military reform of Shang Yang, the Qin army became one of the most combat-ready armies of the ancient Chinese kingdoms. Shang Yang created 18 degrees of nobility for military merit. For each captured and killed enemy, one degree was relied. “Benevolent houses that do not have military merit can no longer be on the lists of the nobility,” the decree said. The result of the reforms carried out by Shang Yang was the appearance on the spot of a previously amorphous formation - the kingdom of Qin - a strong centralized state. Since the reign of Xiao Gong, the struggle of the Qin kingdom for the unification of the entire territory of Ancient China under its hegemony began. The Qin kingdom had no equal in strength and power. Further conquests of the kingdom, culminating in the formation of an empire, are associated with the name of Ying Zheng (246-221 BC). As a result of many years of struggle, he subjugated one after another all the kingdoms of Ancient China: in 230 BC. e. - the kingdom of Han, in 228 BC. e. - the kingdom of Zhao, in 225 BC. e. - Kingdom of Wei. In 222 BC. e. the kingdom of Chu was finally conquered. In the same year, the kingdom of Yan also surrendered. The last - in 221 BC. e. - Kingdom of Qi conquered. The chariot, charioteer and horses are made with extraordinary precision, conveying all the details of the prototypes. Having become the head of a huge state, Ying Zheng chose a new title for himself and his descendants - huangdi (emperor). Later sources usually refer to him as Qin Shi Huang, which literally means "the first emperor of the Qin Empire". Almost immediately after the completion of the conquests of the ancient Chinese kingdoms, Qin Shi Huang undertook successful campaigns against the Huns in the north and the Yue kingdom in the south. The Chinese state has gone beyond the boundaries of national education. From this moment begins the countdown of the history of the imperial period.

Sericulture. Silk in ancient China

Sources testify to the veneration of the silk worm and silk weaving by the ancient Chinese. Mulberry is a sacred tree, the personification of the Sun and a symbol of fertility. Old Chinese texts mention sacred mulberry groves or isolated mulberry trees as sites of rituals associated with the cult of the Mother Ancestor. According to legend, the baby Yin, who became the founder of the first dynasty of China, was found in the hollow of a mulberry tree. The deity of the silkworm was considered a woman who kneels by a tree and weaves a silk thread.

Money in ancient China

In the VI century. BC e., as well as at the other end of the civilized world in Western Asia and, in Jin kingdom coinage first appeared. Soon they began to be cast in other powers of Ancient China. in different kingdoms money was different: in Chu - the shape of a square, and in Qi and Yan - the shape of knives or swords, in Zhao, Han and Wei - the shape of shovels, in Qin there were large money with square holes in the middle.

Writing

For writing before the invention of paper in China, bamboo or wooden plates and silk were used. Bamboo plates were stitched into a kind of "notebooks". Silk "books" were stored in rolls.

Improved writing technology ancient China. The Chinese split bamboo trunks into thin boards and wrote hieroglyphs on them with black ink from top to bottom. Then, folded in a row, they were fastened with leather straps along the upper and lower edges - a long bamboo panel was obtained, easily rolled up into a roll. Such was an ancient Chinese book, usually written on several scrolls - juan; rolled up, they were placed in an earthen vessel, kept in stone chests of imperial libraries, in wicker boxes of scribes.

Politics of ancient China

Chinese society, at least the most enlightened minds of that time, well understood the past and future changes. This awareness gave rise to numerous ideological currents, some of which defended antiquity, others accepted all innovations as a given, and still others were looking for ways to further progress. It can be said that politics entered the home of every Chinese, and passionate disputes between supporters of various doctrines flared up in the squares and in taverns, at the courts of nobles and dignitaries. The most famous teachings of that era were Taoism, Confucianism and Fajia, conventionally called the school of lawyers - legalists. The political platforms put forward by representatives of these trends expressed the interests of different segments of the population. The creators and preachers of these teachings were both representatives of the high society, and people of the humble and poor. Some of them came from the lowest levels of society, even from among the slaves. The founder of Taoism is considered a semi-legendary sage Lao Tzu who lived, according to legend, in the VI-V centuries. BC e. He wrote a philosophical treatise known as the Tao Te Ching (The Book of Tao and Te). The doctrine set forth in this book has become, to a certain extent, an expression of the community's passive protest against increased tax oppression and ruin. Condemning wealth, luxury and nobility, Lao Tzu spoke out against the arbitrariness and cruelty of the rulers, against violence and wars. The social ideal of ancient Taoism was a return to the primitive community. However, along with a passionate denunciation of injustice and violence, Lao Tzu preached the renunciation of the struggle, putting forward the theory of "non-doing", according to which a person must dutifully follow the Tao - the natural course of life. This theory was the main principle of the socio-ethical concept of Taoism.

Confucianism arose as an ethical and political doctrine at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. and subsequently became very widespread. Its founder is considered to be a preacher from the kingdom of Lu - Kung-tzu (Confucius, as he is called in the European world; about 551-479 BC). Confucians were the ideologists of the old aristocracy, justified the order of things that had developed since ancient times, had a negative attitude towards the enrichment and exaltation of ignoble people. According to the teachings of Confucius, each person in society must occupy a strictly defined place. “The sovereign must be the sovereign, the subject must be the subject, the father must be the father, the son must be the son,” said Confucius. Its adherents insisted on the inviolability of patriarchal relations and attached great importance to the cult of ancestors.

Representatives of the third direction - fajia expressed the interests of the new nobility. They advocated the establishment of private ownership of land, the cessation of internecine wars between the kingdoms, and insisted on reforms that would meet the requirements of the time. This trend of social thought flourished in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. The most prominent representatives of the Fajia were Shang Yang, who lived in the 4th century. BC e. and Han Fei (3rd century BC). Legists created their own theory of political and state structure. In their works, for the first time in the history of China, idea of ​​"legal law" as instruments of government. In contrast to the Confucians, who were guided by ancient traditions and customs, the Legalists believed that the government of the state should be based on strict and binding laws (fa) that meet the needs of modern times. They were supporters of the creation of a strong bureaucratic state. In the struggle for the unification of ancient China, it was the one who followed this teaching that won. He was elected by the rulers of the outlying and least enlightened kingdom of Qin, who readily accepted the idea of ​​a "strong kingdom and a weak people", absolute power over the entire Celestial Empire.

Craft

About the level development of ancient Chinese crafts says a list of professions. Ancient writers report of craftsmen of various trades: skillful casters, carpenters, jewelers, gunsmiths, wagon makers, pottery makers, weavers, even builders of dams and dams. Each region and city was famous for its craftsmen: the kingdom of Qi was famous for the production of silk and linen fabrics, and its capital, Linzi, was the largest center of weaving at that time. Here, thanks to the convenient location, salt and fishing industries have received special development. The city of Linqiong in the Shu region (Sichuan), rich in ore deposits, has become one of the most significant centers for the extraction and processing of iron. The largest centers of iron production at that time were Nanyang in the kingdom of Han and Handan, the capital of the kingdom of Zhao. In the Chu kingdom, the city of Hofei was famous for the production of leather products, Changsha - for jewelry. Coastal cities are known for building ships. The well-preserved wooden model 1b-rowing boat(see below), which was discovered by archaeologists during excavations of ancient graves. Already in this distant era, the Chinese invented a primitive compass; it was originally used for overland travel, and then Chinese navigators began to use it. The growth of cities and handicraft production, the expansion of the land and water road network gave impetus to the development of trade.

At this time, connections were established not only within the kingdoms, but also between various regions of ancient China and neighboring tribes. Slaves, horses, cattle, sheep, leather and wool were bought from the northern and western tribes of the Chinese; the tribes that lived in the south - ivory, dyes, gold, silver, pearls. During this period, the kingdom was considered stronger and richer, where there were a significant number of large merchants. And their influence on political life increased so much that more and more often they began to occupy the highest government positions at court. So, in the kingdom of Wei in the IV century. BC e. trader Bai Tui became a major dignitary. In the kingdom of Qin in the III century. BC e. the famous horse trader Lü Buwei served as the first councillor. The Tian family rose in the Qi realm.

The history of ancient China is usually divided into periods, designated by the names of the reigning dynasties.

• Shang (Yin) period: XVI-XI centuries. BC. (1583-1027 BC).
• Zhou period (Middle Empire): XI-III centuries. BC. (1027-258 BC).
• Qin period: 258--207 BC.
• · Han period: 206 BC -- 220 AD

Inland China is irrigated by three large rivers - Sijian, Yangtze (blue) and Yellow River (yellow), they flow from west to east, flowing into the Pacific Ocean. The first city-states arose in the valley of the Yellow River (3,000 miles long), where the Yin tribes lived, led by tribal leaders, the Wangs. In the beginning, the Chinese (the name comes from the medieval name of the Khitan tribe, the self-name of the Chinese is Hani) lived apart due to natural barriers, which contributed to the formation of an original and long-lasting river civilization.

From 1583 BC ruled by the Shang (Yin) dynasty (wang - the king - of the victorious tribe at the head of the state). In Yin China, as a result of the decomposition of tribal ties, the progressive division of labor, a control layer of the tribal aristocracy is distinguished: the ruler-wang and his entourage, relatives, dignitaries, tribal leaders and ordinary tribesmen, as well as strangers-foreigners, who, as a rule, are turned into slaves.

The creation of the initial primitive state formation in Shang (Yin) was associated with the need to organize production, irrigate lands, prevent the harmful effects of river floods, and protect territories. This was expressed, firstly, in the transformation of the tribal leader into the deified ruler of the Yin kingdom - the wang, who had considerable power, and secondly, in the formation of an administrative apparatus consisting of numerous rulers, military leaders, priests and others, opposing the mass of community members.

In the Yin era, the supreme ownership of the tsar-wang on the earth was affirmed, this was facilitated by the idea of ​​van as an earthly deity. The main forms of ownership during this period were royal and communal. Communal landownership was organized in such a way as to distribute its fruits among different sectors of consumption - royal, communal and private.

Lands were divided into two categories - public and private fields. Private fields were not private property, and the products from them went to provide free community members and those families who directly cultivated them. The public field was cultivated jointly, and the entire harvest was received by the head of the community for subsequent transfer to the king.

In 1027 BC The Shang kingdom fell under the rule of the ruler of the Zhou kingdom, who lived along the western border. They announced that the van was the son of Heaven, and the empire was the Celestial (Middle) Empire - the empire was without clear boundaries. The territory was enlarged, but territorial control was weak due to the rise of local feudal lords. -- princes who owned fortified cities with adjacent lands, the population was subject to duties. The Zhou van was faced with the need to organize the administration of a vast territory. To this end, he transferred the conquered lands into hereditary possessions to his relatives and close associates, who, along with the land, received the corresponding titles.

Initially, the power of the titled owners of destinies was restrained by the power of the central government. However, in the eighth century BC. specific rulers, former loyal subjects of the van, begin to acquire virtually complete independence. The power of the van is limited to the boundaries of his domain-domain. Becoming local kings, specific rulers themselves begin to grant lands for their service, acquiring their own vassals, their own administrative apparatus.

Thus, in Zhou China, disunity prevails with its characteristic internecine strife, leading to the seizure of the position of hegemon by one or another local kingdom, to the absorption of smaller kingdoms.

Long-term continuous wars led to economic decline, to the destruction of irrigation facilities and, finally, to the realization of the need for peace, the rapprochement of the peoples of China. The preachers of the Confucian religion, calling for the unification of the country "without partiality and the destruction of people," became an expression of the new sentiments. Despite the wars, during the Zhangguo period, economic and cultural contacts between different regions and peoples intensified, which led to their rapprochement, to the "gathering" of lands around the seven large Chinese kingdoms. The Zhou dynasty ended its rule with a period of unrest (the era of the “fighting 7 kingdoms” - V-III centuries BC) and the beginning of the gathering of an empire from 7 kingdoms.

In the last centuries BC. In China, the confrontation of two tendencies in the development of society is manifested. On the one hand, large-scale private ownership of land is developing, based on the exploitation of peasant tenants, hired workers, and slaves; on the other hand, a broad stratum of tax-paying peasantry is being formed, directly subordinate to the state. These were two possible paths of development: 1) through the victory of large-scale private ownership of land - the path of fragmentation, internecine strife; 2) through the strengthening of state ownership of land and the creation of a single centralized state.

258 BC - the beginning of the reign of the Qin dynasty as a result of the replacement of the Zhou emperor by the most powerful of the feudal lords.

A centralized empire is emerging along the lines of an "oriental despotism". The empire is divided into provinces. Local lords lived in the capitals. The king appointed proxies for the role of governors of the provinces. To protect the borders from the raids of barbarian peoples and tribes (for example, the Huns), the construction of the Great Wall of China began. Its length is 5 thousand km with a height and width of 6 to 10 m (5-6 horsemen could ride along the wall), watchtowers are located every 200 meters. The wall was built by 2 million people.

The ruler Qin Shi-Huangdi introduced uniform legislation for the entire empire, uniform measures of weight in trade. However, his heirs quickly lost power and succumbed to the rulers of the Han dynasty. In 221 BC. The Qin dynasty triumphantly ended the struggle for the unification of the country.

During the Qin period, two paths for the further development of China are outlined:

• · through the victory of large private ownership of land, which meant the path of fragmentation;
• · through the strengthening of state ownership of land and the creation of a single centralized state.

The second path of development is established before the bourgeois revolutions of 1911-1913 gg.

During the reign of the Han dynasty (206 BC. -- 221 AD) introduced an examination system of tests for applicants for public office; revived interest in Confucian teachings (551-497 BC - Confucius), in the I century. BC. Buddhism penetrates China, and in 124 BC. the imperial university opens, which trains administrative officials. Trade relations with India, Syria and the Roman Republic are expanding. Emperor Wu-di (14-87 BC) introduced a call-motto that denoted the years of his reign, which was recorded in official documents and did not change during the entire reign of the emperor.