Caucasian War

"Caucasian War" is a geographical definition, it is impossible to name it and the war, the people's "national liberation movement", which lasted for 45 years.

The movement began when Emperor Alexander was going to give Russia a constitution. In the early 19th century, Russia defended its rights to Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan in two wars with Persia (1804-1813 and 1826-1828) and two - with Turkey (1806-1812 and 1828-1829). The peoples of the North-West Caucasus as if automatically departed to Russia. However, the mountaineers did not agree with such a turn of events. As soon as the attempts of the royal administration began to impose Russian laws and customs with free societies in the North Caucasus, discontent began to grow rapidly.

The reason for the war was the appearance in the Caucasus of the ambitious general Alexey Petrovich Yermolov. Yermolov allowed persecution of the borders of the borders of the zubbansky peoples who have raids to Russian territory. Naturally, the hustances took plans such as encroachment on their liberty. In the 40s, the horses have achieved the greatest success in the struggle for independence. But the Russians gradually, the price of large losses and long failures, learned how to use their huge numerical advantage in the mountains, and Chechnya was conquered. The capitulation of the Abkhaz on May 21, 1864 is considered the date of the official end of the Caucasian War.

But this year can not be fully considered the last year of the uprising, since the individual foci of resistance to the Russian authorities remained until 1884, and after that the riots and uprisings were repeatedly broke out in the territories of Dagestan and Chechnya, the last of which (in Chechnya) began in 1994, and ended In 1996.

Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XIX century.

In Russia, feudal-serfdom still dominated. They slowed down the economic development of the country and caused its military-technical backwardness. Military factories were very small, and they worked poorly because of primitive equipment and unproductive serfs. The Naval Fleet of Russia was the third in the world after English and French, but in front of the Fleet of England and France, he looked like Liliput in front of Gulliver: the English-French had 454 martial vessels, including 258 steamats, and Russia - 115 vessels at 24 steams.

Crimean War

The causes of the Crimean War were rooted mainly in the collision of the colonial interests of Russia and England, as well as Russia and France, partly Russia and Austria in the Middle East and the Balkans. And England in the Union with France, and Russia sought in the Crimean War to the same goal, i.e., to domination in these areas, albeit different ways: England and France, which was beneficial to have a permanent counterweight and threatening in Russia, preferred Reload the Turkish Empire, while Russia wanted to destroy it. Turkey, in turn, pursued a long-time goal to turn from Russia Crimea and the Caucasus. In short, the Crimean War was a gripful, robbed on the part of all its participants.

After a long diplomatic passage of October 16, 1853, Turkey declared war to Russia. In the first period of the war, when Russia fought one on one with Turkey, she achieved great success. Meanwhile, England and France regarded Russian victories in the Black Sea and in the Transcaucasia as a convenient preposition for the war with Russia under the guise of "protecting Turkey". On January 4, 1854, they introduced their squadrons in the Black Sea, and from Nicholas I demanded to bring Russian troops from the Danube Principles. Nikolay through Nesselrod notified them that he would not even answer for such a "offensive" requirement. Then March 27, England and March 28, 1854, France declared the war of Russia. As a result, Russia was commissioned Sevastopol and the country was forced to conclude a peace treaty.

The peace treaty was signed on March 30, 1856 in Paris at the International Congress with the participation of all fought powers, as well as Austria and Prussia. Russia lost the mouth of the Danube, South Bessarabia, and most importantly, the military fleet and coastal arsenals were deprived of the right to have on the Black Sea, since the sea was declared neutral. Thus, the Russian Black Sea coast became defenseless from possible aggression. The territories occupied during the war were exchanged. Therefore, Russia returned Turkey Kara, and allies - Russia Sevastopol, Evpatoria and other Russian cities.

Thus, in the second half of the XIX century, the end of the Crimean War led to a fundamental change in the situation in Europe. The established Anglo-Austro-French block is the so-called Crimean system - was aimed at preserving the political isolation of Russia and its military-strategic weakness, secured by the decisions of the Paris Congress. Russia did not lose her position of the Great Power. However, due to the defeat, she lost the right to a decisive vote in international affairs and due to the article on the neutralization of the Black Sea lost opportunities to provide effective support to the peoples of the Balkan. In this regard, the main task of Russian diplomacy was the struggle for the abolition of this article and the strengthening of the international authority of Russia.

The foreign policy of Russia under Alexander II was aimed primarily on the solution of the Eastern Question. In March 1859, the conclusion of the Russian-French Treaty on the benevolent neutrality of Russia in the event of the war of France and Sardinia against Austria. But soon, convinced of the unwillingness of France to guarantee its support for Russian interests in the East, Russia appealed to rapprochement with Prussia. In 1863, a military convention with Prussia was concluded, which facilitated the royal government to combat the Polish uprising. In response to the support of Russia for the combination of German lands, Bismarck spoke on the side of Russia in the question of the abolition of the Black Sea neutrality. At the London Conference of the Power, which signed the Paris Treatise (January-March 1871), Russia has made the abolition of the ban to keep a military fleet on the Black Sea and build military arsenals on the Black Sea coast.

From that moment on, the Eastern Question was put forward to the fore, which was exacerbated due to the successful promotion of Russia in Central Asia in the 60-70s. Trading ties with Central Asia, so important for the Russian economy, were complicated due to permanent interdiscructures in this region. The concern of the Russian government aroused attempts by English diplomacy through the Afghan Emir to influence the Kokand and Khiva Khanate. In 1864, a decisive attack on Central Asian Khanate was launched. Soon the cities of Turkestan and Chimkent were captured. In June 1865, the largest city of Central Asia Tashkent (100 thousand inhabitants) is taken by storm. In the spring of 1866, successful military operations against the Bukhara Emir began. In 1867, the Turkestan Governor-General with the Center in Tashkent was formed at the occupied lands.

The last major Khanate was Hiva. But before proceeding to its conquest, the Russian government took measures to weaken tensions in relations with England. After long negotiations in 1873, the Russian-English agreement was concluded on the recognition of Afghanistan with a neutral zone and the provision of Hiva "the potion" of Russia. In February 1873, the Russian troops began a campaign for the Khiva Khanate, the capital of Khivani was surrounded by and capitulated, Hivinsky Khan signed a peace treaty and recognized the vassal dependence on Russia.

After the repression of the uprising in Kokand (1875-1876) on February 19, 1876, Russia announced the inclusion of Kokand in the company's Governor's Turkestan General. Bukhara and Khiva Khanate, having reduced much in size, retained nominal independence. In 1878-1879. England occupied Afghanistan and set the protectorate over him. As a result of prolonged and systematic hostilities in May 1881, the Custinian region was formed with the center in Ashgabat.

On Central Asia, Russian legislation was distributed. Internecial wars stopped. The presence of free lands caused the flow of immigrants from Russia and other neighboring countries. The expansion of cotton crops and the construction of railways contributed to the inclusion of Central Asia into commodity relations with other regions.

In April 1873, the Russian-German Military Defense Convention was concluded. In the same year, Russia and Austria-Hungary signed a political convention to which Germany joined. So the "Union of Three Emperors" was issued. Despite serious contradictions between the parties, the Soyuz provided a significant impact on the international relations of the 70s. The conclusion of the "Union" meant and the exit of Russia from international isolation.

The Far Eastern policy of Russia was associated with the colonization of this region and the development of Russian-Chinese trade. AGUNA Treaty of 1858 and the Peking Treaty of 1860 on the demarcation of land was completed by the agreements on maritime and land trade. In relations with Japan, there was a problem of "unrequited" joint ownership of Sakhalin in the Simedian Treaty of 1855. Japan was actively settled by Sakhalin. On April 25, 1875, Russia and Japan signed an agreement on the transfer of Japan Kuril Islands in St. Petersburg instead of the Japanese part of Sakhalin. Russian colonization of the Far East went slowly. Foreign policy activity here was low, the number of troops is insignificant. Construction of the Siberian railway highway began only in 1891

Meanwhile, the Far East attracted more and more attention to Japan, England and the United States. British and American industrialists and merchants penetrated Russian possessions in Northeast Asia and Alaska. The exploitation of Natural Wealth Alaska brought Russia only losses. The Russian-American company did not have enough funds for the economic development of the territory of 1.5 million square meters. km, which was also threatened by annexation from England. Given these circumstances and wanting to strengthen relations with the United States, Russia has given way to them American possessions for 11 million rubles. (7 million 200 thousand dollars). The contract was signed on March 18, 1867 in Washington.

The Krymskaya Caucasian train schedule contains 2 trains, the average time of the path between these stations is 5 hours 9 m, and the number of stops on this route is 7. Trains running the Crimean Caucasian route most often stop at the Ambinskaya Stations, Akhtyrskaya, Ilskaya, Krasnodar 1, Severskaya, Movement schedule for which is also available on our website. Trains in this area are sent for example, at 17.48, 18.47 from the Krymskaya station, the Caucasian end item arrives in 22.43, 00.10 local time. The small number of prescribed column in the Schedule of Crimean Caucasian is a sign that this route is not popular with passengers. Krymskaya - Caucasian train schedule is made up so that you can leave in this area in the afternoon.
You can buy tickets for the Krymskaya - Caucasian train at the checkout of the nearest station, as well as online.

Physical geographical zoning. Despite the huge sizes of the Russian plain, the features of the unity of her nature are clearly expressed. This makes it possible to allocate the following criteria for the separation of the highest rank unit at the regional level of physico-geographic zoning - the country.

A. The unity of morphostructures (the predominance of reservoir plains with a limited role of accumulative and basement), a sharp opposition to its mountain morphostructure of neighboring territories (Urals, Caucasus, Carpathians, Mountain Crimea) and baseline plains of the Kola Karelian country.

B. Unity of the geostructure (the domination of the slab two-story structure), a significant difference between it from the mountain-based areas of neighboring physico-geographic countries and the one-story structure of the Baltic shield. The Ukrainian shield is "absorbed" by the Russian slab to be frightened from all sides and has, albeit a low-power, cover.

V. Unity of Macroclimat (moderately continental, in the southeast - continental arid) moderate belt, opposition to its transition from the oceanic to the continental climate (Kola - Karelian country) and continental (Western Siberia) of a moderate belt, the Arctic (Gorn-Island Arctic) and Subtropical (mountain Crimea and the Caucasus) neighboring territories.

The specificity of the complex structure of the latitudinal zonality of the Russian plain, which differs from the simple structure of the Kolar Karelian country and is replaced in the adjacent mountainous countries with high-dimensional explanation.

For selection physico geographic areas used zonal criterion. Each area is a segment of a complex (landscape) zone within the boundaries of this country. One embodiment provides for the allocation of the following areas.

A. The area of \u200b\u200bmarine and sea plains of the Tundrov and Festourprove zones. B. Region of the moraine and fuel plains of the taiga zone. B. Region of the Moraine and Zandrovy Plains Zone of coniferous and deciduous forests. The region of erosion elevated and accumulative low-lying plains of forest-steppe and steppe zones. D. region of primary nautical plains of semi-desert and desert zones.

The basis of the exhaustion physico-geoghaphic provinces used genetic Criterion: General features of the development of the territory in Neogene - Anthropogen. Thes of them laid the differences in the newest tectonics. With respect to rapidly rising blocks, they led to the appearance of sublime erosion plains, accumulative lowlands were developed in weakly rising or even descending blocks or even depression. This led to certain differences in inland waters, climate, the specifics of nutrition components, that is, ultimately notable landscape specificity. To illustrate the above, it suffices to compare the characteristics of the Timan and Pechora, Midnesday and Occasic provinces.

The Caucasus and the mountain Crimea are a single physical geographic country, but are somewhat separated geographically. This gives a reason to separately study the nature of each territory in the rank of physical geographic countries.

4.1. Mountain Crimea.includes external, inner coast, main ridge or iala, southern shore of the Crimea and the Kerch peninsula.

Geological Development and Building The mountain Crimea is linked to the Alpine-Himalayan geosynclinal belt (Tetis). The geosynclinal sedimentation occurred in the Mesozoic, when Fluchery terrigenous, diverse volcanogenic strata, msanka and crinoid limestones, Mergeli were formed. Sedimentation was repeatedly interrupted by the epochs of raising and folding formation. In the chalk period, a platform regime was installed as a result of the Kimmerian folding. In Neogene, he was violated by a powerful consolidation raising, completed the formation of the mountain Crimea. Based on this, the mountain Crimea refers to geologists to the Cenozoic folded structures. The southern part of the Crimean anticlinorium on the complex fault system fell under the water of the Black Sea.

Cenozoic structures are located between the Scythian epigigzin platform in the north and the deep-water depressure of the Black Sea in the south. In the East, they continue the structures of the Big Caucasus, with which they are closely connected. Between the Scythian slab and the northern slope of the mountain Crimea, the Indolo-Kuban regional deflection is located in the East to the Precaucasian deflection. The anticlinorium of the mountain Crimea in the East continues to the folded structures of the Kerch and Taman Peninsula; The latter is within Meganticlinorium of the Big Caucasus. Thus, the geostructures of the mountain Crimea and the Greater Caucasus are one and divided only by a shallow-water Kerch Strait.

Relief. Main ridge in the central part decays to a number of arrays - iahls up to 20 km wide, 20 - 30 km long, high height 1000 - 1500 m (I- Petrinskaya, Yalta, Nikitskaya, Babuganskaya with a maximum for the mountain Crimea height - Mount Romankosh - 1543 m, Chatrdagskaya , Demerji, Dolgorukovskaya, Karabi), separated by slides with passes passing along them (including the Baidar gates of 520 m.). West and east of the height of arrays are reduced to 600 - 700 m. North stretched Internal Courest with heights up to 500 - 750 m and Exteriorkuesta not exceeding 350 m. All ridges are separated by longitudinal slides, in which settlements are located, including Simferopol, Sevastopol, Bakhchisarai.

Dominant morphostructure Folding-bully mountains. The alternation of the era of raising and related regressions and lowering (transgression) led to the emergence of two levels of alignment (upper and lower plateau) on the main ridge). There are a number of delicate denunciation of laccolites (for example, Ayu Dag) and destroyed volcanic devices (Karadag). An important role is played by monoclinal ridges (Cools). In Kerch Plouyrov, the relief shapes are common due to the spread of brachyclamps and mud vulcanism associated with oil and gas deposits.

A varied types morphoskulpture.On the surface and slopes of iulas, largely folded limestone prevailing modern karst and relictic nivational-karst forms of relief: large and small caves, funnels, mines, wells, carroom fields due to the wide distribution of open (Mediterranean) karst, abundant limestone cavity, Stretching almost before the foot. River valleys acquire the shape of canyons, gorges, Tesnin. There are sections of an extremely dissected relief (Bedlend).

In the arid conditions of the coastal, the shape of arid weathering is common, up to the emergence of "eolia cities" and stone lace. Along with this, there are modern and more relict fluivial education. The abundance of steep slopes sharply activated the slope processes (landslides, collaborations, villages), created landslide bodies, clusters of large acute-angled blocks - "haosen", proluavial loops. Finally, extensive areas occupy modern and relict abrasion terraces.

Climate and river. The mountain Crimea is located on the border of two climatic belts - moderate and subtropical, so within its limits there are three climatic areas: a moderate climate of the northern footage (Cuest and the Kerch Peninsula), transitional mountainy and the Mediterranean southern shore. The climate of the foothills is similar to the climate of the southern part of the Russian plain and is distinguished by increased aridity and softness (350 - 500 mm, the summer maximum and winter rainfall, the average temperature of January 0 ...- 2 degrees). Within the main ridge, a mountain range of climate transition from the climate is observed to Mediterranean. Winter average monthly temperatures are weakly negative (-1 ...- 4 degrees), the amount of precipitation increases with a height of up to 900 - 1000 mm. Their maximum falls on the winter season. The main ridge plays the role of the orographic barrier on the path of aerial entries from the north. Like the southern bank, in the summer it is covered by the outskirts of the Azor maximum, which is growing at the expense of air inflow from the southern hemisphere (equatorial monsoon). The zone of active cyclonal circulation with abundant precipitates is pushed back to the north, but the mountain Crimea is involved in the sphere of the trade mat. In anticyclonal conditions, there is either a downward movement of air, or the initial ("root") zones of the North-Eastern Passat.

The softness of the climate of the mountain Crimea helps to reduce the role of snow and increasing the share of rain food in the intransigational mode of the flow of rivers. The rivers of the flooding regime are dominated. At the same time, the Crimean (with the predominance of winter floods) is observed in the main ridge and in the southern coast), and the north-north-square (dominate summer floods) types of the drain mode.

Landscapes and physical geographic areas. In Koustach and on the Kerch Peninsula, there are landscapes close to South-Russian: from forest-steppe and steppe to semi-desert (disintegration, cereals, wormwood, rarely solicky on southern chernozem and chestnut soils, partly salontal). For the south coast, landscapes close to subtropical Mediterranean: low-spirited forests from the oak fluffy and tree juniper (Archie), rarely turpentine (wild pistachios) with evergreen shrubs (strawberry tree, iglitsa, sandwicker, ivy, shrub forms of oak) on red-brown Rubblystone ("slate") soils, as well as xerophyte shrub communities, close to the shrub (shrub of fluffy oak, rabinnik, deryider). Primary lancephates are often substituted with anthropogenic and agracaffes. As you move up the main ridge, the following high-altitude belts appear. 1. Wide forests with a predominance of an oak rock, alternating with forests of the pine of Crimean on brown mining soils. 2. Beech (the beech Crimean or Tauride) with an admixture of a pine of a cuechkoy and a crimean, grab, maple on brown forest soils. 3. Minworgal landscapes (iahla) on the potted surfaces of the main ridge - the predominance of cereals (Typika, Tononog, Bonfire, Kovyl-Hair), Singa, Espex, Different, is often bordered by subalpic (low and sharpened oak and juniper forms).

The mountain Crimea stands out either as an independent physical geographical country, or as a "autonomy" in the Crimean Country Country. Units of lower rank (physico-geographic areas) are the southern bank, the main ridge, the Cool and the Kerch peninsula.

4.2. Caucasusin the boundaries of Russia is presented by the predfabcaze and the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus. As part of the near abroad, the southern slope of the Big Caucasus, the plains of the Transcaucasia, the Small Caucasus and part of the Armenian-Javakhtsky Highlands within the borders of the former USSR were found. The northern and south borders of the Caucasian physico-geographical country are ambiguously carried out. The northern border is carried out either at the top of the Greater Caucasus, or (the option adopted in this paper) - by the Cumancan Wpadin. The southern border is carried out either along the northern foot of the Small Caucasus (it is south of it is a physical geographic country. Front Asian Nagori.), either for the former state border of the USSR. So, in this paper, it is conventionally to the Caucasus there is an area between the waters of the Black and Caspian Seas, the Cumanic depressing and the former border of the USSR.

Orography and plasterometry. The basis of the Caucasus orography is a large and small Caucasus, separated by the varieties of the Transcaucasia - Kolkhida, Kurak Araksinskaya and relatively small intermountain brands (inland, Alazan, Ioro and others). The balance of the predfabcasus is much larger in area. In the West, there is a Kuban-Priazovskaya lowland, in the east - the Terek-Kumskaya Plain, they share the Stavropol elevation. In the east of the plains merge with the Caspian lowland, and in the north - with the kumanich depression. Plains lie at all high-altitude steps - from high plateaus and elevations with a height of 200 - 1000 m to lowlands and depressions with heights from - 26 to 200 m.

The Big Caucasus stretches from Taman to the Absheron Peninsula in the so-called general-standardized reduction (ZSZ - VUV). Its rod is the main or waterproof ridge. On the Northern Macroclone, a parallel system of ridges extending predominantly parallel to the main one - the side (with the highest peaks of Russia by Elbrus, Dykhtau and Kazbek, exceeding 5000 m), rocky, pasture, wooded, TERSKY, SUNZHENA. On the southern macroscone, a periodic system of dissection prevails, the ridges are suitable for the main at the acute angle. The Small Caucasus forms in terms of convex to the north of the arc (Meschetsky, Trialetsky, Somhate, Shahdag, Karabakh, Talysh and other ridges), complicated by the mountain frame of Lake Sevan (Vardenis, Hegaman, Pambaki) with heights of a little exceeding 3500 m.

The small Caucasus, together with the eastern part of the Armenian Highlands, forms the Transcaucasian Highlands with a maximum height in the mountains of Aragats (Alaghaz) 4090 m. Its relief is typical for the overseas Nagrai in general.

Geological development and structure. There are two versions about the geological development of the Caucasus. According to fixist Representations of the Caucasus are a section of the earth's crust, underwent polycycle development. In the Alpine-Himalayan Geosynklinal Belt (Tethysis), the Caucasian Geosyncline (Tethysis) laid out in the Precambrian (Tethysis), in the development of which the epochs of quiet development and folding formation were replaced. In the first long time (tens of millions of years), the formation of deep-water geosyncline basins, in which sediment (fluchery or predominantly carbonate) and volcogenic thickness of multi-kilometer power were accumulated. In relatively short (several million years), the era of the folding formation under the influence of tectonic stresses increased the role of folding formation, metamorphism, raising and draining the land of the earth's crust. As a result, the geosyncline inside the continental bark sites arose, externally looked like mountainous archipelagoes among geosynclinal seas or lagoon. The number of islands and their area over time consistently increased, but this was not interrupted by a long era of island isolation, leading over time to wide endemism of the organic world of the Caucasus. Within the Caucasus, the structures of the Baikal, Hercino and Mesozoic folding are distinguished. None of these epochs eliminated the geosynclinal regime. But in the Cenozoic Era of Folding, he was destroyed throughout the Caucasus. Its powerful consolidation raising, which caused the occurrence of mountainous sushi and the complete elimination of the marine regime. Under the influence of the raising, a compensatory lowering of extensive blocks of the earth's crust around the Caucasus was carried out: the modern brains of the Black and Caspian seas were formed, the predkiscosky regional and Transcaucasian intergranium deflection arose.

By more modern mobistsky Constructions of the Caucasus arose under the influence of the rapprochement of lithospheric plates. Starting from the Devonian period there was a movement of the Gondwana, and after her decay - its Arabian bloc north, to a relatively fixed Eurasian block. The areas of the oceanic bark were located between the concentrated blocks (which led to a significant increase in its capacity) and the strong development of metamorphism and volcanism (which led the occurrence of the granite-metamorphic layer of the earth's crust). As a result, the oceanic bark was completely replaced by the root of continental type. The non-uniformity movement of the lithospheric unit led to the "polycycle" of the geological development of the Caucasus.

Later the development of the Caucasus is represented by fixists and mobilists equally. High mountains arising in the Cenozoic era were largely destroyed by denudation. However, under the influence of the newest tectonics, the mining relief occurred; Block differentiated raises actively continue and now. This is evidenced by the high seismicity of the region, the postpalcism and signs of modern volcanism, registration of continuing raising by satellites. The most seismic areas are the zones of tectonic faults located between the large Caucasus and the plains of the Transcaucasia (Zakalkalsky district), between the individual blocks of the Transcaucasian Plateau (Spitak area) and others.

In Pleistocene, the Caucasus was covered by a garbage glaciation, which essentially influenced its natural conditions. The vegetation and animal world suffered greatly, the glacial - alpine - form of relief spread. At the same time, the orographic barrier of the Grand Caucasus facilitated the preservation of many of the post-bearer representatives of flora and fauna, which led the abundance of extrastocene and Pleistocene relics.

As a result of the long geological development of the Caucasus, the following geostructures were formed.

1. Scythian epigigzinskaya stovewhich corresponds to the balance of the predfabascia. Like other single-type geostructures, it has a two-story building. Its foundation is composed of strongly deployed crystalline (metamorphic and igneous) ancient (Precambrian and Paleozoic) rocks. The case is represented by submissively occurring sediment relatively young - mesocynezoic - rocks.

2. Precaucasian edge deflectionwhich corresponds to the foothills of the Greater Caucasus. Like all the boundary deflection, it corresponds to a tectonic seam that divides the foundation of the Scythian slab and the folded structures of the Big Caucasus. From the surface, the rim is disguised by the thickness of MOLASS, containing a common mineral set for this geostructure - caustobiolites (oil, methane, fossil coal) and evaporites.

3. Megantiklinorium of the Big Caucasus,in which it is customary to allocate three zones. but. The axial zone is a crystalline core, composed of strongly stationed crystalline rocks of Damkambria and Paleozoic. It is exposed only within the central and Western Caucasus, in other areas the kernel is blocked by other structures.

4. Transcaucasian synclinium,which corresponds in the relief of the plain of the Transcaucasia.

5. Anticlinorial of the Small Caucasus, Different from such a structure of the large Caucasus smaller than the size and lack of a crystalline kernel.

6. The structures of Armenian-Javakhtsky Highlands, distinguished by a particularly wide development of volcanic rocks, among which the most common basalts.

Geomorphology. Morphostructure of the mountains prevails, and in it - folding-bully mountains. Less often meet volcanic mountains (Elbrus, Aragats and others). Within the Stavropol elevation, there are mountain-laccolites (Beshtau and others). Among the plains are the most extensive accumulative (Kolkhida, Caspian and sections of other plains). In the predo-kaucase and in the northern macroscone of the Greater Caucasus, monoclinal-reservoir plains and cooker ridges (rocky, pasture, wooded) are widespread. High chalk of Transcaucasia are typical deanuding plains. In the Transcaucasian Highlands there are extensive lava (basalt) plateau with perfectly pronounced columns ("pencils") individuals observed, for example, in the Garnist Gorge near Yerevan.

Morphoskulpture of the mountains obeys high-rise lower. In the upper belt, highly developed alpine sharply dissected relief (relict and modern glacial forms). The lower belt is dominated by a fluvial relief, differing from the equible analogues of a much greater degree of dismemberment: the waterproof ridges are separated by gorges, canyons and tesns. A classic example is the Darialya Gorge, sung by the River Terek. The influence of the relief on the climate is detected on the lowlands and sublime plains and through it - on the distribution of types of morphoskulpture, which leads to their provincial placement. In Western, excessively moistened areas, the valine-water-seased forms of fluvivial morphoskulpture prevail. In the east, insufficiently moistened part of the Caucasus, dominance moves to arid forms, among which accumulate sandy elements are particularly common.

Climates. The Big Caucasus is a climeturn between the predfuccusement and the conquer, which allows the climatic areas of moderate and subtropical belts, as well as the region of the transition climate of the highland of the Greater Caucasus. In moderate latitudes is observed year-round dominance of moderate air masses exposed western Transfer cyclonal and anticyclonal Nature. Therefore, the climate of the plains of the predfabcasse resembles the climate of the southern part of the Russian plain, differing from the last softness. In the subtropics occurs seasonal shift dominant types of air masses (Winter - HC, in summer - TV), the nature of circulation (winter - cyclones and the western transfer of air masses, in the summer - involvement in passat circulation With domination anticyclonal weather and participation in eastern Transfer.

As you can see, in all highlighted climatic areas the role of Western transfer is significant. On his way there is a clear orographic barrier of the Big, Small Caucasus and connecting their jumpers (Likhsky ridges and adjacent to him with high challenges of the Transcaucasia), which is mainly the redistribution of precipitation and moistening. As a result, the Western areas of the regions (Kuban-Priazovskaya, Kolkhida Plains, Western Ranges of the Great and Small Caucasus) are distinguished by increased precipitation and moisture, the eastern (the plains of the Eastern Pre-Bureau, the Kura- Araksinsky Plain, the eastern ridges of the mountains) arms. Taking into account these differences, the number of climatic areas increases. Briefly characterize climates of selected areas.

Predogascia.Atmospheric processes typical for the south of East European Plain are manifested to the upper border of the forest belt of the Big Caucasus (2 - 2.5 km). However, under the influence of the mountainous relief, they are complicated, which causes an increase in the amount of precipitation and the height of the snow cover with a height, the emergence of temperature inversions during the periods of cold beet or even in winter. The advection of the cold occurs either in the southern, southeast periphery of anticyclones, or in the rear of cyclones. In the inversion layer (at altitudes 200 - 3000 m), layered cloudiness with frosting precipitation, fogs, ice, hoarfrost are formed. In the summer, the number of thunderstorms and the likelihood of gradation increases in the mountains. In comparison with Russian plain in the summer, convective rainfall convection is noticeably activated.

But the main source of precipitation year-round is the Atlantic cyclones. In connection with the increase in their number and greater contrast of their sectors, there is continental precipitation regime, and the absolute maximum of precipitation falls on june (due to the southern position of the Pre-Caucasus, the summer occurs earlier than in the Russian plain, where the maximum is observed in july - August). The average temperatures of January throughout the predfabcasus are negative, although winter is much softer than in Russian plain. Later, the establishment and early disappearance of negative temperatures, long-term and significant thaw (for example, February "windows", allowing agricultural work in February) are observed. Snow cover is long held for a long time (outside the footpoints - 50 - 70 days) is distinguished by instability, during periods of thaws degrading or disappearing, there is no warm winter in particularly warm winter. At the same time, during cold advection, abnormally low temperatures are possible, leading to the formation of ice crusts and extrusion of winter crops.

Under the influence of the western transfer of air masses and the presence of orographic barriers on its path, climatic indicators change greatly in the eastern direction. The values \u200b\u200bof evaporation and evaporation increase, the amount of precipitation decreases, temperature, cloudiness and other indicators change. As a result, the degree of continentality of the climate increases from moderate to considerable. This led to the allocation of climatic regions of the Western and Eastern Western Pre-Bureau.

Alpine large Caucasus. At the heights of over 2 - 2.5 km, above the border of the forest, the main climate-forming factor becomes the relief. Under influence height factor The air temperature is reduced and the amount of precipitation increases. Impact orographyleads to the redistribution of these indicators due to the variety of meso and microclimate. The total manifestation of the impact of the relief and the Western transfer of air (with a height of its role increases) is the specificity of atmospheric circulation (hair dryers, mining winds) and natural differences in climatic indicators as they move to the east. The amount of precipitation varies from 600 mm in the West and 250 - 300 mm in the center to 300 - 400 mm in the east of the highland. January temperatures are minimized with a height from -6 to -12, minimal from -30 to -44 degrees. The average temperatures of July with a height decrease from 12 to 4 degrees. The softness of the climate and the presence of a powerful snow cover determine the practical absence of many years of permanent.

Plains of Transcaucasia. The common features of climates of this region are: a. Positive average monthly temperatures of January and b. The presence in different degrees of the pronounced winter maximum of precipitation (Mediterranean regimen of precipitation). Consider the variants of the Mediterranean climate of the region.

Z. apadassamentit is characterized by a wet variant of the Mediterranean climate. Winter maximum due to cyclonal activity in the Mediterranean, Black Sea and other branches of the polar front. The favorable orographic plan of the region significantly increases the amount of precipitation throughout the year, especially on Western macros clocks, where there is (delay) of cyclones and aggravation (increase in contrast) of fronts. Orographic precipitations play a certain role. Under the strong impact of the relief, the beginning of the winter maximum is often shifted by August (Poti) - September (Batumi).

The average January temperatures reaches 5 ... 7 degrees, slightly falling to the east. The main reasons for this are circulating. The advection of heat in the warm sectors of the Mediterranean cyclones is observed. A certain role is played by the hair dryers on the northern foothills of the Small Caucasus. During periods of strong thaws, temperatures rise to 15 ... 25 degrees. On the contrary, the advection of cold in the rear of cyclones or in the western, southwestern periphery of Asian anticyclones is possible. When exposing the outflows of anticyclones of cooling are especially strong - during the day to 5 ... 8 degrees. Efemer snow cover is installed, sometimes quite powerful.

Summer minimum of precipitation is weakly expressed, since the absence of cyclonal precipitation is compensated by the strengthening of convective and orographic, as well as a sharp increase in absolute moisture content and relative humidity. During the periods of maxima in the fall and in winter, 230 - 300 mm falls within a month, during periods of summer lines - 50 - 100 mm, which is comparable to the average annual precipitation of many regions of Russia. The average annual precipitation in Western Transcaucasia is 1600 - 2500 mm.

The average monthly temperatures increase in summer to 23 ... 25 degrees - mainly due to radiation. Breeze in coastal parts slightly reduce the temperature, and the advection of heat from the Eastern Transcaucasus and Malaya Asia increases them to 42 degrees in Colchide and 30 ... 35 degrees in the mountains.

To the described variety of the Mediterranean climate is very close to the climate Lenkran lowland and slopes of talysh. Mediterranean cyclones bypass in the winter of the Barrier of the Big Caucasus from the north in winter, from where the Caspian and Kurah Araksinsky Plain come to this region, they are and activated under the influence of Talysh Mountains. In Lenkoran, the average January temperatures are +3 degrees, the July and August 25 degrees, the average annual precipitation - 1124 mm, while in the summer months it drops to 16 - 30 mm, and in winter - up to 100 - 240 mm.

Black Sea coast of Russia. The region includes the segment of the coast between Anapa and Sukhumi. Its climate is identical to the climate of the southern coast of Crimea (see). The average temperature of January is +6 ... 7 degrees, July and August 23 ... 24 degrees, over the year 1300 - 1400 mm of precipitation falls, while in the winter months 150 - 180 mm, and in the summer - 80 - 100 mm. This kind of Mediterranean climate is considered to be the most typical.

Protecting from adevection of cold air from the Pre-Bukiscosity The Black Sea Caucasus is low and in winter is relatively easily overcome in the area of \u200b\u200bNovorossiysk. Most often, this occurs when the reinforcement directed to the south of the Baric gradient: the north of the Big Caucasus is observed with high pressure associated with the entry of cold air (BUV or even CAV), at the same time the south of the ridge passes the Mediterranean cyclone, which causes a sharp decrease in pressure. There is a phenomenon called Novorossiysk bore. Bohr is characterized by a jump-shaking increase in the speed of the northern wind and a decrease in air temperature, accompanied by cloud weather with precipitation. Hurricane and prolonged wind produces severe destruction, excitement to the sea, creates a sharp discomfort for people and animals. There is a strong icing of the earth's surface, trees, buildings, telegraph pillars, power lines, ship ropes, ships and other things. Uncompressed ships bays easily drown, communications are violated on land.

Eastern Transcaucasia.The presence of a "orographic jumper" on the path of Western transfer leads to a strong decrease in the amount of precipitation and the occurrence of a semi-deserted variant of the Mediterranean climate. The arrival of Mediterranean cyclones is even difficult in winter, and therefore precipitation at this time of the year is reduced by 80% due to the entry of cold air on the eastern or southern outskirts of anticyclones penetrating from the Eastern European, Wesnosibirsk plains and the Kazakh minstone. In the cold period of the year, a monthly drops 25 - 30 mm, in summer - only 5 - 10 mm with an average annual amount of precipitation on the plains 200 - 300 mm, in the foothills it increases to 400 - 450 mm.

Due to the increase in summer (average 23 ... 26, the maximum 35 ... 42 degrees) and lowering the winter (0 ... 4, in the foothills to -5, absolute minima -11 ... -26 degrees) temperatures increase amplitude , consequently, the degree of continentality of climate (despite the proximity of the Caspian). In the formation of the thermal regime, the influence of both radiation and the advection of heat and cold from neighboring regions is manifested.

Especially indicative of penetration through the Barrier of the Grand Caucasus or bypassing it over the Caspian North Wind - "Baku Norda". It is observed all year round, especially intensifying in winter, is distinguished by high speeds, duration and somewhat resembles the effects of bors.

Inner waters I. glaciation. The softness and distrut of climates of the Caucasus leads to a variety of types rivers. In their nutrition, the proportion of rain and glacial, sometimes ground nutrition with a decrease in the role of snow is significantly increasing. This causes the occurrence of rare for the territory of the former USSR types of in-part of the drain.

The role of snow is considerable only in the nutrition of rivers Caucasus (mainly snow in the west, mixed with the predominance of snow in the east). Therefore, there is a spring flood on small and low-water rivers close to Eastern European, and in the East - Kazakhstan types. In the foothills, the value of the classic of the largest rivers of the predfabcasia - Kuban (at the expense of the left tributaries) and Terek (tributaries on the right), which leads to the emergence of the North Caucasian type of flooding rivers. In all foothills Big and Small Caucasus Rivers of Altai type with multiphase floors are common. In the highlands of the Great Caucasus, the leading role is moving towards the glacial nutrition of the Tianzhansky type rivers. IN Transcaucasia and in the Black Sea coastunder the influence of the rainmaking rivers of the Crimean and the Black Sea type of flooding regime. Finally, on Armenian Highlandswith a general low-breeder, the mixed nutrition rivers are observed with a predominance of groundwater due to the migration of groundwater from the mountainous nutrition to the reduced areas of the Highlands. Such migration has become possible only due to the strong fracture of effusive rocks. Under the influence of geological structure and relief, the external characteristics of the rivers are changed - from extremely stormy rivers of the Alpine type to calm flat segments. Numerous and diverse lake Caucasus: Carrots, Tectonic (Sevan, Rice), Karst, Valley and Realistic (Manch-Goudlo, Palestomy). Wetlands focused on the west of the Predog Caucasus (Swamps and Plave Basin Kuban) and the Transcaucasia (Colchis), as well as in the coastal sections of the Caspian Sea (Lankaran, Dagestan).

Modern glaciation Significantly inferior to Pleistocene. It is focused on the central (between the Elbrus and the Kazbek region) and the West Caucasus. The area of \u200b\u200bglaciers on the northern slope of the Big Caucasus is three times superior to those of the southern slope. Not only radiation sides are promoted, but the transfer of snow to the northern slope of the wind. With a variety of types of glaciers of significant sizes, only valley (12 - 15 km long) reaches. Researchers state a noticeable reduction in the area of \u200b\u200bglaciers in the X1x - XX centuries. Meanwhile, the glaciation has a huge landscape-forming value.

Biogenic components of nature . The long history of the geological development of the Caucasus imparted a print on his modern living nature. Islated Isolation in Baikal - Mesocynezoic time contributed to the formation and preservation of endemic species, and a favorable climate of the modern time - extra-bearer and Pleistocene relict plants and animals. In the latest time, when installing land connections with Europe, the Mediterranean, the Turanian plain and the overseas highlands, the flora and fauna Eastern European, Mediterranean, overseas, low-immiginal and Turansian desert representatives. Simultaneously under the influence of various and unique features of the Caucasian nature, specific Caucasian childbirth and species were formed. As a result, the wildlife is extremely rich in species. Only vegetation is represented by more than 6000 species (on the enormous territory of the Russian plain about 3,500 of the Russian plain).

In the placement of soils, vegetation and animal world, latitudinal zonality, long-term provinciality and high-altitude explanancy are manifested. Z. calus-provincial structure Nature plains traced fragmentary, it is experiencing a strong impact of the relief. In the predfaccise, the change of forest-steppes, steppes and semi-desert is fully controlled by relief. Here there is an inversion of the zones: the stove dominant in the northern sections in its southern, the foothill part is replaced by an oak forest-steppe. At the same time, as the climate aridity increases, the soils are changed to the east (chernozems \u003d dark rubbish \u003d light-bright), vegetation (forest-steppe \u003d diverse-cereal steppe \u003d naughty steppe \u003d porroductinoslase semi-desert \u003d long-haired desert), which, Along with the change in climate, morphostructures, the water regime leads to a complete change of zonal landscapes (alternation of forest-steppe and steppe plots \u003d semi-desert \u003d desert of a moderate belt).

On the plains of the Transcaucasia, as they displaced the East, sequentially placed: a. COLCHIDE OLOVOHOVOVA FIRE AND MARS WITH DOPLECTIONSESTUCENEES (LAPINA, TREAT-AREA FOURTEN) and PLEISOTOSE REALITY (ROSYANKA, SFAGNUM) On marsh and alluvial soils \u003d Mountain areas with high-dimensional explanancy \u003d b. Kura- Araksinsky ephemerehy-semi-staple (wormwood fragrant) foothill forest-steppe on mountain brown and brown soils \u003d c. Subtropical deserts are hollow-halofithic (wormwood fragrant, hydrogen mountain) with the participation of ephemers and ephemeeroids on saline serozes.

For high resistanceThe Caucasus is also characterized by noticeable provincial differences due to an increase in climate aridity to the east. On the northern slope of the large Caucasus there is a steppe-semi-deplex type of high-altitude lower; In the southern slope and in the mountains of the Transcaucasia prevails the subtropical type. The structure of the high-altitude explanation has various options, so for its characteristics we use mainly data on the northern slope of the Big Caucasus.

Its complexity is due to the southern position of the mountains (determining the type of explanation) and their significant height. The boundaries of high-altitude belts are located on the lowest heights in the western part of the mountain facility; Consistently moving everything above, they reach maximum heights at the extreme east. Below 2000 - 2500 m of the belt is often expanding or, on the contrary, narrowed, tight, replaced with analogues (beech forests - wide forests of diverse composition, dark-haired - light-dual forests, mountain forests - mountain steps, etc.). In contrast, above the border of the forest under the influence of the free troposphere natural conditions are aligning, high-rise belts are distinguished by decorated. Another osbency of the explanation structure is a qualitative originality (provincial features) of high-rise belts, characteristic only for the Caucasus.

The dominant position is occupied by a mining belt, common from the footies up to 2000 - 2500 m. At the bottom of the belt on both slopes, broader diverse forests (oak, beech, rabb, linden, chestnut) on brown mining soils are located. The role of beech rises with height, which leads to the emergence of "clean" beech forests, under the canopy of which are damp, dusk, and almost absent herbal undergrowth. On the southern macroscone of the Greater Caucasus, the scolding colchis lowland, in the composition of the belt of large forests grow collid forest From Georgian Oak, Noble Chestnut, Caucasian Grab, other large trees, pears, apple, persimmon, Lavra and others. The relict nature of the Kolkhidsky forest is emphasized by the composition of evergreen shrub tier (Samshat, Ilitian, Lavirovnya, Cracker Kolkhidaya). Outside the large Caucasus have a relict nature girkan forests Northern Slope of Talysh Mountains (Alder, Chesttonal Oak, Endemic Iron Tree, Caucasian Grab, Zellkva, Ilitian and others).

The high-altitude belt of coniferous forests is expressed fragmentary in the western part of the Caucasus. The gantry belt is represented by two options: light-kinny (pine forests) and dark-haired (Caucasian fir and fir).

In some areas of the mining belt in the conditions of the arid climate, its specific counterparts arise. On the northern slope of the Eastern Caucasus (internal or carbonate dagestan) with a sharply decreasing amount of precipitation (on average, 400 mm) on the site of the mining belt dominate the mountaineating landscapes on mountain chernozem. In the same place, as well as in the Black Sea Caucasus, xerophyte shrubs type of shiblyak and friganes are common below the belt of broad forest forests, as well as xerophyte edging and dry Nagorna steppes.

The subalpiic belt is represented by high shrubs (juniper, Caucasian Rhododendron), birch cryproin, saber-shaped beech and highly embresented subalpiy meadows (umbrella, bells, Caucasian lilies). Low alpine meadows are dominated in Alpine Zlakov, Osks and Difficulture.

Physical geographical zoning. Already noted the boundaries and composition of the physico-geographical country of the Caucasus. The main criteria for its allocation are the following.

A. Geotectonic unity of the territory as a Cenozoic folded structure as part of the Alpine-Himalayan geosynclinal folded system.

B. Morphostructure the originality and internal unity of the region is a combination of the morphostructures of folded, folding-lump mountains and a variety of plains with a subordinate value of the second. The Caucasus morphostructure is especially clearly opposed to the Caucasus of the Morphostructure of the Russian Plain.

V. Macroclimatic specificity is predominantly the subtropical climate of the Caucasus, sharply different from the climate of the moderate belt most of the territory of the former USSR.

G. The domination of the high-negle structure of the nature of the Caucasus instead of the zonal-provincial structure of the nature of the neighboring Russian plain.

History of North Caucasus

The North Caucasus, has long been attracted to itself the eyes of many neighboring countries and peoples. In the years in the century, the Kiev princes of Igor and Svyatoslav made hiking in these edges. Soon the Russian Tmutarakan Principality was created on Tamani. Feudal fragmentation and Mongol-Tatar Igo long suspended the further development of these ties.

Strengthening the Moscow state contributed not only to restoration, but also to a large extent to expanding the relations of the Russian people with the peoples of the North Caucasus in the XVI century. Many mountain peoples have already well understood that to defend their independence from constant threats from Persia, Turkey and the Crimea subject to her only together with the Russian people. To strengthen its position in the North Caucasus and protecting local peoples from external enemies, the Russian government in the middle of the XVI century sent well-armed troops of Streltsov and Cossacks there. Soon the Russian towns of fortifications appeared along the shores of the Terek river, which made the chain of defensive frontiers. At the same time, they served and the place of trade in settlers with the mountaineers. By the XVIII century, many thermal fortifications are outdated. Peter I, who visited here during the Persian campaign in 1722, gave an order to disappear. Instead, new fortifications were put on the shores of Terek and Sulaca rivers. In 1635, the city of Kizlyar arose, which became a military administrative center in the North Caucasus.

This train schedule on the Caucasian - Krymskaya route is informative and does not contain operational changes related to repair work and other circumstances. When planning a trip, it is recommended to clarify the schedule at the help desk.

Train schedule Caucasian - Crimea

Currently, the Caucasian Crimean train schedule consists of flights in quantity 2: direct trains - 0, passing - 2. These are flights 377Y, 677С - the fastest of them 377m Moscow-Paveletskaya Novorossiysk, who overcomes the distance along the Caucasian Krymskaya route for 0 d 5 h 36 min, the slower goes the train 677s Vladikavkaz Novorossiysk, departure at 22:55. The number of stops on the route Caucasian Crimean ranges from 7 to 8, depending on the train schedule and averages 7. On the following path, the composition makes stops according to the schedule on average every 51 minutes. From the Caucasian Station, trains are sent in the morning - 02:39 and in the afternoon - 22:55. All trains travel from Caucasian stations, and arrive at the Crimean stations.