One who is considered a bad lecturer. Five "deadly sins" of the lecturer. does not know the specific audience, approaches to it, its needs

The basis of the culture of speech is the literary language. It constitutes the highest form of the national language. It is the language of culture, literature, education, mass media.

Literary language serves various spheres of human activity. Let's name the main ones: politics, science, culture, verbal art, education, legislation, official business communication, informal communication of native speakers (everyday communication), international communication, press, radio,

TV.

If we compare the varieties of the national language (vernacular, territorial and social dialects, jargons), then the literary language plays a leading role among them. It includes the best ways to designate concepts and objects, express thoughts and emotions.

There is a constant interaction between the literary language and non-literary varieties of the Russian language. This is most clearly seen in the sphere of colloquial speech. Thus, the pronunciation features of a particular dialect can characterize the colloquial speech of people who speak a literary language. In other words, educated, cultured people sometimes retain the features of a particular dialect for the rest of their lives, for example, okane (northerners), [y] fricative (southerners). And the pronunciation of unstressed [a] after solid hissing - f[a] ra, sh[a] ry - and the absence of assimilative softening, which are widespread in the speech of native speakers of the literary language, are now becoming the norm for the literary language.

Jargons have an impact on colloquial speech, especially in the field of vocabulary. For example, such slang words as fail, fall asleep (at the exam), kopeck piece (coin), swim at the blackboard (poorly answer), etc. have become widely used.

Finally, colloquial speech is influenced by the book styles of the literary language. In live direct communication, speakers can use terms, foreign vocabulary, words from the official business style (functions, react, absolutely, from the principle, etc.).

In the scientific linguistic literature, the main features of the literary language are highlighted. These include:

Processed (according to the figurative expression of M. Gorky, a literary language is a language processed by masters of the word, i.e. writers, poets, scientists, public figures);

Sustainability (stability);

Mandatory for all native speakers;

normalization;

The presence of functional styles.

Basics of speech culture -

§one. Oral and written speech

Russian literary language exists in two forms - oral and written. Each form of speech has its own specifics.

ORAL SPEECH

This is a sounding speech, it uses a system of phonetic and prosodic means of expression;

It is created in the process of speaking;

It is characterized by verbal improvisation and some linguistic features (freedom in the choice of vocabulary, the use of simple sentences, the use of incentive, interrogative, exclamatory sentences of various kinds, repetitions, incomplete expression of thought).

WRITTEN SPEECH

This is speech, graphically fixed;

It can be thought out and corrected in advance;

It is characterized by some linguistic features (the predominance of book vocabulary, the presence of complex prepositions, passive constructions, strict adherence to language norms, the absence of extralinguistic elements, etc.).

In one of the issues of the Journalist, a small reader's note was published under the title "Mistakes?" The author drew attention to one curious detail. When the materials of interviews, conversations, meetings at the "round table" are given in the press, the peculiarities of oral speech are not always taken into account. Speaking of an interview with a poet, a reader writes:

Beginning as beginning: the poet replies that Efim Zozulya was the editor of his first book. I emphasize: Efim. This is how it should be in a live conversation. And then: “He was also the head of the literary association at the magazine, which included M. Aliger, Evg. Dolmatovsky, M. Matusovsky...” and so on. Isn't it strange? Is that how they talked? This is how the poet said: “Evg. Dolmatovsky"? I don't believe it. Probably, the poet simply said: "Dolmatovsky" or "Eugene Dolmatovsky." I repeat: the conversation is the same (Journalist, 1982. No. 12. P. 60).

Unfortunately, even in public speeches, some speakers sometimes use

Culture and art of speech -

they just use initials. This, of course, is unacceptable, causing a negative reaction from the audience.

Oral speech differs from written speech also in the nature of the addressee. Written speech is usually addressed to those who are absent. The one who writes does not see his reader, but can only mentally imagine him. Written speech is not affected by the reaction of those who read it. On the contrary, oral speech presupposes the presence of an interlocutor. The speaker and the listener not only hear but also see each other. Therefore, oral speech often depends on how it is perceived. The reaction of approval or disapproval, the audience's remarks, their smiles and laughter - all this can affect the nature of the speech, change it depending on this reaction.

The speaker creates, creates his speech at once. He simultaneously works on content and form. The writer has the opportunity to improve the written text, return to it, change, correct.

The nature of the perception of oral and written speech is also different.

Written language is designed for visual perception. While reading, there is always the opportunity to reread an incomprehensible place several times, make extracts, clarify the meanings of individual words, and check the correct understanding of terms in dictionaries. Oral speech is perceived by ear. To reproduce it again, special technical means are needed. Therefore, oral speech should be constructed and organized in such a way that its content is immediately understood and easily assimilated by listeners.

Here is what I. Andronnikov wrote about the different perception of oral and written speech in the article “Word written and spoken”:

Basics of speech culture -

nose into the manuscript brought from home. But if you print the text of this lecture, it may be interesting. And it turns out that it is boring not because it is empty, but because written speech has replaced live oral speech in the department.

What's the matter here? The point, it seems to me, is that the written text is an intermediary between people when live communication is impossible between them. In such cases, the text acts as a representative of the author. But if the author is here and can speak himself, the written text becomes a hindrance in communication.

§2. Varieties of oral speech

The oral form of the literary language is presented in two of its varieties: colloquial speech and codified speech.

Spoken speech serves such a linguistic sphere of communication, which is characterized by: ease of communication; informality of relations between speakers; unprepared speech; direct participation of speakers in the act of communication; oral form as the main form of implementation; strong reliance on an extralinguistic situation, leading to the fact that the extralinguistic situation becomes an integral part of communication, "fused" into speech; the use of non-verbal means of communication (gestures and facial expressions); the fundamental possibility of the speaker-listener exchange [14, 12].

These features have a great influence on the choice of verbal and non-verbal means of communication for colloquial speech. For example, to the question "Well, how?" depending on the specific situation, the answers can be very different: “Five”, “Met”, “I got it”, “Lost”, “Unanimously”. Sometimes, instead of a verbal answer, it is enough to make a gesture with your hand, give your face the right expression, and the interlocutor understands what the partner wanted to say.

Unlike colloquial, codified speech is used mainly in official areas of communication (symposia, congresses, conferences, meetings, meetings, etc.). Most often, it is prepared in advance (delivery with a lecture, report, message, information, report) and not always

Culture and art of speech - __^

based on an extralinguistic situation. Codified speech is characterized by moderate use of non-verbal means of communication.

§3. Normativity of the literary language

The most important feature of the literary language is its normativity, which is manifested both in its written and oral form. The variety of definitions of this concept in the linguistic literature can be reduced to the following formulation: norm - a uniform, exemplary, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences); rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of the literary language.

Characteristic features of the norm of the literary language:

Relative stability, - prevalence,

Commonality, generality,

Correspondence to the usage, custom and possibilities of the language system.

Language norms are not invented by scientists. They reflect regular processes and phenomena occurring in the language and are supported by speech practice. The main sources of the language norm include the works of classical and contemporary writers, analysis of the language of the mass media, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, scientific research by linguists.

Norms help the literary language to maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional slang, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.

The literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. Language means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be ridiculous in another (official business communication). The norm does not divide the means of language into good and bad,

Basics of speech culture -

and indicates their communicative expediency.

Language norms are a historical phenomenon. The change in literary norms is due to the constant development of the language. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-20 years ago may become a deviation from it today. For example, in the 1930s and 1940s, the words graduate student and diploma student were used to express the same concept: "A student doing a thesis." The word diploma was a colloquial version of the word diploma. In the literary norm of the 1950s and 1960s, there was a distinction in the use of these words: the former colloquial graduate now denotes a student, a student in the period of defending a thesis, receiving a diploma. The word diplomat began to be called mainly the winners of competitions, prize-winners of reviews, competitions awarded with a diploma (for example, a diplomat of the All-Union Piano Competition, a diplomat of the International Vocal Competition)

The norm of the use of the word entrant has also changed. In the 1930s and 1940s, both those who graduated from high school and those who entered the university were called applicants, since both of these concepts in most cases refer to the same person. In the post-war years, the word graduate was assigned to those graduating from high school, and the word entrant in this sense fell into disuse. Applicants began to call those who pass the entrance exams at the university and technical school.

The history of the word dialectic is interesting in this respect. In the 19th century it was formed from the noun dialect and meant "belonging to this or that dialect". The adjective dialectical was also formed from the philosophical term dialectic. Homonyms appeared in the language: dialectical (dialectical word) and dialectical (dialectical approach). Gradually, the word dialectic in the sense of “belonging to one or another dialect” became obsolete, was replaced by the word dialectic, and the word dialectic was assigned the meaning “peculiar to dialectics; based on the laws of dialectics.

In one of the issues of the Literary Gazette, in an article on the correctness of speech, such a case was told. The lecturer got up on the podium and began to speak like this: “Some people spit on the norms of literary speech. We, they say,

Culture and art of speech -

everything is allowed, we say so as families, they will bury us like that. I shuddered when I heard this, but did not oppose ... "

At first the audience was perplexed, then there was a murmur of indignation, and finally there was laughter. The lecturer waited for the audience to calm down and said: “You are laughing in vain. I speak the best literary language. The language of the classics ... "And he began to quote, in which there were" incorrect "words from his lecture, comparing them with the testimony of dictionaries of that time. With this technique, the speaker demonstrated how the norm of the language has changed over more than 100 years.

Not only lexical, accentological, but also morphological norms change. Let's take for example the ending of the nominative case of the plural of masculine nouns: garden - vegetable gardens, garden - gardens, table - tables, fence - fences, horn - horns, side - sides, coast - coast, eye - eyes.

As you can see, in the nominative plural, nouns end in -ы or -а. The presence of two endings is associated with the history of declension. The fact is that in the Old Russian language, in addition to the singular and plural, there was also a dual number, which was used when it was about two objects: a table (one), tables (two), tables (several). Since the XIII century, this form begins to collapse and is gradually eliminated. However, traces of it are found, firstly, in the ending of the nominative plural of nouns denoting paired objects: horns, eyes, sleeves, shores, sides; secondly, the form of the genitive case of the singular of nouns with numerals two (two tables, two houses, two fences) historically goes back to the form of the nominative case of the dual number. This is confirmed by the difference in stress: two hours have not passed, two rows out of the row.

After the disappearance of the dual number, along with the old ending -ы, masculine nouns in the nominative plural had a new ending -а, which, as a younger one, began to spread and displace the ending -ы.

Basics of speech culture -

So, in modern Russian, the train in the nominative plural has the ending -a, while in the 19th century the norm was -s. “Trains on the railway stop due to heavy snowfall for four days,” N. G. Chernyshevsky wrote in a letter to his father on February 8, 1855. But the ending -a does not always win over the old ending -s. For example, the word tractor was borrowed in the 20th century from English, in which traktor is a suffixal derivative of the Latin traho, trahere - "pull, drag". In the 3rd volume of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, published in 1940, only tractors are recognized as a literary form, and the ending in -a (tractor) is considered colloquial. Twenty-three years later, the 15th volume of the Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language is published. In it, both forms (tractors and tractors) are given as equal, and after another twenty years, the Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language (1983) puts the ending -a in first place as more common. In other cases, the nominative plural in -a remains outside the literary language, qualifies as incorrect (engineer) or slang (driver).

If the old, original norm is denoted by the letter A, and the competing version by the letter B, then the competition between them for a place in the literary language takes place in four stages and graphically looks like this: Stage I

u "old. A

f * B - cont.

At the first stage, the only form A dominates, its variant B is outside the literary language and is considered incorrect. At the second stage, option B already penetrates the literary language, is considered acceptable (litter additional) and, depending on the degree of its distribution, qualifies as

Culture and art of speech - ____

colloquial (litter colloquial) in relation to the norm A or equal to it (litter I). At the third stage, the older norm A loses its dominant role, finally gives way to the younger norm B and passes into the category of obsolete norms. At the fourth stage, B becomes the only norm of the literary language. The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: live, colloquial speech; local dialects; vernacular; professional jargons; other languages.

The change of norms is preceded by the appearance of their variants that really exist in the language at a certain stage of its development, are actively used by its speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in the dictionaries of the modern literary language.

For example, in the Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language, accented variants of such words as normalize and normalize, mark and mark, thinking and thinking are fixed as equals. Some variants of the words are given with the corresponding marks: cottage cheese and (colloquial) cottage cheese, agreement and (simple) agreement. If we turn to the "Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language" (M., 1983), then we can follow the fate of these options. So, the words normalize and thinking become preferable, and normalize and thinking are labeled "additional." (permissible). Of the options to mark and mark, it becomes the only correct one to mark. In relation to cottage cheese and cottage cheese, the norm has not changed. But the variant of the contract from the vernacular form has moved into the category of colloquial, it has the mark "additional" in the dictionary.

Shifts in rationing are clearly seen in the example of the pronunciation of the combination - ch.

Let's represent it in the Word table

Talk. ate Russian lang. 1935-1940

Russian orthoepic dictionary. lang. 1983

everyday bakery diner toy on purpose

shn shn shn shn

[h] and add. [sh] [sh] and add. [h] [h] [h] [sh]

Basics of speech culture - decently

decent

creamy

add. obsolete [sn]

apple

As you can see, out of 10 words, only two (on purpose, scrambled eggs) retain the pronunciation [shn]; in one case (bakery), preference is given to the pronunciation [shn], but [ch] is also allowed, in two - both pronunciations are considered equal (see.

decent, decent), in the remaining five pronunciation [ch] wins, while in two words (snack bar, toy) it is considered the only correct one, and in three (everyday, creamy, apple) pronunciation [shn] is also allowed.

The indicators of various normative dictionaries give grounds to speak of three degrees of normativity:

norm 1 degree - strict, rigid, not allowing options;

the norm of the 2nd degree is neutral, it allows equivalent options;

the norm of the 3rd degree is more mobile, allows the use of colloquial, as well as obsolete forms.

The historical change in the norms of the literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual native speakers. The development of society, the change in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, the improvement of relations between people, the functioning of literature and art lead to the constant renewal of the literary language and its norms. -

ACCORDING TO THE WITNESS OF SCIENTISTS, THE PROCESS OF CHANGING THE LANGUAGE NORMS has become especially active in recent decades.

§four. Speaking the new norms you need to know

In speech, it is important to observe the norms of grammatical, lexical (vocabulary), orthoepic (pronunciation) and accentological (stress).

Grammatical norms are the rules for using morphological forms of different parts of speech and syntactic constructions.

Culture and art of speech

Basics of speech culture -

The most frequent grammatical errors associated with the use of the gender of nouns. You can hear the wrong phrases: railway rail, French shampoo, big callus, registered parcel, patent leather shoes. But after all, the nouns rail, shampoo are masculine, corn, parcel, shoe are feminine, so you should say: railway rail, French shampoo, big corn, custom-made parcel, patent leather shoe.

Not always correctly used in speech and verbs, for example, reflexive and irrevocable. So, in the sentences “The Duma should decide on the date of the meeting”, “Deputies should decide on the proposed bill”, the reflexive verb decide is colloquial. In the examples given, the verb should be used without -sya: "The Duma must determine the date of the meeting", "Deputies must determine their attitude towards the proposed bill." A colloquial vernacular shade has a verb to decide in a sentence like: "We need to decide", i.e. "We need to determine our attitude towards someone / something."

Violation of grammatical norms is often associated with the use of prepositions in speech. So, the difference in semantic and stylistic shades between synonymous constructions with prepositions due and thanks is not always taken into account. The preposition thanks retains its original lexical meaning associated with the verb thank, therefore it is used to indicate the reason that causes the desired result: thanks to the help of comrades, thanks to the correct treatment. With a sharp contradiction between the original lexical meaning of the preposition thanks and the indication of a negative reason, the use of this preposition is undesirable: he did not come to work due to illness. In this case, it would be more correct to say - because of the disease.

In addition, prepositions thanks to, contrary to, according to, according to modern norms of the literary language are used only with the dative case: “thanks to activity”, “against the rules”, “according to the schedule”, “towards the anniversary”.

Lexical norms require special attention,

i.e., rules for the use of words in speech. M. Gorky taught that the word must be used with the strictest precision. The word should be used in the meaning (literal or figurative) that it has and which is recorded in the dictionaries of the Russian language. Violation of lexical norms leads to a distortion of the meaning of the statement. Many examples of inaccurate use of individual words can be cited. So, the adverb somewhere has one meaning “in some place”, “it is not known where” (music started playing somewhere). However, recently this word has been used in the sense of “about, approximately, sometime”: “Somewhere in the 70s of the XIX century”, “Classes were planned to be held somewhere in June”, “The plan was completed somewhere by 102%.

A speech defect should be considered the frequent use of the word order in the meaning of "a little more", "a little less". In Russian, to denote this concept, there are words: approximately, approximately. But some use the word order instead. Here are examples from speeches: “Before the revolution, about 800 people studied in the city's schools, and now there are about 10 thousand”; “The living area of the erected houses is about 2.5 million square meters, and the green ring around the city is about 20 thousand hectares”; "The damage caused to the city is about 300 thousand rubles."

Words somewhere, order in the meaning of "about", "approximately" are often found in colloquial speech:

How many examples are on the topic?

Somewhere around 150.

How many printed sheets are checked?

About 3 printed sheets.

What weather is expected?

In the near future the weather will be somewhere around zero degrees. (Recording of oral speech).

Misuse of the verb lie instead of yugast is also a mistake. The verbs lay down and put have the same meaning, but put is a common literary word, and lie is colloquial. The expressions sound unliterary: “I put the book in place”, “He puts the folder on the table”, etc. In these sentences, the verb to put should be used: “I put the books in place”, “He puts the folder on the table”.

Culture and art of speech -

It is necessary to pay attention to the use of prefixed verbs put, add, add. Some people say “put it back”, “put the numbers together”, instead of the correct “put it back”, “add the numbers”.

Violation of lexical norms is sometimes associated with the fact that speakers confuse words that are similar in sound, but different in meaning. For example, the verbs to provide and present are not always used correctly. Sometimes we hear incorrect expressions like: "The word is presented to Petrov", "Let me give you Dr. Petrov." The verb to provide means “to give the opportunity to use something * (to provide an apartment, vacation, position, credit, loan, rights, independence, word, etc.), and the verb to present has the meaning “to transfer, give, present something, to anyone” (submit a report, certificate, facts, evidence; submit for an award, for an order, for a title, for a prize, etc.). The above sentences with these verbs correctly sound like this: "The floor is given to Petrov", "Let me introduce you to Dr. Petrov."

The nouns stalagmite and stalactite are sometimes misused. These words differ in meanings: stalagmite - a conical calcareous outgrowth on the floor of a cave, gallery (cone up); stalactite - a conical calcareous outgrowth on the ceiling or vault of a cave, gallery (cone down).

The words are different in their meaning: college / college (secondary or higher educational institution in England, USA) and college (secondary educational institution in France, Belgium, Switzerland); effective (effective, leading to the desired results) and spectacular (making a strong impression, effect); offensive (offending, insulting) and touchy (easily offended, inclined to see insult, insult where there are none).

To clarify the lexical norms of the modern literary language, it is recommended to take explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language, special reference literature: “The correctness of Russian speech. Dictionary-reference book” (compiled by Yu. A. Belchikov, M. S. Panyusheva); Difficulties in word usage and variants of the norms of the Russian literary language. Dictionary-reference book” (under the editorship of K. S. Gorbachevich); “Difficulties of the Russian language. Slo-

Basics of kulygura speech -

var-reference book of journalists” (under the editorship of L. I. Rakhmanova); “Grammatical correctness of Russian speech. Experience of the frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants” (K. L. Graudina, V. A. Itskovich, L. P. Katlinskaya) and

A language norm is not a dogma that claims to be strictly enforced. Depending on the goals and objectives of communication, on the peculiarities of the functioning of language means in a particular style, in connection with a certain stylistic task, a conscious and motivated deviation from the norm is possible. Here it is appropriate to recall the words of our remarkable linguist Academician L. V. Shcherba:

When a sense of the norm is instilled in a person, then he begins to feel all the charm of justified deviations from it (emphasized by us. - Auth.) (Russian speech. 1967. No. 1. P. 10).

Any deviations from the norm should be situationally and stylistically justified, reflecting the variant forms that really exist in the language (colloquial or professional speech, dialectal deviations, etc.), and not the arbitrary desire of the speaker.

Control questions and tasks

1. What is "literary language"? What areas of human activity does it serve?

2. What are the main features of the literary language.

3. How does oral speech differ from written language?

4. Define the concepts of "colloquial speech", "codified speech". .

5. Give a definition of the concept of "norm of the literary language." List the characteristic features of the norm

6. Tell us about the variants of the norms of the literary language.

7. Describe the grammatical, lexical norms of the literary language.

Culture and art of speech -

If a person goes on a love date and reads his beloved an explanation from a piece of paper, she will laugh at him. Meanwhile, the same note sent by mail can touch her. If a teacher reads the text of his lesson from a book, this teacher has no authority. If an agitator uses a cheat sheet all the time, you can know in advance - this one does not agitate anyone. If a person in court begins to testify on a piece of paper, no one will believe these testimonies. A bad lecturer is one who reads with his nose buried in a manuscript brought from home. But if you print the text of this lecture, it may be interesting. And it turns out that it is boring not because it is empty, but

because written speech replaced live oral speech in the department.

What is the matter here? The point, it seems to me, is that the written text is an intermediary between people when live communication is impossible between them. In such cases, the text acts as a representative of the author. But if the author is here and can speak himself, the written text becomes a hindrance in communication.

I do not want to say that living speech cancels written speech. A diplomatic note, a telegram or a report rich in numbers should not be recited by heart. If an author comes on stage to read a novel, no one expects him to tell it. And naturally, he would sit down and read it. Both in front of a live audience and in front of an imaginary one - on radio, on television. But the whole point is that a text read or memorized, and then recited by heart, is not the text, not the words, not the structure of speech that are born in direct living speech simultaneously with thought. For writing does not mean "speaking with paper." Speaking is not the same as speaking out loud. These are very different processes.

You can compose an article, a novel, a play, locking yourself away from everyone. But a conversation without an interlocutor will not work. And you can't speak in an empty room. And if you do rehearse it, then imagining the audience, that particular audience, in front of which you are going to speak. And yet, at the moment of the performance, other colors will appear, other words, otherwise a phrase will be built - improvisation will begin, without which live speech is impossible and what distinguishes it so much from written speech.

But what nevertheless distinguishes this oral improvisation, in which your thoughts are embodied, from the speech written by you, setting out the same thoughts?

First of all, intonation, which not only vividly expresses the speaker's attitude to what is being discussed, but can give completely different shades to the same words, infinitely expand their semantic capacity. To the extent that the word will acquire a direct opposite meaning. Let's say, the goalkeeper drove the puck into his own net, and they shout to him: “Well done, come on again! There is no other like it!" But the irritated-ironic intonation or mockingly good-natured rethinks these words.

What else distinguishes spoken language? It is always addressed - addressed to a specific audience. And therefore, in principle, it is the best and shortest way of expressing thoughts in this particular situation ... If the audience is in front of you, it is easier for you to build a speech, a lesson, a lecture. Because you understand who is sitting in front of you ... It is clear to you how and what to say to this audience. And it is easy for her to follow your thought, because you adapt to her, to the audience, and not she to you. If you start reading, the audience will have to strain their attention, because you are no longer addressing them, but to some imaginary reader ... And if you also do not master this complex art (the art of reading), then you will read inexpressively, with monotonous , "lulling" intonations. Consequently, if you began to read, the audience no longer listens to live speech, but to a mechanical reproduction of what was written.

In oral speech, we can emphasize any word with intonation. And without changing the order of words, emphasize any word, while changing the meaning of the phrase. You can say: “I’m on duty today (not you)”, I’m on duty today (not tomorrow)”, I’m on duty today (I can’t go to the cinema)”.

In written speech, for this it is necessary to change the order of words in a phrase, or each time to highlight the stressed word in font ...

This is not enough: oral speech is accompanied by an expressive gesture. When we say yes, we nod our heads in the affirmative. "No" is followed by a negative "shaking" of the head. And other words cannot be said without the help of a gesture. Try saying "Go there" without pointing your finger or head where you want to go. I have not yet talked about facial expressions, which emphasize and enhance the effect of the spoken word. All the behavior of a speaking person - pauses in speech, casually dropped phrases, a smile, laughter, surprised gestures, furrowed eyebrows - all this expands the capacity of the sounding word, reveals more and more new semantic reserves, makes speech unusually accessible, visual, expressive, emotional. That is why, when they say: "I heard Gorky himself when he made a report," we understand very well that this is more than the same report read in a book. “He heard the living Mayakovsky” - this is also not just poetry in a book.

But, in order to speak in front of an audience, you need to have a very important quality - the ability to think publicly. This is difficult, because the speaker often gets worried in front of a large or new audience, and in order to formulate thoughts in the process of speech, you need to control yourself, be able to concentrate, subordinate your attention to the main thing, remember that you are working. Knowing in advance what you want to say, you need to speak freely, not worrying about whether you get a harmonious phrase, and not trying to pronounce a text written and memorized at home. If you do not clothe the thought in a living phrase that is born right there, in the process of speech, there will be no contact with the audience.

However, this does not mean at all that you can climb the pulpit or tribune without being prepared. Not at all! It is necessary to prepare for a speech carefully and not only think it over, but maybe even write a test, but not to read it or remember it verbatim, but speak without fear that the phrase will turn out not as “smooth” as the written one, that it is there will be other, not rounded periods, that the speech will have a different style. This is a good style - conversational. Words will immediately reinforce live, uninvented intonations, a gesture will appear, a pause, a look turned to the audience - there will be contact and that persuasiveness that only a word has at this moment, in this audience.

Post-text assignments:

1. Determine the topic and the main idea (idea) of this reasoning.

2. Specify the type of speech and its features.

2. Working with text. Read the text. Title the text. Make a plan for the text.

Malaria has always been considered one of the most difficult problems in medicine. The spread of this disease throughout the world, the millions of victims that it claimed, of course, attracted the great attention of scientists from different countries.

It was a truly heroic epic, because. to resolve a number of important issues, scientists went to the heroic experiments that they put on themselves. One can only very briefly list the most important historical milestones in the history of the study of malaria and the development of methods to combat it.

Malaria appeared on our planet about 4-12 thousand years ago, after the climate changed, and a large number of lakes formed where mosquitoes could breed.

In 1880, the French scientist Alphonse Laveran discovered the causative agent of malaria, the malarial Plasmodium. In 1884, the Russian scientist V.Ya. Danilevsky discovered Plasmodium malaria in birds. This discovery made it possible to experimentally study many issues related to the nature of malaria, especially the experimental study of the prevention and treatment of this disease.

The facts of malaria treatment of other diseases, in particular, psychoses, are extremely interesting. In 1917, the famous Austrian psychiatrist Julius Wagner-Jauregg instilled malaria for therapeutic purposes in patients with syphilis during the period of progressive paralysis already developing. This method saved more than one patient and at the same time was another proof of the transmission of the disease through the blood of a malaria patient.

At the end of 1925, from the English psychiatric hospital in Gorton (near Epsom), a message came about the treatment of patients with progressive paralysis with a special malarial strain. The results of vaccinations carried out from July to October 1925 gave a positive result in almost 100 percent of cases.

The Viennese psychiatrist Wagner-Jauregg was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1927 for the treatment of progressive paralysis with malarial therapy.

For a very long time, the question remained unresolved: how does infection occur? By the middle of the 19th century, various theories were discarded: “swamp”, “drinking”, “miasmatic”, etc. Only the “mosquito” theory remained. In 1848, it was suggested that malaria, like yellow fever, was transmitted by mosquitoes.

But all the assumptions about the role of mosquitoes in the transmission of malaria were not supported by conclusive evidence.

The final role of mosquitoes in the transmission of malaria to humans was proved by the English scientist Ronald Ross in 1895-1897. Following him, the Italian zoologist Giovanni Battista Grassi clarified that the carrier of the causative agent of malaria are female mosquitoes from the Anopheles genus, feeding on the blood of humans or animals. This basically closed the circle of ideas about the features of malaria as an infectious disease.

The history of the fight against malaria is extremely rich in tense dramatic situations.

The first who decided to investigate malaria with the help of an experiment on himself was Ross's assistant, the young doctor Appiah. His experience is simple. He let himself be bitten by mosquitoes, which had previously sucked the blood of a malaria patient. However, the experiment is unknown for what reasons failed.

A year later, in Italy, Grassi repeated this experiment on himself. On this occasion, he wrote: “When I took up the study of malaria, I considered it necessary to undertake experiments on humans. However, I was unable to overcome the inner protest that has always been and still is caused in me by any experiments on a person that could harm him. So I decided to make the first experiment on myself.

The first intentional infection with malaria through a mosquito bite was carried out by Grassi's student, Professor Amigo Bignami in Bologna. In 1908, he was able to prove that the Anopheles mosquito (malarial mosquito), which had previously sucked the blood of a malarial patient, could infect a healthy person.

To test the assertion of the Viennese doctors, Professor Erich Martini of the Hamburg Institute of Tropical Medicine, a brilliant zoologist, physician and specialist in malaria, set up several experiments. He ordered a batch of mosquitoes infected with malaria in Vienna and conducted a series of experiments with them on himself and on his voluntary assistants. One experience followed another. Our local doctors also took part in them.

So, N.A. Sakharov, who discovered special forms of pathogens of tropical malaria, experimented on himself and fell ill with a severe form of tropical malaria. Well-known domestic malariologist V.V. Favre studied malaria for many years. He was particularly interested in the role of mosquitoes in the transmission of malaria to humans. V.V. Favre, on one of his expeditions, in the center of malaria, subjected himself to mosquito bites and became seriously ill. Only the selfless activity of his disciples saved his life.

3. Work in small groups. Exercise 1. When disclosing this thesis, use the following means of communication: a) firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally; b) in my opinion, in my opinion; c) certainly, undoubtedly, without a doubt; d) however, also, by the way; e) so, therefore, therefore. Write out sentences with temporary constructions from the text.

Task 2. Special opinion. Get acquainted with the opinion of the famous Russian writer, Nobel Prize winner AI Solzhenitsyn. Prepare for a discussion. The state structure must certainly take into account the traditions of the people. The people have an undoubted right to power, but the people do not want power, but stable order. Plato, followed by Aristotle identified and named three possible types of government: it is a monarchy, the power of one; aristocracy, power of the best and for the best purposes; and power of the people (democracy). They also warned about the forms of degradation of each of the three types: into tyranny, into oligarchy; into democracy, mob power. All three forms can be good if they serve for the benefit of people. Since then, no one seems to have created anything practical. We must choose democracy. Choosing democracy, we must clearly understand what exactly we chose and at what price. And we choose as a means, not as an end. The modern philosopher Karl Popper said: "We choose democracy only to avoid tyranny."

Aristotel (384-322 BC) - ancient Greek philosopher and scientist Plato (428-348 BC) - ancient Greek philosopher.

Monarchy is a form of government in which the supreme power belongs to the sole ruler.

DEMOCRACY is a political system based on the recognition of the principles of democracy, freedom and equality of citizens.

Degradation is the degeneration of personality.

Tyranny is rule based on arbitrariness and violence.

Task 3. Explain the meaning of medical terms, translate them into Kazakh.

Malaria, Plasmodium, pathogen, psychosis, syphilis, paralysis, yellow fever, psychiatrist, experience, experiment, scientist.

3. Situational task. Do you agree with the statement that no one knows the limits of his mind? Justify your answer..

6. Literature:

Main literature:

Additional literature:

Topic number 44. Compositional-semantic structure of scientific text. Expanded content plan. An outline of folded, concise content.

2. Goals: to give an idea about the plan of detailed content (introduction, main part, conclusion), the development of the logic of thought and the plan of folded (compressed) content (title of the work, abstract and table of contents);

3. Learning objectives:

The student must know:

- formation of skills in drawing up detailed and compressed plans

The student must be able to:

To formulate research problems, a presentation of the initial data on the subject of speech, on the tasks and methods of research, the author's assessment of their solution, to formulate new knowledge, which will determine the further perception of the content of the text by the addressee.

4. Main questions of the topic:

1. Compositional and semantic structure of a scientific text.

1. Plan for detailed content.

2. A plan of folded, condensed content.

The structure of a scientific work is determined by the logic of thought. It is the logic of scientific research that determines the main structural elements of each scientific work, its composition and rubrication (dividing the text into its constituent parts, graphic separation of one part from another, as well as the use of headings, numbering, etc.) Rubrication in a scientific work reflects the logic of scientific research.

The entire course of scientific research can be represented in the form of the following logical scheme:

Substantiation of the relevance of scientific research and a positive effect (substantiation of a hypothetical novelty and a positive effect that can be achieved as a result of solving the proposed scientific problem);

Identification of the subject (object) of research (the subject of research is an empirical or abstract object, previously described or still known to science);

Choice of a method (technique) for conducting research (a research method is a set of actions taken by a researcher to solve a scientific problem);

Description of the research (experiment) process (proposing and substantiating a hypothesis is associated with the use of various types of inferences: comparison, analysis, modeling, induction in its various forms, deduction);

Discussion of research results (to solve a scientific problem means to prove or disprove a given statement, to derive possible consequences);

Formulation of conclusions (the result obtained is the solution of a scientific problem, which is formulated in a scientific work as a conclusion, the conclusions state the consequence arising from the work done).

This logical scheme, of course, varies depending on the field of science, genre and, to some extent, on the individual style of the author, which in turn determines the composition and rubrication of a scientific work.

Composition is the structure, ratio and relative position of the parts of the work.

Compositionally, any scientific work, regardless of the field of science and genre, contains two interrelated parts - descriptive (review) and main. The descriptive (review) part reflects the course of scientific research, while the introduction provides a justification for the relevance of scientific research, formulates the subject and the chosen method of research, sets out the history of the issue (if necessary) and the expected result.

The main part of the scientific work highlights the methodology and technique of research, the result achieved. All materials that are not essential for understanding the problem are included in the appendix.

The choice of the composition of a scientific work, its detailing depends on a number of factors - on the type of scientific problem being solved, the chosen research method, the field of science, genre, traditions, the individual style of the author, etc. Thus, for example, the composition of a scientific work in mathematics naturally differs from the composition of a scientific work in history.

The scientific work consists of three sections: 1.2.3.

The number indicates the section. The section is divided into chapters:

1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4…

2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4…

3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4…

The first number indicates the section, the second - the chapter.

The chapter is divided into sections:

1..1.1, 1.1.2, 1.1.3…

1.2.1, 1.2.2, 1.2.3, 1.2.4.

1.3.1, 1.3.2, 1.3.4…

The first number is a section, the second is a chapter, and the third is a paragraph. Accordingly, the paragraphs of the chapters of the second and third sections are designated:

2.1.1., 2. 1. 2, 2.1.3, 2.1.4…

2.2.1, 2.2.2, 2.2.3, 2.2.4…

The use of such a numbering system makes it possible not to use the words "part", "section", "chapter", "paragraph", etc. Headings and subheadings are also important means of rubricating. The title is always a structural element of the text. It allows you to reflect the subject of a scientific work in an extremely brief form. Often its main idea. The title should be short (unambiguous, non-contradictory).

2. The plan can be simple and detailed, or complex when the content of its main points is revealed.

When compiling simple plan you need to formulate the main idea of each paragraph: find a keyword and transform it into an abstract noun, stringing dependent words to it, and you will get a plan in a nominal form. It is easy to convert a naming plan into an interrogative one, and vice versa.

When compiling complex plan the text must be divided into compositional parts: introductory, main and final. Then, in each compositional part, it is necessary to formulate the main idea, which will be the title. Each of the compositional parts can combine two or more paragraphs, which reflect (reveal) certain aspects of the problem reflected in the title (each of the compositional) parts

A detailed content plan is drawn up for dissertations, theses, and various studies.

A detailed plan is implemented by breaking down the text into compositional blocks: introduction, main part, conclusion. The detailed plan formally expresses the development of the logic of thought.

The introduction is the formulation of the research problem, the presentation of the initial data necessary for the reader about the subject of speech, the research task, the author's assessment of the ways to solve it.

The main part is devoted to the disclosure, detailing, proof of the main provisions of the work. First, information of an overview nature is given, then - new information. Provides and explains information about the results of the study. Conclusion (conclusions) is a summary of the main conceptual content of the work, as well as a brief statement of the main conclusions.

Presentation , work with text , work in small groups

1. Work with text. Read the text.

The text is a product of creativity, it occurs when the language is used in life or in fiction. This text differs from such phenomena as a word, a phrase, a sentence, a parallel connection of sentences, a paragraph. They belong to the structure of the language, and the text belongs to the sphere of its use. The meaning of the text is created from the language, but is created in the process of creativity. And creativity is any of our statements, because every time we re-select the words that we need to express our thoughts, we choose the syntactic construction that will help us convey the thought with the greatest accuracy and realize the choice - this is creativity. As M.M. Bakhtin, an utterance is not a reflection or expression of something already prepared. “It always creates something that has never been before it, absolutely new and unique: moreover, always related to value (and truth, goodness, beauty, etc.). A whole utterance is no longer a unit of language, but a unit of speech communication, which has not meaning, but meaning.

And we penetrate into the meaning of the text through its linguistic fabric, while noticing how the language serves to convey the meaning.

(R.I. Albetkova "Studying the topic of text" at the lesson of literature. Russian language No. 31, 2001)

Post-text assignments:

1. Highlight the semantic parts in the text and title them.

2. Convey the main meaning of the text in one complex sentence.

3.Determine the type and style of the text.

2. Working with text. Read the text.

Psychologists call adolescence the most difficult age. At this time, many things change in a person. He realizes that he does not want to live the way adults impose on him. But he still can not clearly define life guidelines. He wants to enter the big world, find his own place in it, and at the same time subject this world to severe criticism. The thoughts and desires of a teenager during this period are contradictory, incomprehensible to him.

Knowing oneself, understanding responsibility for one's actions is the basis for the formation of a teenager's personality. Previously, actions were performed impulsively, under the influence of instantaneous feelings. The child sincerely asserted that "the cup fell by itself", but the problem "was not solved". The only desire at the same time was that the storm would pass as soon as possible and the parents would stop being angry. But now, even if no troubles have happened, the painful process of experiences, reflection on one's actions begins.

This also happens because adolescence is associated with the need for external evaluation, recognition of the importance of one's own personality. A mature person wants to know what he really is. There is an interest in their own inner world. To himself, he seems not like everyone else, but special, striving to become an individual. His feelings are contradictory, they can range from confidence in his genius to disbelief in himself.

Living through this difficult period, a teenager grows up: he realizes himself in a new way and tries to make serious decisions on his own. He gains experience in communicating with others and enters adulthood with the most valuable personality traits: a sense of responsibility, conscientiousness, awareness of his own uniqueness.

Ppost-text assignments:

1. Title the text.

2. Highlight the semantic parts in the text.

3. Write down the key phrases for each paragraph.

4. Make a simple (name and question), complex plans.

Write out terms from the text. Use a terminological dictionary to define them.

3. Work in small groups . Read the text and express your thoughts.

Henry Ford (1863-1947) Ford's life story exemplifies and exemplifies the traditional American dream come true. In America, such people are called "a man who made himself." Born near Dearborn, Michigan, he died a billionaire at the age of 83. His life is full of contradictions. He was a brilliant organizer who doubled the workers' minimum wage, shortened their working hours, and introduced two rolling days off, 11 12 57, to speed up the workflow. He also hired scammers who spied on the workers and fought the unions with brute force and terror. Ford's personal life is also controversial. He always acted as a strict guardian of morality and the foundations of family life, but at the same time there is evidence that an illegitimate child was born from him. Ford's family life seems just perfect. He saw Clara Jane Bryant, a farmer's daughter, at a party in a small town, and fell in love with her at first sight. When they got married, he was 24 years old, and she was 22. After 4 years of marriage, they had a child. Clara was a smart, calm woman, and Ford, who devoted himself to his work, always felt her care and support. Clara, of course, never interfered in her husband's actions. Only once did Clara try to influence Ford's decision. She literally begged him to stop the war with the unions. Ford followed his wife's advice. During her life, Clara spent millions of dollars on charitable causes and darned Ford's socks even when he was already a millionaire. Clara died in 1950, three years after Ford's death. The appearance of John Dalinger's The Secret Life of Henry Ford in 1978 was a bombshell. In the book, John claims that he was born in 1923 and that his father is Henry Ford. According to Dalinger, Ford immediately noticed a beautiful young girl named Evangeline Kote when she started working in an office at his factory. Evangeline was 30 years younger than Ford, but this did not bother him at all. Soon he truly fell in love with her. Ford arranged for Evangeline to marry one of his employees, whose name was Ray Dalinger. When she had a child after some time. They named him John. Ford showered little John Dalinger with gifts and courtesies of all kinds, and he was always allowed to play with the billionaire's grandchildren. Once, when the artist needed a model to portray Ford as a child, Henry asked John to pose for the portrait, not one of his grandchildren. Both Evangeline and her husband held important positions in the Ford company until his death.

Remember!

Charitable - actions aimed at the public good. Moral - moral norms of behavior in relations with people, as well as morality itself. Turmoil - general sudden anxiety, excitement Contradiction - a statement or act directed against someone or something. Philanthropia - charitable activities, helping the poor and the needy.

Express your attitude to Ford using the following constructions: I think ... In my opinion ... I think ... I condemn Ford for ... It seems to me that ... I do not agree with the opinion that ... 6. Do you agree with opinion that every great personality is contradictory? 7. What positive qualities did Henry Ford have?

6. Literature:

Main literature:

1.Aikenova R.A. R.A. Russian language: a textbook for medical students. - Aktyubinsk, 2012.

2. Zhanpeis U.A. Russian language: Textbook for students of medical universities (bachelor's degree) - Almaty: Evero, 2012.

Additional literature:

1. Zhanalina L.K. Practical course of the Russian language: Textbook - Almaty, 2005.

2. Zueva N.Yu. A practical guide to the development of scientific speech skills: for universities in the humanities in 2 hours. Main course. Almaty, 2007 (electronic version)

3. Ippolitova, N. A. Russian language and culture of speech [Text]: textbook / N. A. Ippolitova, O. Yu. Knyazeva, M. R. Savova. - M. : Prospect, 2008. - 440 p. : ill.

4. Dairbekova S.A. My Motherland Kazakhstan// Textbook on the Russian language for students of Kazakh groups of non-linguistic universities. - Almaty, 2003.

5. Mukhamadiev H.S. A guide to the scientific style of speech. Russian language. - Almaty, 2009.

6. Tlegenova S.E. etc. Educational and methodological manual for students of the 1st course. - Almaty, 2006.

7. Akzhalov B.T. Stylistics of the Russian language and culture of speech. 2 parts - Semey, 2011. (electronic textbook)

8. Egeubaeva G.B., Akzhalov B.T. Collection of texts on the Russian language for oralman students. Textbook - Semey, 2013. (electronic version)

9. Kudaibergenova Zh.M., Akzhalov B.T. Practical course of the Russian language in the specialty "General Medicine". Textbook - Semey, 2013. (electronic version)

10. Russian language: textbook for students of the Kazakh departments of universities (bachelor's degree) / ed. K.K.Ahmedyarova, K.K.Zharkynbekova, - Almaty, 2008. (electronic textbook)

1. Theme number 45. Citation in the scientific field. Basic rules for quoting.

2. Purpose: get acquainted with the rules for using quotes, repeat the rules for formatting quotes.

3. Learning objectives:

The student must know:

What is a quotation.

- quotation rules

The student must be able to:

- developing skills in the ability to draw up quotations, developing interest in reading and analyzing literature in the specialty, expanding the scientific horizons of future specialists.

4. Main questions of the topic:

1. Citation in the scientific field.

2. Basic rules for quoting.

The seventh edition of the Dictionary of Foreign Words, published by the Russian language publishing house in 1979, gives the following definition:

A quotation is an exact, literal excerpt from a text.

A necessary condition for any scientific work is citation. A quote from an authoritative scientist confirms the correctness of your point of view, makes the report, abstract, term paper more weighty and significant. But here it is important to observe the measure.

The quote should support your point, not obscure it. The quotation is introduced into the text and for its refutation.

A quotation can be put into context in a variety of ways:

General requirements for cited material.

The quotation must be inextricably linked with the text (to prove or confirm the author's provisions).

The quotation must be given in quotation marks, exactly in the text, with the same punctuation marks and in the same grammatical form as in the original source. The omission of words, sentences, paragraphs when quoting is indicated by ellipsis. When quoting, it is not allowed to combine several passages taken from different places in one quotation. Each such passage should be presented as a separate quotation. When citing, each quotation should be accompanied by an indication of the source (bibliographic reference).

Basic rules for quoting. A quotation as an independent sentence (after a period ending the preceding sentence) must begin with an uppercase letter, even if the first word in the source begins with a lowercase letter. A quotation included in the text after a subordinating conjunction is enclosed in quotation marks and is written with a lowercase letter, even if in the cited source it begins with an uppercase letter.

If the sentence is not fully quoted, then ellipsis is used instead of the omitted text. Punctuation marks that precede omitted text are not preserved. A word or phrase can be quoted. In this case, it is enclosed in quotation marks and introduced into the sentence.

When quoting not from the original source, you should indicate: “cit. on:". As a rule, this is done only if the source is difficult to access (rare edition).

If you want to convey the author's thought in your own words (indirect quotation), you need to do this quite accurately, not forgetting to refer to it, for example: Only those who decide to remain ignorant are ignorant (Plato). Scientific citation rules: the more citations, the better There are no abstract citations.

Any quotation has its own rules, since it is used to achieve any specific goals. You can do without quotes.

But scientific citation or the use of fragments of works by other authors in an article, monograph of a scientist is a mandatory requirement. Without citations from the works of the classics of one or another scientific school, without demonstrating that the author is aware of the achievements of their chosen field of science, not a single scientific work can be considered serious. In scientific citation, a quotation looks like one or more excerpts from the works of other scientists, based on which the researcher illustrates his theses, confirms his assumptions, criticizes or disputes the arguments with which he does not agree. The more citations are given and the larger the list of references required in scientific citation, the more seriously the work is considered and the higher the score is given to its author.

Punctuation when citing Citation is widely used in the areas of socio-cultural communication, the norms of which prescribe carefully formatting quotations.

1. Quotes are given in quotation marks, showing the boundaries of someone else's speech.

3. If there are gaps in the quote, this is marked with an ellipsis. If there is already an ellipsis in the quote, then the ellipsis in parentheses is used when abbreviating it.

4. An indication of the source following the quotation is given in brackets. The dot is placed after the brackets. If the quote ends not with a dot, but with an ellipsis, question mark or exclamation point, then they are placed before the quotation marks.

5. Parts of phrases, words or combinations of words quoted in a sentence require quotation marks. They are not preceded by a colon. The exception is statements with the words phrase, sentence, statement, thought, etc.

6. Poetic quotations, if they are given with division into lines, are given without quotes. The author's name is given below.

Rules for the design of footnotes in scientific papers (abstracts, term papers and theses, abstracts, articles) The material was developed to increase the standardization of citation in qualifying, methodological and scientific papers in jurisprudence. Based on GOST R 7.05-2008, but has a simpler and more practical focus.

Citation in a scientific work Citation is the inclusion in a scientific work of a fragment of the text of another work, indicating the exact output data that allows you to find the work and the place from which the fragment of the text was taken.

When quoting, you should strive to:

Literally or close to the text to convey the meaning contained in the original fragment of the text (to preserve the meaning of the author of the work);

Indicate in a footnote all the output data for a particular form of work and the page of the work where the text fragment was taken (to facilitate the search for the source text by the reader);

Correctly format footnotes in a text editor Word.

The correct design of footnotes allows the supervisor to pay more attention to the content side of the work, which significantly improves its quality.

Types of quoting: Verbatim quoting In verbatim quoting, the statement is taken from the source text "as is" and is limited on both sides by quotation marks (""). The footnote number is placed between the second quote and the dot.

5. Methods of learning and teaching: presentation , work with text , work in small groups

1. Working with text. Read the text. Title it.

The main component of a civilized society is democracy. This word is of Greek origin. It means a form of government in which the entire people is endowed with supreme power and exercises it through their elected representatives or directly. The birthplace of democracy is Athens.

In the dictionary, "democracy" is defined as "a form of state-political structure of society based on the recognition of the people as a source of power."

In the words of Abraham Lincoln, democracy is "government by the people, by the people for the people."

The word "democracy" is often used together with the word "freedom". But these two words are not synonymous. Democracy is a population with democratic principles. Democratic principles are the concept that most people consider the most important in a democratic society.

The pillars of democracy are the following democratic principles:

Democracy;

Majority rule while protecting the minority;

Guarantees of fundamental human rights;

Free and fair elections;

Equality of all before the law;

Openness of power, responsibility before the law;

Social, economic, political pluralism;

Control over the abuse of power;

Separation of powers.

No nation is physically capable of exercising power. On behalf of the people, this is done by its elected representatives: the Parliament, the President.

In a democratic society, there must be fair laws. In ancient Egypt they said: "The tranquility of the country is in justice."

Tasks for the text.

2. Work in small groups. Exercise 1. Arrange these sayings as quotations, accompanying them with the words of the author. Places where these words should be included are marked with "//".

1) // Democracy is government by the people for the sake of the people. (A. Lincoln)

2) Freedom is possible only with democracy, that is, with participation in the will accessible to all //. (K. Jaspers.)

3) Courage // is brought up from day to day in stubborn resistance to difficulties. (N.A. Ostrovsky)

Task 2. Form the genitive plural from the following words.

People, power, democracy, freedom, guarantee, meeting, task.

Task 3. Make up possible phrases using the given nouns and adjectives:

1. Write down a few phrases with different types of communication. Form word combinations according to the model.

Model: free man

2. Type of communication - coordination.

3. Type of phrase - nominal

4. Find complex sentences in the text, indicate the means of communication in them.

5. Answer the questions:

What is democracy?

What are the basic principles of democracy?

Is democracy an ideal political regime?

Task 4. Here is a type of quotation, tell the rules for quoting, write down the scheme.

2. Working with text. Read the text. What punctuation and graphic means are used in the given texts to distribute information? Comment on the functional purpose of the means used in the texts to convey basic, additional and background information (the text is taken from the textbook: Mechkovskaya N. B. Social Linguistics. M., 1996).

Can taboo1 be considered a “conscious influence on language”? Not every active attitude of people towards their language actually represents an impact on the language. For example, taboo in archaic societies is not an impact on the language, but an attempt to influence the phenomena of reality behind the language (the impact on the beast, illness, danger, deity).

Verbal taboos, apparently, could be of different origins. The prominent ethnographer and folklorist D.K. Zelenin believed that the first verbal prohibitions arose from the simple caution of primitive hunters: they thought that sensitive animals that understood human language could overhear them and therefore avoid traps or arrows (see: Zelenin 1929, 119 ). With the ancient ideas that animals understand human speech, Zelenin also associated negotiations with animals in everyday life, which later developed into spells.

The source of the taboo could also be the non-conventional (unconditional) interpretation of the sign by archaic consciousness: the ancient man treated the word not as a conditional, external mark of the object, but as its integral part (on the non-conventional perception of the sign by religious consciousness, see pp. 72-75). In order not to anger the "master of the taiga", to avoid illness or other misfortune, not to disturb the souls of the deceased, it was forbidden to pronounce "their" names.

This is how the magic of the word arose, witchcraft, in which the word is a tool, an instrument. Taboo words were replaced by euphemisms 2, but they were soon tabooed and replaced by new euphemisms - this led to a rapid renewal of the dictionary in antiquity (see pp. 144-151).

3. Work in small groups. Determine the theme and idea of the following quotes. Who do you think said it and when? Write your opinion on the thoughts quoted here.

I. Our young people love luxury, they are badly brought up, they mock the authorities and have no respect for the elderly.

II. I have lost all hope for the future of our country if the youth of today take the reins of government into their own hands, for these youth are unbearable, unrestrained, simply terrible.

III. Our world has reached a critical stage. Children no longer obey their parents. Apparently, the end of the world is not very far away.

IV. This youth is corrupt to the core. Young people are vicious and negligent. They will never be like the youth of old. The younger generation of today will not be able to preserve our culture.

(The first statement belongs to Socrates (470 - 399 BC), the second - to Hesiod (720 BC), the third - to an Egyptian priest who lived 2000 BC, the fourth found on a clay pot among the ruins of Babylon, the age of the pot is more than 3000 years.)