What formulated and Kant. Philosophy Available language: Cant philosophy. Impact on world history of philosophy

The name of Immanuel Kanta is familiar to us on the novel Mikhail Bulgakov "Master and Margarita". In the first chapter, a wonderful dialogue occurs between the wave and the Soviet writer Ivanushka the homeless, in which he offers to send a philosopher on the Solovki and is very upset that this is impossible. Unfortunately, on this acquaintance with the creative heritage of Cant ends, and this is not surprising. It is difficult to get through the debris of the meanings of the Königsbergian sage, but for a professional this name means much. Immanuel Kant led the European thought from the impasse of positivism and showed new horizons to understand reality.

Green man from Koenigsberg

One of the legends states that Kant appeared on the light with some strange body color - either green, or blue. This happened on April 22, 1724 in Prussian Königsberg, and no one believed that he would survive. By the way, the philosopher who swept the mind of the Miriad of the Universes, so never drove out of his hometown. Kant really had a weak health, and it enclosed it to subjugate his life to the strict regime. Kant did not hesitate to discuss his sores on lectures, leading them as examples. He never took medicine, solving his problems with volitional suggestions.

Passage in the towns became punctuality of Kant. Strictly at the same time, he passed past the city shops whose owners were twisted on him. He had nothing, except for talent for philosophizing and iron will, subordinated to this science. The artisan father died when Immanuel studied at the University of Königsberg. To feed the family, the young man is forced to interrupt training and earn a home teacher. He manages his thesis only in 1755, which gives him the right to teach at the university as an ordinary professor.

The Prussian King Friedrich lost Russians in a seven-year war, so from 1758 to 1762 Kant was a subject of Tsaritsa Elizabeth. At this fun time, Kant has not written anything. He himself took on a trip of several Russian officers, among whom were quite interesting interlocutors. Perhaps they discussed pyrotechnics and fortification, which was taken to teach Kant as a private teacher. However, he never loved the Russians, calling them the main enemies.

There are at least three attempts by a philosopher to start a family. He himself later said that when he needed a wife, he had no funds to keep it, but when the funds appeared, the wife was no longer needed. For a long time he lived modestly, providing himself and his father's family, and quite calmly accounted for without female caress. We don't know anything about the personal life of the philosopher. From the official portrait on us looks a gnome with a big forehead, small drilling eyes and a restrained smile.

In search of man

By the middle of the XVIII century it seemed that the world works like a clock. Descartes, Leibniz and Newton formulated the main laws of mechanics that were applied to any sphere of being. Scientists did not need God, and the person began to be viewed as one of the links in a difficult, but predictable mechanism called the "Universe". All the phenomena of nature were subordinated by the Iron law of causal relationships in which freedom of choice was naturally canceled. Immanuel Kant felt the catastrophe approach and did everything to prevent it.

If a person is only a toy in the world, someone once created, it is meaningless from him to demand anything, and even more so to punish him, because the punishment is given to the prescript of the criminal or others. But the person in the cause of the investigative world can not be wrong, because its deeds are deterministic. Cant is suitable for Ethics and Religion questions in the second half of his life. In his youth, he is engaged in the genesis of the solar system, putting forward a hypothesis about the initial gas nebula, classifies the animal world and thinks about the origin of man. His essays are dedicated to earthquakes, tides and distances.

Theory of knowledge

Kant welcomed the development of science, but very quickly realized that she was still powerless to explain to a person's meaning of his existence. The philosopher put a lot of questions that are open to this day. In his theory of knowledge, he questioned a dogmatic idea of \u200b\u200bthe pure mind, able to know the truth. His capital labor "Criticity of Pure Reason" proves the inability to know this world, "what is it really he is." All that we see, hear and feel, comes to us through our senses, which give us an extremely distorted idea of \u200b\u200b"things in themselves." That is, hypothetical creatures receiving information, for example, through electromagnetic oscillations will see the item completely differently.

The experience and so-called "pure mind" come into contact and configure in the process of knowledge, but the arbitrator of their dispute about the truth is the soul. Kant calls it tool to comprehend the meaning of things and phenomena. It is in it that there is some kind of dense that directs our knowledge outside the phenomena, the data is sensitive to us. The soul is a repository and an experienced transmitter that helps us understand the laws of the material world.

Categorical imperative and freedom of will

So, if a person is a mechanical toy in the hands of necessity, it means that all his actions are justified, even the most disgusting. We do not have the desire to read Moral Tigra, which agroed a lamb or even a child. We just kill the beast, if we can, but not from punishment or revenge. We also have no thoughts to be offended by a hurricane, destroying our dwellings. So the element acts, without evil intent and compassion, under the influence of the law of global gravity and the cycle of substances in nature.

A person is sentenced to a punishment even for a violation caused by extreme necessity, for example, a feeling of hunger. We are not just aware of our actions, but we have freedom of choice. We are different from animals. Natural laws manifest themselves in us fully. Coming from the tree, we fall on Earth at the same speed as any other subject. Lightning is equally ruthless both to Pope, and to the turtle. However, finding out the reasons for the famous Lisbon earthquake of 1755, Kant is trying to understand to what extent it is caused by immoral actions of people.

Here it should be said about the metaphysics of morality, which the philosopher wrote so much. The word "metaphysics" itself has a Greek origin and means the principles and causes of our being. Undoubtedly, there was no such device that would measure morality, but it is a guide to freedom, this person along with the soul. The highest manifestation of this freedom is the categorical imperative, that is, an order that a person gives himself. This is different from the world of animals. This is opposed to nature.

The famous Kantian phrase about the starry sky above his head and moral law inside a person, expresses the essence of his reflection about the universe, man, ethics and God. The categorical imperative of Kant says:

Do only according to such a maxim, guided by which you can wish for the same time so that it becomes universal law.
Do so that you always relate to humanity and in your face, and in the face of any other as well as to the goal, and never would be to him only as to the medium.
The principle of the will of each person as a will, by all its maximum establishing universal laws.

Immanuel Kant belongs to other famous sayings:

Freedom to swing their hands ends at the tip of the nose of another person.
Do not refer to others as with a means to achieve your goals.
Love for life is love to truth.

Peace after Kanta

This philosopher raised the problems that scientists are still engaged in this day. In ethics and religion, political science and aesthetics, anthropology and psychology, he left his indelible mark. The world after Kant became completely different, although the overwhelming majority of carriers of a reasonable life did not understand this. He entered into the appeal of philosophy, such as conscience, soul and virtue, who used to be the lot of only moralology.

The rapid flow of science and in our time trying to turn a person into part of the nature, over which any experiments are allowed. In the eighteenth century, Kant prevented this. Its memorial complex serves as the main attraction of modern Kaliningrad. Tourists from all over the world come here, replenishing the budget of the city. I want to believe that they are familiar with the heritage of the Great Humanist not only by quotations.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) is a German scientist and philosopher. Kant is considered the source of German classic idealism. The hometown of I. Kant is Koenigsberg. Here he studied and subsequently worked. From 1755 to 1770, Kant had the title of associate professor, and in the period from 1770 to 1796 - Professor of the University.

Even before 1770, Immanuel Kant created a "nebular" cosmogonic hypothesis. This hypothesis justified the emergence and evolution of the planetary system in accordance with the principle of the initial "nebula." At the same time, the philosopher suggested that there is a large universe of galaxies, and it is outside our galaxy.

In addition, Crate was developed by the doctrine of a slowdown, which is the result of tidal friction. The latter takes place as a result of the daily rotation of the Earth.

The scientist pondered about the relativity of rest and movement. All these research work influenced the formation of dialectics. Immanuel Kant is considered the founder of "transcendental" ("critical") idealism. The following works of Kant are devoted to this issue:
. "Cleaits of pure mind" - 1781;
. "Criticism of the Practical Mind" - 1788;
. "Criticity of the ability of judgment" - 1790 years, etc.

Immanuel Kant revises the concept of "faith" (which still remains in his teaching) and fills it with a new philosophical meaning (which differs significantly from theological). According to the philosopher, faith in the old understanding of it introduced people's misleading and forced to obey superstami, etc.

Destroying the postulates of religion, Kant nevertheless remains a sincere Christian - he believes in such a god that would not limit the freedom of man. Immanuel Kant considers man as a moral subject, and the issues of ethics in the teachings of this philosopher become central.

Immanuel Kant is the founder of the "critical" idealism. The transition to such a view took place in 1770. Already in 1781, the light saw the work of Kant "Criticity of Pure Mind." For this book, the criticism of the practical mind followed (published in 1788) and the criticism of the ability of judgment (published in 1790). These works contained the essence of the "critical" theory of knowledge, the doctrine of the feasibility of nature, as well as reasoning about aesthetics and ethics. The philosopher is trying to substantiate the fact that it is necessary to reveal the boundaries of human cognitive abilities and explore the forms of knowledge. Without such preliminary work, it is not possible to build a speculative philosophy system. The last concept in the time of Kant was synonymously the concept of "metaphysics". This kind of research leads the German scientist for agnosticism. He advocates that our knowledge cannot perceive the nature of things like these things exist in themselves. And this inability to Cant is fundamental. Moreover, the knowledge of a person is applicable only in relation to the "phenomena", that is, the method with which the person's experience can detect these very things. Developing his teachings, Kant says that only natural science and mathematics contain reliable theoretical knowledge that, according to the philosopher's thought, due to the presence of a "a priori" forms of sensual contemplation. The philosopher believes that initially in the human mind there is a desire for unconditional knowledge, which can not be eradicated. This feature is associated with the highest ethical requests. All this leads to the fact that a man's mind is trying to find solving issues related to the borders of the world, those processes that proceed in it, the existence of God, the presence of indivisible elements of the world, etc. Immanuel Kant believed that opposite to each other, judgments (such as: atoms exist and indivisible particles no, the world is unreserved or has limits, etc.) can be justified with absolutely equal evidence. It follows that the mind seems to be divided into contradictions, that is, by nature antinomic. However, Kant is confident that such contradictions are just apparent, and the solution of such a riddles is to limit knowledge in favor of faith. Thus, focus on distinguishing "things in itself" and "phenomena". At the same time, "things in themselves" just should be recognized as unknowable. It turns out that the person is at the same time and is free, and is not free. Free, because it is the subject of an unrecognizable ultra-relevant world. Increasing, because essentially is the creature in the world of phenomena.

Immanuel Kant was a sincere Christian. The philosopher was extremely irreconcilable to atheism. But Kant is recognized as one of the destroyers and critics of the religious worldview. In the philosophical teaching of this person there is no place for faith that can replace knowledge, and Kant criticizes all kinds of faith. He says that faith comes from the need of a person to reduce the boundaries of an indefinite in the world around him. Vera is needed in order to neutralize the feeling that human life is negarted. Thus, the German philosopher enters into a certain conflict with theological teaching. However, Immanuel Kant, exposing criticism many religious postulates, destroyed religion as her sincere adherent (no matter how paradoxically sounded). He presenting the religious consciousness of moral requirements, unbearable for him, at the same time spoke with passionate protection of God. Such God, the faith in which would not take moral dignity in humans and would not limit his freedom. Kant shakes the attention on the fact that faith mainly is a certain optional option. That is why over the years she led to the blind obedience to the people of the leaders, the existence of various superstitions, the emergence of religious movements, from here it can be concluded that the inner conviction in something, in fact, was a farewell faith in Revelation. Despite all of the above, the German philosopher still retains the category of "faith" in the development of its theory. However, in his teaching, he advocates a different understanding of faith. It fills this concept with philosophical and psychological meaning other than theological interpretation. In his works, Kant is asked for certain issues. "Cleaits of pure mind" raises the question of what a person can know. "Criticism of the Practical Mind" asks about the fact that a person should do. And finally, "religion within the limits of only reason" is asked by the question, for which a person actually can hope. Thus, the last of the above questions and outlines the problem of faith in the form in which it was driven inside the philosophy of Kant. It turns out that this philosopher would make a consistent (and in his teaching it is a logical) step. If it was completely eliminated by the concept of "faith", replacing it with another concept - "Hope". What is hope different from faith? The main difference is that hope is never an internal animation. It does not define the choice and does not precede any action. Moreover, hope, in principle, excuses. Indeed, in this case, it is often about consolation. However, it is necessary to critical and wary of the attitude towards themselves if the hope is a motivating force of the act performed.

General laws are the basis of absolutely all judgments of natural sciences. These laws are not only common, but also necessary. Kant has developed the doctrine of the gnoseological conditions of the possibility of natural science. Objects of natural sciences, of course, differ from each other. However, a person can get scientific knowledge about them only if all the phenomena of nature and items are thinking by reason not otherwise, as the derivatives of the next three laws. The first is the law of preserving the substance. The second is the law of causality. The third is the law of interaction of substances. Kant emphasizes the fact that the above-mentioned law belongs, rather, the human mind, rather than nature. The knowledge of a person directly builds the subject. Of course, it is not about the fact that it gives him being (gives rise to the subject). Human knowledge gives the subject of the universal and necessary knowledge, that is, exactly what can be known. Thus, the philosopher comes to the conclusion that the things of nature are construed with the shape of the mind, and not the opposite. In connection with this circumstance, Immanuel Kant says that it is impossible to know about themselves, since nothing is their definitions. Kant is particularly considering the concept of mind. The mind is the ability to conclusted - this definition is given by ordinary logic. With a philosophical substitution of the mind, Kant considers this ability, as something, whose direct result is the emergence of "ideas". The idea is a concept of unconditional, so its subject cannot be perceived during the experience using the senses. After all, everything that a person receives an experienced way is due. Immanuel Kant highlights three ideas formed by reason. The first idea is the idea of \u200b\u200bthe soul. All due to mental phenomena constitute an unconditional totality. The second idea is the idea of \u200b\u200bthe world. There is indefinitely many causes of due phenomena. All of them are in an unconditional totality and make up the essence of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe world. The third idea is an idea of \u200b\u200bGod. Its essence is that all caused phenomena occur on one unconditional reason. Kant believed that natural sciences are possible only when they talk about the conditioned phenomena that occur in the world. At the same time, the philosophical science based on the fact that the world represents an unconditional whole is impossible. Thus, the philosopher denied the fact that the existence of God has some theoretical evidence, moreover, it justifies that the basis of this kind of evidence is a logical error. According to Kant, it comes from the fact that the very concept of God is the basis for theoretical evidence of its existence. The German philosopher says that the concept of no way can serve as evidence that it means. Only an experienced way can be detected by any existence, at the same time in the existence of God, you must believe. The moral consciousness of a person (his "practical" mind) just requires such faith, moreover, without faith in God, the moral order in the world and cannot exist. Immanuel Kant criticizes the "ideas" of the mind.

Metaphysics - Theoretical Science. Kant rejected such an understanding of metaphysics, but believed that it represents an important part in philosophy. However, its value was reduced by Kant to the "criticism" of the mind. The need to transition to practical reason on theoretical mind was emphasized.

Gnosetology of Kant sets itself to the problem of transforming metaphysics to real science. The philosopher indicates the need to find a method of such a transformation. And before that it is necessary to identify why the former metaphysics was unsuccessful. Thus, the task of gnoseology on the edge of the diode. There are two criteria - the need and universality. They satisfy not only mathematical conclusions, but also, as Kant believes, the conclusions of natural science. The philosopher studied modern natural science. Kant in the region of his gnoseological study included not only intellect, but also sensuality. All this gave it a gnoseological study of a global nature. The German philosopher reasoned as follows. Due to the fact that until some time, metaphysics developed badly, then anyone in principle may doubt the possibilities of this science. In the "criticism of pure mind" is specified by such a question: "Is it possible to metaphysics like science?". If the answer is positive, then another question arises: "How can metaphysics become genuine science?" Kant criticizes the old metaphysics, based on the knowledge of God, soul and freedom. At the same time, the philosopher confirms the fact of the possibility of knowledge of nature.

In the center of reflections, Immanuel Kant is ethics. As previously mentioned earlier, this German philosopher decided issues of practical intelligence from the theoretical issues, and the practical mind is a broader concept. The practical understanding issues suggest that the person should do. The problems of the ethics are highlighted in such important writings of Kant as "Metaphysics of Mravov", "Basics of Metaphysics of Morality", "Criticism of Practical Mind", etc. Each person is capable of moral actions. At the same time, he has been debt on a voluntary basis. This fact confirms the reality of freedom, so if it is referred to, it is based on it is possible to build a new type metaphysics. And the German philosopher finds the required law. This is a categorical imperative. Its essence is that the actions of any person should be reduced to ensuring that his will is able to be the basis of universal legislation. Thus, Kant expresses a law that can be applied to every reasonable creature. This circumstance testifies to the latitude of the practical mind. According to Cant, the law of a categorical imperative acquires such a shade. A person must be not a means, but the target (as well as humanity as a whole). Having received such a wording of this law, the German philosopher declares that the person believes in God, because it is a substantial moral, and not a moral being because believes in God. Kant says it is inappropriate to argue about human duties before God. Similarly, we should not withdraw the religious principles of building a state.

Moral in Philosophy Immanuel Kant is a way to achieve the desired result. This is not true. In such an understanding, morality represents nothing more than a pragmatic task, the ability to achieve an indicated goal effectively. It is impossible to argue that this kind of principles cannot be separated from a person's life, in connection with this, the German philosopher calls them with conditional imperatives. However, such rules do not affect the problem of direct definition of the target, but only state the availability of funds for its implementation. Moreover, not any purpose is moral, and amoral means can also be applied to achieving the good goal (let them even be effective). Morals far from always simultaneously coincides with expediency, it is morality that condemns some goals and recognizes others.

The absolute limit of each person, according to Kant, is defined by moral laws. They define that border, after the intersection of which a person can lose its dignity. Kant understands that often everything on earth occurs in these most moral laws. In this regard, the philosopher argues about two issues. The first concerns the laws of morality. The second comes from how these principles are implemented in human life (in experience). Thus, the philosophy of morality turns out to be divided into two aspects - a priori and empirical part. The first is a moral itself. Kant calls her moral metaphysics. The second part is practical anthropology or empirical ethics. Metaphysics of morality, according to Kant, precedes practical anthropology. To determine the moral law, it is necessary to identify the absolute law, since it is the absolute need for a moral law that is characteristic. Immanuel Kant, answering the question about choosing an absolute start, says that such is a kind will. We are talking about a clean and unconditional will, for which the practical necessity is peculiar and there are no extraneous effects. If for health, courage, etc. There is no pure kind of good will, then declare that these qualities (like many others) have unconditional value, in no case cannot. For example, a composure can grow into a composure, if it is not worth the good will, for which no external motives are affected.

Only for a reasonable creature is characterized by the possession of the will. Will is a practical mind. The German philosopher believes that the purpose of the mind is to manage human will. Mind to some extent prevents the state of serene satisfaction. The experience of unreasonable creatures (that is, animals) suggests that the instinct copes well with such a task as, for example, self-preservation. Moreover, the skeptics of ancient times took the mind as the basis of all human suffering. It is difficult to contradict the German scientist in the sense that ordinary people (which are amenable to the action of natural instinct), much more often rejoice in life and feel happy. Speaking easier: happier living the one who lives easier. Thus, it is unlikely that the mind is unable to man only in order to identify funds for happiness, rather, it is necessary to search directly to good will. The existence of a pure kind will in the absence of reason is impossible. This is due to the fact that it does not include any empirical elements in its concept. Of the above described, it can be concluded that the central place in the philosophy of I. Kant belongs to the identification of goodwill and mind.

The path of conversion of the world is associated with the actions of the subjects. The basis of the implementation of these actions according to Kant is morality and freedom. The history of the person's actions form the history of all mankind. Social problems can be solved at the expense of moral aspects. Relationships of people should be built according to the law of a categorical imperative, which is the main moral law. The social action of the subject is the essence of the practical philosophy of Kant. Will becomes law under the influence of freedom. The will, formed according to the laws of morality, and free will for the German philosopher is identical to identical concepts.

The concepts of "laws" and "maxima" occupy an important place in the moral teaching of Immanuel Kant. The law reflects the expression of significance for each personality. Maxims are the principles of will, which are subjective, that is, applicable to a single person or group of persons. The imperatives Kant subdivides on hypothetical and categorical. The first are performed only with specific conditions. The second is always mandatory. In the case when it comes to morality, only one higher law should be characterized for it - this is a categorical imperative.

Read the biography of the philosopher: briefly about life, basic ideas, exercises, philosophy
Immanuel Kant
(1724-1804)

German philosopher, a detonator of German classical philosophy. In 1747-1755, he developed a cosmogonic hypothesis of the origin of the solar system from the initial nebula ("Universal Natural History and the Theory of the Sky", 1755). The founder of "critical philosophy" ("criticism of pure mind", 1781; "criticism of the practical mind", 1788; "Criticity of the ability of judgment", 1790). The central principle of ethics of Kant, based on the concept of debt, is a categorical imperative. The doctrine of Kant on the anti-diabetes played a big role in the development of dialectics.

In the fifth hour of the morning on April 22, 1724, a son was born in the family of Königsberg Schorchnik John Georg Kanta. According to the old Prussian calendar was the day of St. Emmanuel, and the boy was unarked by the biblical name, meaning in the translation of God with us. Kant believed that his ancestors were from Scotland. But the philosopher became mistaken: his great-grandfather Richard Kant - Baltic Blood. Mother of the future philosopher Anna Regina Daughter of Crun, originally from Nuremberg.

The boy grew on the outskirts of the city among small craft and commercial people, in the situation of labor, honesty, Puritan strictness. In the family he was the fourth child. In total, Anna Regina gave birth to nine children. Of them survived five. Immanuel Kant had three sisters and the younger brother Johann Henry.

According to the Council of Pastor Franz Albert Schulz, who visited the parishioners and a family of Master of Kant, an eight-year-old Immanuel was given to the "Colleag of Friedrich", the state gymnasium, the director of which was appointed Schulz himself. Here, the future philosopher spent eight years. He studied at the Latin branch. The main objects were Latin and theology. Parents wanted their offspring to become a pastor, but the boy who was passionate about the talented lessons of Latin Geidreic teacher, dreamed of devoting himself a literature. The desire to become a priest was discouraged by the monastery orders who reigned in the "Frederich College". The school was a chietist, morals are strict. Weak health prevented immanuil's studies, but spoiled the intelligence, good memory, adjacent. A number of years he was the first student, graduated from school second.

In the fall of 1740, Sixteen-year-old Immanuel Kant enters the university. During his studies at the university, Professor Martin Knutzen provided a great influence. Chietist and Wolfian, Knutsen showed great interest in the success of English natural science. From him Kant for the first time learned about Newton's discoveries. In the fourth year, Cant University training began to write an independent essay in physics. The work moved slowly. Not only the lack of skills and lack of knowledge, but also the need in which Studiosus Kant was sought. Mother was no longer alive (she died relatively young, when Immanuel turned thirteen years old), the father barely reduced the ends with the ends. Immanuel interrupted lessons. We fed out wealthy one-shoes, they had to take clothes and shoes at a difficult moment. They say he consoled himself with aphorisms "I strive to subjugate things to myself, and not myself," "not inferior to trouble, but I started to meet her."

Sometimes he was helped by Pastor Schulz, more often - a relative of the mother, a successful master of shoe business. There is information that it was Uncle Richter that took on a significant part of the cost of publishing the Kantian firstborn - the work "Thoughts about the true assessment of the living strength." She wrote her Cant for three years, four years printed. The last sheets came out of the printing house only in 1749.

At the University, Kant studied without a small seven years in 1747, without defending his master's thesis, he leaves his hometown and tries himself as a home teacher. Immanuel passed a good school of everyday experience, looked at people, met the nravami in various layers of society. Returning to Königsberg, Kant brought the three-minded manuscript in astronomy, initially entitled "Cosmogonia, or an attempt to explain the origin of the universe, the formation of celestial bodies and the reasons for their movement by the general laws of motion of matter in accordance with Newton's theory." He came to the correct conclusion that the rotation of the Earth slows down, which was caused by tidal friction of the world's ocean.

At the end of the summer of 1754, Kant publishes an article "The question of whether the Earth is agitated from a physical point." The process of aging of the Earth does not cause doubts from Cant. All the existence arises, improves, then goes to meet death. The land is not exceptions. These works were preceded by a cosmogonic treatise. Its final name was "Universal natural history and the theory of the sky, or an attempt to interpret the structure and mechanical origin of all the universe, based on the principles of Newton."

The treatise came out anonymously in the spring of 1755 with the dedication to the King Friedrich II. The book was not lucky the publisher went bankrupt, the warehouse was sealed, and the circulation did not sleep toward the spring fair. And yet the book was separated, the anonymity of the author was revealed, and in one of the Hamburg periodic publications appeared to the approving review.

In the autumn of 1755, Kant receives the title of private affiliates, that is, a freelance teacher, whose work was paid for the students themselves. The audiences lacked, so many taught at home. Kant lived at the time of Professor of the Bike. The first lecture of the listeners gathered more than the hall could accommodate, students stood on the stairs and in the hallway. Cant was confused, the first hour spoke completely unclear and only after the break mastered himself. So it began to study it then 41 years old teaching.

In the first university winter, he read the logic, metaphysics, natural science and mathematics. Then physical geography, ethics and mechanics were added to them. In the master's years, Kant had to simultaneously lead 4-6 items. In the second half of the 1750s, he had almost nothing written teaching absorbed all the time. But a hazardous existence was provided. Privat-associate professor hired a servant - Martina's retired soldier lamp.

The special pride of Kant was a course of physical geography. Kant One of the first to teach geography as an independent discipline. Without leaving his office, Kant performed around the world, swam the sea, overcoming the desert. "I screamed from all sources, found a lot of all kinds of information, viewed the most solid descriptions of individual countries." Kant has created an impressive at the time, a generalized description of the earth's surface, flora and fauna, the kingdom of minerals and the lives of peoples inhabiting four continents Asia, Africa, Europe, America. Kant opened the mechanism of formation of winds of trade winds and monsoon. It is the geographical works of Kant who were taken into account primarily when elected by his member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

At the same time he had an interest in philosophy. The first philosophical work of Kant was his dissertation "The new coverage of the first principles of metaphysical knowledge", in which the principle of sufficient foundation established by the leibyman is investigated. In general, he defends the Leibnian-Wolfian point of view. Although in some essential details from it, the Kant has already begun to find a compromise, this time between the metaphysics of Leibnia - Wolf and Newton's physics.

Soon the seven-year war began. For almost five years, the Russian troops occupied almost five years, residents, including Kant, swore in writing to the loyalty to the Russian crown in writing, and only Peter III in 1762 officially liberated them from Russian citizenship. A. T. Bolotov, who later, who later, he was supervised by a memoirist and agronomist, supervised the University of Königsberg. However, Kanta he did not appreciate with what, perhaps, it was connected so slow promotion of the last service.

1762 was a turning point in the life of the thinker. It is believed that acquaintance with the novel "Emil" Jean Jacques Russo played a crucial role in the new quests of Kant. The Frenchman's paradoxes helped him look into the caches of the human soul. The books of Rousseau Kant was obliged primarily from a number of prejudices of the Cabinet Scientist, a kind of democratization of thinking. "... I despised a mobile, who knows nothing. Rousseau corrected me. The specified blinding superiority disappears, I study respect for people" it was not just a change of views, it was a moral update, a revolution in life installations.

Kanta had to work a lot, but he knew how to rest. Master Cant after classes willingly spent time after a cup of coffee or a glass of wine, played billiards, in the evening to the card. Sometimes he returned home for midnight, and once, on his own recognition, in such a signing, which could not independently find a passage to the master's lane, where he had a chance to live in the 1760s. It was necessary to get up in any case early in the morning he lectured. In addition, weak health made thinking about more strict mode.

Physical weakness that tormented him from early childhood was added over the years and the nature of the unland of the mental, which Kant called Hopeondria. The symptoms of this disease, the philosopher described in one of its works: Hypochondrika envelops a kind of "melancholic fog, as a result of which he seems to be overcome by all the diseases that he heard something. Therefore, he is more willing to talk about his unhealthy, greedily attacked on Medical books and everywhere finds the symptoms of their illness. " A good mood comes to him with a good mood and a good appetite here to Hypochondrik. Maybe that's why Kant never dined alone and generally loved to be in humans.

He was willing to visit him, and he never shied away from invitations. Smart and lively interlocutor, Kant was a soul of society. In any company, he kept at an equal footing, easily, ineffective, delicious. The philosopher appreciated friendship (put her above love, believing that it includes love, but requires respect).

A close friend of Kant was considered Joseph Green, an English Kommersant who was constantly inhabited in Königsberg. Green taught the punctuality of his scientist friend, who was not so Pedantic as in the elderly.

Kant remained a bachelor. Psychoanalysts explain the celibacy of Kant to the Mother's cult, stirring other women's attachments. The philosopher himself explained it otherwise: "When a woman could need me, I was not able to feed her, and when I was able to feed her, she could no longer need it." And if this is a confession to compare with another "a man can not have fun of life without a woman, and a woman cannot satisfy his needs besides a man," it becomes clear that the celibacy was forced and in the ripe joy did not bring joy. Some Louise Rebecca Fritz on the slope of years assured that once the philosopher Kant was in love with her. According to biographers, it was in the 1760s. Do not call names, Borovsky, in front of which a significant part of the life of Cant passed, argues that his teacher loved twice and intended twice to marry.

Kant was low growth (157 centimeters) and perfect physique. The art of tailor and hairdresser helped him hide the flaws of appearance. To fashion, Kant treated condescendingly, called her the case of vanity, but he said "it is better to be a fool in fashion than a fool is not in fashion." In the memory of contemporaries Kant has been preserved not only as a "Little Master", but also as "Galant Master."

In 1764, Kanta turned forty years. He was already famous, he was appreciated and respected. His lectures enjoyed success, the audience was always complete, and some courses he trifted to his disciples. The books were well dispelled, and the "observation of a sense of excellent and sublime" brought him the fame of a trendy author.

But he still remained a privat-associate professor who did not receive a penny from the university. Master Kant was forced to even sell his books. In February 1766, the philosopher, without leaving teaching at the university, began working as an assistant librarian in the Royal Castle.

Time the library took a little bit, now it was opened only on Wednesdays and Saturdays with an hour of day to four. But the salary of the librarian was small - 62 Talera a year. Kanta continued to think about additional earnings. At one time he was headed by a private mineralogical collection.

In 1770, the decree of King Kant is appointed by an ordinary professor of logic and metaphysics. The philosopher protects its fourth dissertation. In the 1970s, familiarity with the works of Um had awakened Kant from "dogmatic sleep." Recall that, according to YUU, sensual experience cannot give us universal and necessary knowledge. This means that on the basis of empirical data it is impossible to build the building of theoretical science. But when possible scientific knowledge at all? In search of a response to this question, Kant appeals to the methodology of scientific knowledge. In the days of Cant, metaphysics was engaged in the study of the world as a whole, soul and god. Metaphysics relied on formal logic, the foundations of which laid another Aristotle. But already the predecessor of Cant German philosopher Leibniz showed that, using this logic, metaphysics comes to mutually exclusive conclusions about the world as a whole, for example, to the conclusions that it is finitely endlessly at the same time. Stripping from those contradictions who expose the metaphysics Leibniz - Wolf in Germany, Kant makes his conclusion: metaphysics is generally impossible as a strict science.

The main spell of Metaphysics Kant saw that she was dogmatically, because absolutely obitrately accepts an implicit premise that the knowledge of the world as a whole was possible, and at the same time, in no way examines our cognitive opportunities. Although it is this task that Kant believes, must first of all solve philosophy. And such a philosophy of Kant calls, as opposed to dogmatic metaphysics, critical philosophy. It was a coup in philosophy equal to the scale of the Great French Revolution. Kant himself compared him with Copernaya coup in astronomy.

Thus, in the 1770s, the "critical" period in the work of Kant begins. At this time, its famous "critics" were created. "Cleaits of pure mind", "criticism of practical mind" and "criticism of the ability of judgment." Cantic criticism of metaphysics led to the revision of what philosophy should be studied. And first of all, she discovered the emptiness of the logic that was used by traditional metaphysics. The lack of such formal logic Kant saw that it does not allow to receive a new knowledge, but only converts already existing knowledge. This is an analysis logic, and not the logic of synthesis.

In 1774, the University of Königsberg began to teach pedagogy. The new item was read by changing each other, seven professors of the philosophical faculty. Kant's queue came in the winter of 1776. As a textbook, Kant enjoyed the book Basedov, introducing into it, as usual, his corrections and additions. As a result, there was an independent work "On Pedagogy", published shortly before the death of philosopher his student Rynkom. "Two human inventions can be considered the most difficult: the art of driving and educating the art," Kant wrote. But it is for them a society. "A person can become a man only through education. He is what makes up the upbringing."

In 1777, the Minister of Cedlitz offered a professor to Kant to take the department in Galle. But received a refusal. Then the minister suggested the salary of 800 thalers (the salary of Kant was 236 thalers) and the title of court advisor.

The philosopher stood on his own. He did not need a mad money, nor glory, nor court ranks. Any change in the lifestyle of him frightened. Moving to someone else's city could only damage the work. He wrote the "criticism of pure mind."

Kant worked on it in the spring and summer of 1780. Large pieces were ready for a long time, so everything was completed for five months. He knew the weakness of the book mainly stylistic, but it was no longer a rewriting of her forces, besides, he was not tolerated to present his brainchild to the public.

In the "criticism of pure mind" Kant made changes to the content of the concepts of "metaphysics" and "the theory of knowledge". Metaphysics for him is the same as for "dogmatics philosophers", especially the School of Wolf, is the science of absolute, but within the boundaries of the human mind. The theory of knowledge is the border guard that opposes the transition through the boundaries of the knowledgeable, accusing this is a clean mind striving for knowledge. For knowledge, according to Kant, completely rest on experience, on sensual perception. Only feelings give us information about the actual outdoor world. But if all our knowledge begins with experience, it still does not follow from it entirely. Rather, it is formed with the help of already data in a learning mind before and regardless of any experience, that is, a priori, forms of contemplation of space and time and thought, or rational, forms of categories, the purpose of which Kant called transcendental.

The exit to the light "Cleaning Cleaver" did not have a sensation. A book is read with difficulty, without causing interest. All this has affected the philosopher depressingly. Wanting to make clarity, Kant writes "spared to any future metaphysics" (1883). But this time they did not understand.

Salvation came in the face of Johann Schulz, who spoke with the popularization of Kant's teachings. His review turned into a book called "Explaning the presentation of" Clean Rough Critics ". It was a conscientious commentary on the theory of Kant's knowledge.

Kantovskaya Fever covered German universities. Someone worried power. In Marburg, the local landscape banned the teaching of the philosophy of Kant to clarify whether it does not undermine the foundations of human knowledge.

Meanwhile, Kant was elected rector of the university (in this position were located during the year), and the Berlin Academy of Sciences included him in the number of their members (this is already life).

In 1788, the criticism of the practical mind comes out. Kantian independent debt ethics, set forth in this book and representing a significant achievement of philosophy, has become the basis of the following reasoning: although the mind is unable to know the items of pure a priori, that is, without experience, but he can define the will of a person and his practical behavior. At the same time it turns out that, as a person, a person is below the laws of nature, under the influence of the outside world, he is incubated. According to its own "knowledgeable" nature, that is, as an individuality, it is free and follows only its practical reason. The law of morality, to which it follows, is a categorical imperative, which is formulated as follows: "Do so that the Maxim of his will at any time can become the principle of universal legislation." More specifically: not the desire for happiness aimed at achieving external goods, not love or sympathy make the act moral, but one only respect for the moral law and the following debt. This ethics of debt gives no theoretical, but practical confidence in the freedom of a moral act, in the immortality of a morally incoming person, since in this life he has no right to remuneration for his morality, gives confidence in God as a guarantee of morality and rewards for her. These three convictions of Kant calls the "practical postulates" of God, freedom and immortality.

Of course, the philosopher himself is not always and not in everything guided by the crushing of a categorical imperative. There was little (especially to old age), eccentric, impatient, sight (even when material well-being came), Pedantic (although he had aware that the pedanticism evil, "painful formalism", and swung pedants), did not tolerate objections. Life forced to make compromises, and he sometimes chitril and adapt. But in general, his behavior corresponded to the ideal of the internally free person, which he sketched in his ethical works. There was a goal of life, there was a conscious debt, there was an ability to manage his desires and passions, even with their own body. There was a character. Was kindness.

Nature gives a man with temperament, it produces himself. Trying to gradually become better, I considered Kant, - in vain work. The nature is created immediately, by an explosion, moral revolution. The need for moral update people only feel in a mature age, Kant survived him on the threshold of forty-thousands. Material independence came later.

In 1784, Kant acquired his own home - two-storey, eight-room. His savings have long exceeded 20 gold, at one time pending on a black day. Now he could easily post 5,500 guilders for the real estate of the widow of the artist Beckker (once created his portrait). A quarter of a bedroom, a servant lamp appeared in the bedroom of Professor. Kant was heading to the office, where he drank two cups of weak tea and smoked the tube, the only one for the whole day. (Tolstoy was mistaken, attributing to the edge of a unrestrained passion for tobacco, they say, if he did not smoke so much, "the criticism of pure mind" was probably not written "so unnecessary inappropriate language").

Coffee philosopher loved, but tried not to drink, considering it harmful. Lectures usually started at seven hours, as a rule, he read in summer logic and physical geography, in winter metaphysics and anthropology. After class, Professor sat down again in the office. Without a quarter to an hour in the house, friends visited for lunch. Exactly an hour on the corner of the cabinet appeared lamp and pronounced the sacramental formula "soup on the table". Lunch was the only meal that the philosopher allowed himself.

Dense enough, with good wine (Kant's beer did not recognize), it lasted until four to five hours. Favorite his dish was fresh cod. The afteractive time, the philosopher spent on his feet. In the life of Green (died in 1786). Kant usually visited him, and they dreamed in chairs, now he considered a dream among the day harmful and did not even sit down in order not to beat. The time of the legendary walk has come.

Keningsbells were accustomed to seeing their celebrity, a quiet step of mocking at the same time along the route "Philosophical Trail". Returning home, the philosopher gave orders on the economy. In the evening, he devoted to light reading (newspapers, magazines, fiction), the thoughts arose on the paper. At ten o'clock Kant went to bed.

Regular lifestyle, compliance with the prescribed hygienic rules pursued one goal - maintaining health. Cant's medicines did not trust them, considered them poison for his weak nervous system. Cant hygiene program is easy

1) Hold in the cold head, legs and chest. Wash your legs in ice water ("in order not weakened blood vessels remote from the heart")

2) Less sleep "Bed nest diseases." Sleep only at night, short and deep sleep. If the dream does not come himself, you need to be able to call it. On Kant, the magic sleeping pills provided the word "Cicero", repeating it to himself, he dispelled thoughts and quickly flooded

3) move more, to serve yourself, walk in any weather.

As for the nutrition, the kant primarily recommends refuses liquid food and, if possible, limit the drink. How many times have it been during the day? The striking answer of Cant us is already known alone!

The old philosopher-hostant assured that unmarried or early widowed men "longer retain a daily look", and family faces are "carrying the seal of the Yarma," which makes it possible to assume the first of the first compared to the latter.

In the late 1780s, Kant began to look for new ways to create a philosophical system. For in philosophy, he appreciated primarily the systematic and himself was a great systematics. The general contours of the teachings have developed for a long time. But there were no systems yet. Of course, both the first "critics" are associated in a certain way, they are developed in them the same concept. But the unity reached between the theoretical and practical mind seemed insufficient. Not enough some important mediated link.

The system of philosophy was formed in Kant only after he discovered between the nature and freedom of the kind "Third World" - the world of beauty. When Kant created "criticism of pure mind," he believed that aesthetic problems could not be understood from the total position. The principles of beauty are empirical and, therefore, cannot serve to establish universal laws of the universal principle of spiritual activity, namely, the "feelings of pleasure and displeasure."

Now the philosophical system of Kant acquires clearer contours. He sees it consisting of three parts in accordance with the three abilities of the human psyche of the cognitive, estimated ("feeling of pleasure") and volitional ("the ability of desire"). The first and third part of the philosophical system theoretical and practical is set forth in the "criticism of the pure mind" and "criticism of the practical mind".

The second, central, Kant still calls teleology - the teaching about expediency. Then teleology will give way to aesthetics - teaching about beauty. The intended work of Kant intended to graduate from the spring of 1788. But the work again delayed. It took two more spring and two years before the manuscript went into the printing house. The treatise got the name "Criticity of the ability of judgment."

After Friedrich II, the throne inherited his nephew Friedrich-Wilhelm II. Unlike his uncle, despoty-free-rope, a decisive administrator, a commander and patron of sciences, the current king was a manless man, not far, prone to mysticism. Initially, Kant's relationship with a new king was favorable for a philosopher. It was the time of his first rectification when Friedrich Wilhelm II arrived in Königsberg for taking oath. The chapter of the university was invited to the Royal Castle, on behalf of the professors and students Kant welcomed the monarch and was the cluster. (From participation in solemn utilities, the philosopher refused, referring to the disease).

In the year of his second rectification (1788), Kant opened a festive meeting on the royal anniversary. The king authorized the adoption of Kant to the Academy of Sciences without any representation from Königsberg. Berlin has significantly increased its salary, which is now 720 thalers.

In July 1794, Kant was elected to the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, and in October, he received a reprimand from the king, but no one (except for the philosopher himself) did not know about it. Royal Decree was not published, he came as a private letter. Friedrich Wilhelm wrote Kant that he abuses his philosophy to distort and humiliate some of the main and basic provisions of the Holy Scriptures and the Christian faith.

From Cant demanded an immediate response, and he answered, observing all the humble formulas for the appeal of loyal to his monarch, did not dare, but, on the contrary, it was strongly assigned to all the points charged to him. It was not in the rules of Cant to refuse their views, to assist it cannot be resist. On a randomly touched papers, he formulated the only possible tactic. "The renunciation of the inner conviction is low, but silence in the case of similar to this is the debt of the subject, if everything you say should be true, then it is not necessary to vowelly express all the truth."

Kant continued to develop ethical problems. They are dedicated to several works "Basics of Metaphysics Mathephysics" (1785), "Criticism of Practical Mind" (1788), "Metaphysics of Mravov" (1797), "On initially evil in human nature" (1792), "about saying" may be true In theory, but not suitable for practice "(1793)," Religion within the limits of only mind "(1793).

In the work of "Metaphysics of Mravov" he presented a whole complex of moral duties of a person. He considered the responsibilities of a person towards himself, which included care for his health and his life. He considered suicide as vices, undermining his health by drunkenness and gluttony. The virtues attributed truthfulness, honesty, sincerity, conscientiousness, self-esteem. It was expressed that it should not become a man's hob, to allow an unpunished pulling on their rights to others, to allow youthfulness, etc.

In 1795, Basel world was concluded between France and Prussia, which stopped the war, but the preserved state of hostility between countries. Kant responded to these events with the famous treatise "to the eternal world", in which theoretical foundation was organically combined with political topical and expressed in ironic form. None of the writings of Kant did not cause such immediate and living responses.

The first edition of the treatise "The famous Kant" literally was literally praised, "the Parisian official was written," the spiritual revolution that crushed the old regime in France in Germany, this husband was given the power of his own name of the Republican device. This essay was the last work of Kant.

Having achieved 75 years of age, Kant began to weaken quickly. At first, physical, then mental forces were all more left it. Back in 1797, Kant stopped reading lectures, since 1798 he did not accept any other invitations and at home collected only the closest friends.

Since 1799, he was forced to refuse even from walking. Despite this, Kant tried to write: "A system of clean philosophy in its entirety", but Cant's forces were already exhausted.

In1803, Kant recorded the biblical words on a memorable leaflet "The human life lasts 70 years old, a lot of 80. He was at that time 79 years.

In October1803, a seizure happened to Kant. Since then, his strength quickly faded him, he could not more sign his name, forgot the most ordinary words.

* * *
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Immanuel Kant - German Philosopher, Professor of the Königsberg University, Honorary Foreign Member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, Angel Border of the Classical German Philosophy and Criticism. The scale of activity is equal to Plato and Aristotle. Let's get to know the life of Immanuel Kant and the basic ideas of his developments.

Childhood

The future philosopher was born on April 22, 1724 in Königsberg (current Kaliningrad), in a large family. In all her life, he did not travel from his native city further than 120 kilometers. Cant grew in a medium in which the ideas of pietism had a special place. His father was an artisan-a saddler and since childhood killed children to work. Mother tried to take care of their education. From the first years of his life, Kant had weak health. In the process of studying at school, he had the ability to Latin. Subsequently, it was on Latin that all four dissertations of the scientist will be written.

Higher education

In 1740, Immanuel Kant entered the University of Albertina. From the teachers, M. Knutzenov provided a special influence on him, who introduced an ambitious young man with the achievements of modern, at that time, science. In 1747, a serious financial situation led to the fact that Kant was forced to go to the suburb of Königsberg in order to get a home teacher there in the landowner's family.

Labor activity

Returning to his native city in 1755, Immanuel Kant completed his studies at the university and defended his master's thesis called "On Fire". During the next year, he defended two more dissertations, which he gave him the right to read the lectures as the opposite first, and then professor. However, from the title of Professor Kant then refused and became extraordinary (topics that receives money from listeners, and not from the leadership) associate professor. In such a format, the scientist worked until 1770 until he was still an ordinary professor at the department of logic and metaphysics of his native university.

Surprisingly, in the position of teacher Kant read lectures on the widest circle of objects, starting with mathematics and ending with anthropology. In 1796, he stopped lecturing, and four years later, he left the university due to poor health. At home, Kant continued to work until death.

Lifestyle

The lifestyle of Immanuel Kant and his habits, which especially began to manifest themselves from 1784, when the philosopher acquired his own home. Every day Martin Lampe is a retired soldier who spoke in the house of Kant servant - a scientist woke. Waking up, Kant drank several cups of tea, smoked the handset and began preparations for lectures. After lectures, the dinner time was coming, after which a company usually was usually several guests. Lunch was often delayed for 2-3 hours and always accompanied the lively conversation on various topics. The only thing that did not want to speak the scientist at this time is philosophy. After lunch, Kant went daily for a walk around the city, which later became legendary. Before bedtime, the philosopher loved to look at the cathedral, the building of which was clearly visible from the window of his bedroom.

To make a reasonable choice, you must first know, without which you can do.

All his conscious life, Immanuel Kant carefully followed his own health and confessed the system of hygiene prescriptions, which he developed personally on the basis of a long self-surveillance and self-sustainment.

The main postulates of this system:

Hold your head, legs and chest in the cold.
Less sleep, as the bed is a "nest of diseases". The scientist was sure to sleep solely at night, deep and short sleep. When the dream did not come, he tried to call him, repeating the word "Cicero" in his mind.
More move, maintain yourself yourself, walk in independence from weather conditions.

Kant was not married, although there was no prejudice regarding the opposite sex. According to a scientist when he wanted to make a family, there was no such possibility, and when the opportunity appeared, the desire was already gone.

In the philosophical views of the scientist, the influence of H. Wolf, J. J. Rousseau, A. G. Baumgarten, D. Yum and other thinkers. Wolfian textbook Bamgarten became the basis for Kant's lectures on metophysics. As the philosopher himself recognized, the compositions of Rousseau learned him from arrogance. And the workers of Yuma "awakened" the German scientist from "dogmatic sleep".

Precision philosophy

In the work of Immanuel Kant, two periods are distinguished: pretreatic and critical. During the first period, the scientist gradually moved away from the ideas of Wolf metaphysics. The second period became time when Kant formulated questions about determining metaphysics as science and creating new philosophy reference.

Among the research of the subcritical period, cosmogonical developments of the philosopher are of particular interest, which he outlined in the work "Universal Natural History and Sky Theory" (1755). In his theory, Immanuel Kant argued that the explanation of the formation of the planets can be made by having allowed the existence of matter to the reversal and attraction forces, based on the postulates of Newtonian physics.

A lot of attention in the pre-crochetical period, the scientist also paid a study of spaces. In 1756, in the thesis, entitled "Physical Methodology", he wrote that the space, being a continuous dynamic medium, is created in the interaction of simple discrete substances and is relative.

The central teachings of Immanuel Cant of this period were set out in the work of 1763, called the "the only possible basis for the evidence of God's existence." Extinguished all the evidence of the existence of God, Kant put forward a personal "ontological" argument, which was based on the recognition of the need for any kind and identification of it with Divine force.

Transition to critical philosophy

Kant's transition to criticism occurred gradually. This process began with the fact that the scientist revised his views on space and time. At the end of the 1760s, Kant acknowledged the space and time as independent of things subjectively forms of human recipe. Things, in the form in which they exist in themselves, the scientist called "Noumenmi". The result of these findings Kant consolidated in the work "On the forms and principles of sensually perceived and intelligent world" (1770).

The next turning point was the "awakening" of a scientist from "dogmatic sleep", which occurred in 1771 after the acquaintance of Kant with the developments of D. Yum. Against the background of thinking about the threat of complete empirization of philosophy, Kant formulated the main question of the new critical teaching. It sounded as follows: "How is a priori synthetic knowledge possible?" By the decision of this issue, the philosopher was puzzled until 1781, when the light saw the work of the "criticism of pure mind". Over the next 5 years, the three more books of Immanuel Kant were published. The crown of this period was the second and third "critics": "criticism of the practical mind" (1788) and "Criticity of the ability of judgment" (1790). On the achieved philosopher did not stop and in the 1800s issued several more important works that complement the previous ones.

Critical philosophy system

Canticism of Kant consists of theoretical and practical components. The link between them is the teachings of a philosopher on objective and subjective feasibility. The main question of criticism sounds like this: "What is a person?" The study of human essence is carried out at two levels: transcendental (identification of a priority signs of humanity) and empirical (person is considered in the form in which it exists in society).

Doctrine of mind

Kant perceives "dialectics" as a teaching, not only helps to criticize traditional metaphysics. It makes it possible to comprehend the highest degree of cognitive ability of a person - reason. According to the scientist, the mind is the ability to think unconditional. He grows out of the reason (which serves as a source of rules) and brings to the unconditional concept. The concepts that the experience cannot be given no subject, the scientist comes the "ideas of pure mind."

Our cognition begins with perception, goes into understanding, and ending in the cause. There is nothing more important than the cause.

Practical philosophy

The basis of the practical philosophy of Cant is the doctrine of moral law, which is the "clean mind." It binds morality with unconditional dues. He believes that its laws are sorted out of mind, that is, the ability to think unconditional. Since universal prescriptions can determine the will of the actions, they can be considered practical.

Social philosophy

Creativity questions, according to Kant, are not limited to the field of art. He spoke about the possibility of creating a whole artificial world by people, which philosopher considered the world of culture. On the development of culture and civilization Kant reasoned in his later work. The progress of human society he saw in the natural competition of people and their desire to assert themselves. At the same time, according to a scientist, the history of mankind is a movement towards the full recognition of the value and freedom of personality and the "eternal world."

Socium, the tendency to communicate is distinguished by people a mansion, then the person feels in demand when it is fulfilled most fully. Using natural deposits, you can get unique masterpieces, which he never to create alone, without society.

Care from life

The great philosopher Immanuel Kant died on February 12, 1804. Thanks to the hard regime, he, despite all his ailments, survived many acquaintances and comrades.

Impact on subsequent philosophy

The developments of Kant had a huge impact on the subsequent development of thought. It became the founder of the so-called German classic philosophy, which was later represented by large-scale Schelling, Hegel and Ficht systems. Immanuel Kant has also provided a great influence on the formation of Chopenhauer's scientific views. In addition, his ideas affected the romantic movements. In the second half of the 19th century, neocantianism had a big prestige. And in the 20th century, the influence of Kant was recognized as leading representatives of existentialism, a phenomenological school, analytical philosophy and philosophical anthropology.

As you can see from the biography of Immanuel Kant, he was a rather interesting and outstanding personality. Consider some amazing facts from his life:

The philosopher denied 5 evidence of the existence of God, who used the absolute authority for a long time, and proposed his own, which to this day no one could refute.
Cant elaborated only at lunch, and the rest of the meal he replaced tea or coffee. His lifting was strictly at 5 o'clock, and the post was on 22 hours.
Despite the highly moral image of thinking, Kant was a supporter of anti-Semitism.
The growth of the philosopher is only 157 cm, which, for example, is 9 cm less than that of Pushkin.
When Hitler came to power, the fascists proudly called Cant to the True Aryans.
Kant knew how to dress with taste, although the fashion was considered a vain business.
According to students' stories, the philosopher when reading lectures often focused on some of the listeners. Once he stopped her gaze on the student who had a mischief on his clothes. This problem immediately took all the attention from the teacher, he became brief and scattered.
Cant had three senior and seven younger brothers and sisters. Of these, only four survived, and the rest died in early childhood.
Near the house Immanuel Kant, whose biography was the theme of our review, there was a city prison. In it, prisoners were forced to sing spiritual chants daily. The vocals of criminals are so tired of the philosopher that he appealed to Burgomaster to stop this practice.
Quotes Immanuel Kanta have always been greatly popular. The most popular of them - "Have a courage to enjoy your own mind! "There is a motto of enlightenment." Some of them are also brought in a review.