End of the Franco-Prussian War. The war between France and Prussia for hegemony in continental Europe. Siege of Paris and end of the war
After Prussia's convincing victory over Austria in the War of 1866 and the subsequent creation of the North German Confederation under the hegemony of the Prussian King Wilhelm I, the unification of the German state was not completed, and the South German states remained outside the union created by Prussia.
On the path to the final unification of Germany stood the reactionary government of France headed by Napoleon III, because. a single, powerful German state in central Europe threatened France's hegemony on the continent.
Despite the defeat of Austria by the Prussian army four years earlier, the French generals and Emperor Napoleon III himself were skeptical of the Prussian military machine. The war with Prussia, which was rapidly gaining influence in Europe, allowed Napoleon III to solve two problems - to weaken Prussia and prevent the further unification of Germany, on the one hand, and, secondly, to stop the growth of the revolutionary movement in France, directed against the regime of the Second Empire.
In turn, the de facto ruler of Prussia and the North German Confederation, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, in every possible way provoked France into war. He hoped, as a result of rapid and successful military action, to complete the unification of Germany and reunite with the South German states, which is considered by historians as the beginning of a just and progressive war for the unification of a single German people. However, the Prussian government's plan to seize the mineral-rich French territories of Alsace and Lorraine must be seen as part of Prussia's aggressive and aggressive policy.
So, both sides of the conflict were looking for a reason for war, which did not take long to arrive. The offer by the new Spanish government after the revolution of 1868 of the vacant Spanish throne to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, the head of the senior Catholic branch of the German Brandenburg royal dynasty, who was a relative of the Prussian King William I, caused great indignation of the French government. At first, in the negotiations for the Spanish throne with King William I, diplomatic success accompanied Napoleon III's ambassador to Prussia, Benedetti. However, the intrigue masterfully carried out by Chancellor Bismarck - the publication in the German press of the so-called "Ems dispatch" - caused a storm of indignation in France, and on July 19, 1870, the North German Reichstag was officially informed of France's declaration of war on Prussia, which is what Bismarck sought - to force France to formally start a war first.
Parties to the conflict.
All states of the North German Confederation and Southern Germany took the side of Prussia. France found itself without allies, which was greatly facilitated by the Russian position of neutrality on the one hand, and the incompetent policy of Napoleon III in relations with the British Empire and Italy, on the other. Austria, thirsting for revenge for the humiliating defeat in the war of 1866, did not dare to open a second front against Prussia until the last moment and never began hostilities.
The Prussian army was superior to the French in many respects - in numbers, combat training, steel artillery from the Krupp factories in Germany against the bronze guns of the French. Germany's well-branched railway network made it possible to quickly mobilize and transfer German troops to the front line, which the French could not afford. The superiority of the French small arms - the Chassepot rifle of the 1866 model - over the Prussian Dreyse rifle of the 1849 model, could in no way change the course of hostilities in favor of the French army.
The French government's plan was to launch a major attack in the Bavarian Palatinate, intending to advance along the border of the North German Confederation and thus disconnect it from Southern Germany. Napoleon III also believed that after the first successes of the French army, Austria and Italy would enter into an alliance with him and begin military operations against Prussia.
The outstanding Prussian military leader, Field Marshal Helmuth Moltke the Elder, who, along with Chancellor Otto von Bismarck and Field Marshal Albrecht von Roon, should be considered one of the founders of the united German state, developed a strategic plan providing for a rapid offensive in the Alsace and Lorraine directions, the defeat of the main enemy forces in a general battle and the subsequent capture of Paris. Moltke's plan also took into account the possibility of military action against Austria if the latter entered the war against Prussia on the side of France.
Fighting between France and Prussia.
Contrary to French plans, the mobilization of the army was extremely slow and unsatisfactory, which was generally facilitated by the confusion that reigned within the Second Empire. By August 1870, French troops managed to concentrate only 220 thousand people with 800 guns at the borders in Lorraine and Alsace. The troops were consolidated into one Army of the Rhine under the command of Emperor Napoleon III himself.
In contrast to France, Prussia very quickly mobilized its armed forces and, by August 1870, its three armies, numbering over 400 thousand people with 1600 modern guns, entered the Bavarian Palatinate and southwestern Prussia in full combat readiness. In addition to the Prussians, the 3rd Army also included South German troops. The commander-in-chief of the united German army was the chief of the general staff, Field Marshal Moltke the elder.
On August 2, the French corps went on the offensive and drove the Prussian garrison out of Saarbrücken, but already on August 4, the 3rd Prussian Army launched an offensive in the direction of Alsace and defeated the French division near Weissenburg.
After this first defeat, Napoleon III relinquished supreme command of the French armed forces and the Army of the Rhine was divided into two armies: the 1st (1st, 5th and 7th Corps, located in Alsace) under the command of Marshal MacMahon and the 2nd Yu (2nd, 3rd and 4th corps, located in Lorraine) under the command of Marshal Bazin.
The Prussian 3rd Army invaded Alsace and MacMahon was forced to withdraw to Chalons-sur-Marne. In the 20th of August, a new French group was formed - the Chalon Army under the command of McMahon. Napoleon III intended to send this army towards Paris, since the German 3rd Army had already begun to develop an offensive in the direction of the French capital.
On August 6, the 1st and 2nd Prussian armies went on the offensive against Bazin's army in Lorraine. The French retreated to the fortified fortress of Metz, and, after defeat in the battles of Gravolta and Saint-Privat, Marshal Bazin decided to lock himself in the fortress. The Germans regrouped their forces and formed the 4th Meuse Army, which was supposed to move towards Paris and at the same time, together with the 3rd Prussian Army, act against the French Chalon Army of Marshal McMahon.
The French government made the wrong decision and, instead of providing protection to Paris, sent the Army of Chalons to help the besieged troops of Bazaine.
On September 1, 1870, the Chalon army was surrounded by German troops near the weakly fortified Sedan fortress and cut off from Metz; The 3rd Prussian Army cut off the retreat path of McMahon's group to the southwest towards Reims. After a bloody battle, Prussian troops occupied the commanding heights above Sedan and began a merciless artillery bombardment of the French. Having suffered colossal losses during the shelling carried out by Prussian troops, the French Army of Chalons was forced to raise the white flag and begin negotiations on surrender. Under the terms of surrender, the entire Chalon army, together with Emperor Napoleon III, who was with it, surrendered. As a result of the battle of Sedan, French troops lost about 17 thousand people killed and wounded, as well as over 100 thousand prisoners. Prussian losses amounted to about 9 thousand people killed and wounded. On September 4, the 3rd and 4th Prussian armies continued their attack on Paris.
After the defeat of the French army near Sedan, a coup took place in Paris, as a result of which the government of Napoleon III was overthrown and the Third Republic was proclaimed. The new French government proclaimed itself the Government of National Defense and began to form new armies in the provinces. Military men, sailors and volunteers flocked to Paris from all over France. By September 17, there were about 80 thousand regular troops and more than 300 thousand irregular troops in Paris. On September 17, the Prussian armies approached Paris and blocked it.
On October 27, 1870, the French army of Marshal Bazin, besieged in Metz, capitulated to Prussian troops. Many historians consider Bazin a traitor, because. The 2nd French Army was quite large and quite combat-ready. One way or another, Bazaine’s capitulation made it possible for the Prussian command to send the 1st Army to the north, and the 2nd to the Loire.
On December 4, the approaching 2nd Prussian Army managed to push back the newly formed French Loire Army across the Loire River and capture Orleans.
Despite the fact that the French people heroically defended their country, the Government of National Defense was unable to organize a worthy rebuff to the German troops. The uprising that arose on October 31, 1870 in Paris against the government, which was pursuing a mediocre policy for the defense of France, was brutally suppressed by regular units of the French National Guard.
On January 26, 1871, the French government signed an agreement on the surrender of Paris, and on the 28th it concluded a truce with the enemy.
The truce of January 28 did not extend to the eastern departments of France, where it was supposed to come into force after agreement was reached on the demarcation line between the warring parties in these areas.
The Loire army was pushed back by the Prussians to Switzerland, where it was forced to lay down its arms. Hero of Italy Giuseppe Garibaldi fought on the side of the French and commanded a corps, and subsequently the international volunteer Army of the Vosges, but was unable to provide support to the French Army of the Loire.
On February 18, 1871, the French fortress of Belfort capitulated, and the last hostilities in France ended.
Results of the Franco-Prussian War.
The National Assembly appointed the French statesman Louis Adolphe Thiers as head of the new government (later president of the republic). Following this, on March 18, 1871, a rebellion broke out in Paris, and power in the capital passed to the Paris Commune. A bloody civil war began between the Commune and Thiers' supporters.
On May 10, 1871 in Frankfurt, the Thiers government was forced to sign a peace treaty with Germany under very difficult conditions for France. Alsace and Eastern Lorraine went to Germany, and France was obliged to pay a huge indemnity of 5 billion francs.
The most important consequence of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 was the completion of the unification of Germany under Prussian hegemony. On January 18, King William I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor.
France's military losses (killed, from wounds, from disease, in captivity) amounted to over 140 thousand people. The losses of Prussia and the allies were about 50 thousand people. The Frankfurt Peace of 1871, humiliating and difficult for France, was a bleeding wound for the French Republic for a long time. The outbreak of the First World War of 1914–1918 was largely due to the consequences of the Franco-Prussian War and the catastrophic defeat of France in this war.
Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871- a military conflict between the empire of Napoleon III and the German states led by Prussia, which was seeking European hegemony. The war, provoked by the Prussian Chancellor O. Bismarck and formally started by Napoleon III, ended in the defeat and collapse of France, as a result of which Prussia was able to transform the North German Confederation into a unified German Empire.
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Subtitles
Background to the conflict
Cause of War (Ems Dispatch)
Already on July 28, at the military council in Metz, it became clear that the French army was completely unprepared; but public opinion demanded offensive action, and the 2nd Corps of General Frossard was moved to Saarbrücken, where the first, inconclusive battle with the German detachment occupying this city ensued (August 2).
Meanwhile, on August 3, the transportation of German troops to the border was completed, and the next day the 3rd Army of the Crown Prince of Prussia invaded Alsace and defeated the French division of General Douai (French), located near Weissenburg.
Following this, Napoleon, abandoning the overall command of the troops and leaving only the Guard and the 6th Corps at his disposal, entrusted the defense of Alsace to three corps (1st, 5th and 7th) under the command of MacMahon, and the troops those who were near Metz, subordinated them to Marshal Bazin.
2 days after the Battle of Weissenburg, MacMahon’s corps, located at Werth, was again attacked by the Prussian crown prince, completely defeated and retreated to Chalons. At the same time (August 6), the French suffered another setback: Frossard's 2nd Corps, which occupied a strong position on the heights of Spichern-Forbach, south of Saarbrücken, was attacked by units of the 1st and 2nd German armies of Steinmetz and Prince Friedrich. Karl and after a stubborn battle was forced to retreat.
The Germans, however, could not immediately take advantage of this success, since the strategic deployment of their 2nd Army on the Saar River was not yet completed; Only the patrols of their cavalry already appeared on the left bank of the Moselle on August 9. Marshal Bazaine, meanwhile, pulled his troops to Metz, where units of the 6th Corps from near Chalon began to approach. On August 11, the Germans moved forward; On August 13, their 1st Army came across French troops located around Metz; On August 14, a battle took place at Colombey-Noilly, and on the night of August 15, the French left for the Moselle. Bazaine decided to retreat westward, to Verdun, but at the same time made a major mistake by leading his entire army (up to 170 thousand) along one road, while he had five at his disposal. Meanwhile, the 2nd German Army, which had captured the crossings on the Moselle, above Metz, was already moving to the left bank of the river; General Reinbaben's 5th Cavalry Division, which was in the vanguard (German) came across French troops moving towards Verdun and started a battle with them.
The defeat of the main forces of the French army
On the morning of August 16, Emperor Napoleon, who was with Bazaine's army, left for Chalons; on the same day, French troops were attacked at Mars-la-Touré and Vionville by two corps of the 2nd German Army. This battle, indecisive in a tactical sense, was an important victory for the Germans in a strategic sense: they intercepted Bazaine’s direct route of retreat to Verdun and further to Paris and threatened the northern road to Doncourt. Instead of taking advantage of the temporary superiority of his forces to attack the enemy the next day, on August 17 Bazaine withdrew his troops to an impregnable, in his opinion, position near Metz. Meanwhile, the 1st and 2nd German armies (over 250 thousand) quickly converged on Mars-la-Tour; A special corps was sent to act against Tul. The location of Bazaine's troops became clear to the Germans only around noon on August 18th. On this day, in the morning they moved in a northerly direction; a stubborn battle took place at Saint-Privat and Gravelotte; the French right wing was shot down, their last route of retreat was intercepted.
The next day, a reorganization of the German military forces was carried out: from the Guard, the 12th and 4th corps of the 2nd Army, with the 5th and 6th cavalry divisions, the 4th Army was formed - the Meuse, entrusted to the command of the Crown Prince of Saxony. This army, together with the 3rd (total strength up to 245 thousand), was ordered to advance towards Paris.
On the French side, meanwhile, a new army (about 140 thousand) was formed at Chalons, under the command of MacMahon. The emperor himself arrived to this army. At first it was decided to take her to Paris, but public opinion rebelled against this, demanding Bazin’s revenue, and, at the insistence of the new Minister of War Cousin de Montauban (Count Palicao), MacMahon decided to carry out such a risky operation. On August 23, his army moved to the Meuse River. This movement was delayed by food difficulties, and yet on August 25, accurate information about it was received at the German headquarters. The 3rd and 4th German armies moved in a northerly direction, across MacMahon, and managed to warn the French at the crossings near Den (French) and Stene. Repeated clashes with German troops overtaking him (battles at Buzancy, Noir, Beaumont) pointed out to McMahon the danger that threatened him; he still had the opportunity to withdraw his army to Maizières, but instead led it to the fortress of Sedan, which did not at all represent a reliable stronghold and was surrounded on all sides by dominant heights. The result was the Sedan disaster that followed on September 1, which ended with the capture of the entire French army of MacMahon, along with Emperor Napoleon III.
Of the entire active French army, only the 13th corps of the general remained free Vinua [remove template], who was sent by the Minister of War to reinforce McMahon and had already reached Maizières, but, having learned on the evening of September 1 about what had happened at Sedan, he immediately began to retreat to Paris, pursued by the 6th German Corps. Official news of the defeat at Sedan was received in the capital of France on September 3, and the next day there, as a result of a massive uprising of the Parisians, Napoleon was declared deposed, and a Government of National Defense under the chairmanship of General Trochu, General Le Flot was appointed Minister of War. The Government of National Defense offered peace to Germany, but due to the excessive demands of the victorious enemy, the agreement did not take place.
Siege of Paris and end of the war
The Germans brought about 700 thousand people into France during September and October; The French, apart from Bazin’s army locked in Metz, had only relatively insignificant reliable forces left. Together with Vinoy's corps, which made it to Paris, up to 150 thousand people could be counted in Paris, a significant part of which were of very dubious dignity; about 50 thousand were in various depots and marching regiments; in addition, there were up to 500 thousand people aged 20-40 years, who served as material for the formation of new corps. This improvised army, in the fight against regular troops, inspired by the brilliant victories they had won, had little chance of success. However, the Government of National Defense decided to continue the fight to the last extreme. Meanwhile, the German army spread across the northeast of France, capturing secondary fortresses that were still in the power of the French. The 3rd and 4th armies, having separated two corps to escort the Sedan prisoners, moved towards Paris and completed its encirclement from September 17 to 19.
Prussia
On January 18, 1871, at Versailles, Bismarck and Wilhelm I announced the reunification of Germany. Bismarck's dream came true - he created a unified German state. The Empire was quickly joined by states that were not part of the North German Confederation - Bavaria and other southern German states. Austria did not become part of the newly unified Germany. The five billion francs that the French paid to the Germans as indemnities became a solid foundation for the German economy. Bismarck became Germany's second man, but this is only formally. In fact, the prime minister was practically the sole ruler, and William I was not persistent and greedy for power.
Thus, a new powerful power appeared on the continent - the German Empire, whose territory was 540,857 km², population 41,058,000 people, and an army of almost 1 million soldiers.
War statistics
| Countries | Population 1870 | Number of troops | Killed (all reasons) | Wounded | Died from disease | Civilians killed |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| North German Confederation | 32 914 800 | 1 451 992 | 32 634 | 89 732 | 12 147 | 200 000 |
| Bavaria | 4 863 000 | 55 500 | 5600 | |||
| Württemberg | 1 819 000 | 16 500 | 976 | |||
| Baden | 1 462 000 | 13 500 | 956 | |||
| Total allies | 41 058 800 | 1 451 992 | 40 166 | 200 000 | ||
| France | 36 870 000 | 2 067 366 |
Let me down Peace of Frankfurt 1871. France lost Alsace and a significant part of Lorraine with a population of one and a half million, two-thirds German, one-third French, undertook to pay 5 billion francs (i.e. 1875 million rubles at the current rate) and had to undergo German occupation east of Paris before payment of the indemnity. Germany released the prisoners captured in the Franco-Prussian War immediately, and at that moment there were more than 400 thousand of them.
Franco-Prussian War. Map. The dotted line marks the border of the territory ceded to Germany by the Frankfurt Peace
Results of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 – 1871 were huge.
France became a republic and lost two provinces. The North German Confederation and the South German states united to form the German Empire, whose territory was increased by the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine.
Austria, still not losing hope of taking revenge on Prussia for its defeat in the War of 1866, finally abandoned the idea of regaining its former dominance in Germany.
Italy took control of Rome, and the centuries-old secular power of the Roman high priest (the pope) thereby ended.
The Franco-Prussian War had important results for the Russians as well. Emperor Alexander II took advantage of the defeat of France in order to announce to the other powers in the fall of 1870 that Russia no longer recognized itself as bound by the Treaty of Paris of 1856, which prohibited it from having a navy in the Black Sea. England and Austria protested, but Bismarck proposed to settle the matter at a conference, which met in London at the beginning of 1871. Russia here had to agree in principle that international treaties should be respected by everyone, but the new treaty drawn up at the conference, however, satisfied Russian requirement. The Sultan was forced to come to terms with this, and Turkey, having lost its defender and patron in the person of Napoleon III, temporarily fell under the influence of Russia.
After the Franco-Prussian War, political dominance in Europe, which belonged to France under Napoleon III, passed to the new empire, just as France itself, as a result of its victories in the Crimea, took away this dominance from Russia at the end of the reign of Nicholas I. The role in international politics played by the “Tuileries Sphinx” Louis Napoleon, as a result of the Franco-Prussian War, passed to the “Iron Chancellor” of the German Empire, and Bismarck became the scarecrow of Europe for a long time. It was expected that after a war on three fronts (with Denmark, Austria and France), he would start a war on a fourth front, with Russia. It was expected that Germany would want to take possession of all the lands where there were Germans, that is, the German parts of Austria and Switzerland and the Baltic provinces of Russia, and, in addition, Holland with its rich colonies; Finally, they expected a new war with France, which did not put up with the loss of two provinces, and in which the idea of “revenge” was very strong, that is, revenge for the defeat and return of the lost regions. After the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck declared at every opportunity that Germany was “completely saturated” and would only protect the common peace, but they did not believe him.
Otto von Bismarck. Photo 1871
The peace, however, was not broken, but it was an armed peace. After the Franco-Prussian War, there was an increase in militarism: the introduction of universal conscription on the Prussian model in various states, an increase in the size of armies, improvement of weapons, reconstruction of fortresses, strengthening of military fleets, etc., etc. Something like a race began between the great powers, which was accompanied, of course, by a constant increase in military budgets, and with them taxes and especially public debts. Entire industries associated with military orders received extraordinary development after the Franco-Prussian War. One “cannon king” Krupp in Germany, in the second half of the eighties, could boast that his factory produced more than 200,000 guns at the request of 34 states. The fact is that secondary states also began to arm themselves, reform their troops, introduce universal conscription, etc., fearing for their independence or, as was the case in Belgium and Switzerland, for their neutrality in the event of a new major clash like this Franco-Prussian war. The peace between the Great Powers was as unbroken after 1871 as it was between 1815 and 1859; only
Chapter 30. Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871
The war between France and Germany in 1870 marked the first time that improved rifled weapons were used by professional armies on both sides. Therefore, this war represents the only source from which one can understand what effect new weapons have on the actions of various branches of the military and the change in the relative importance of the branches of troops in the conduct of hostilities.
Both armies fought had numerous, well-armed and trained cavalry, although their ratio to infantry in both armies was smaller than in other wars. This happened due to an increase in the size of the armies themselves, rather than due to a reduction in cavalry forces.
The French cavalry consisted of 11 cuirassier and 1 carabinieri regiments, heavy or reserve cavalry, 13 dragoon and 9 uhlan regiments of line cavalry, 17 cavalry, 9 hussars and 3 spagis (local African cavalry) light cavalry. The guards and light cavalry regiments each had 6 squadrons, including 1 reserve. Other cavalry regiments had 4 field and 1 reserve squadron each. Two regiments were united into brigades, and 2 or 3 brigades made up a cavalry division. In wartime, the total number of cavalry was 40 thousand people.
Each corps, consisting of three or four infantry divisions, had a cavalry division attached to it, which was under the direct command of the corps commander, so that the commanders of the infantry divisions could not directly dispose of the cavalry. In the German army, one cavalry regiment was assigned to each infantry division.
French division commanders more than once felt the need for special and maneuverable cavalry units. This happened, for example, near Weissenburg, where General Abel Douhet, together with the 2nd Infantry Division of the 1st Corps, did not have a single platoon of cavalry to organize reconnaissance on his front. He occupied an advanced position, and the Prussian attack on him was unexpected and ended in heavy losses and withdrawal.
In addition to the cavalry divisions attached to the French corps, there was also a reserve cavalry corps of three divisions, totaling 48 squadrons, 30 cannons and 6 mitrailleuses (the French name for canister).
The cavalry's armament was as follows. Cuirassiers had broadswords and pistols, lancers had pikes, sabers and pistols, dragoons, rangers and hussars were equally armed with Chassepo carbines, which fired at 800 steps, and sabers. These units consisted of mounted riflemen, although they usually acted similarly to other mounted units, but if necessary they dismounted and fought on foot.
The cavalry of the North German Confederation (created in 1867 under the auspices of Prussia) consisted of 10 cuirassiers, 21 lancers, 21 dragoons, 18 hussars and 6 light regiments, a total of 76 regiments of 4 active squadrons and 1 reserve.
There were about 600 cavalry in the regiment. Each infantry division consisted of a cavalry regiment, the remaining regiments were consolidated into divisions and assigned to different armies; divisions, consisting of 2 brigades of 2 regiments, each had a horse battery. Cuirassiers and dragoons were considered heavy cavalry, all others were considered light cavalry. The total number of cavalry in the German army, including the South German troops, was 369 squadrons, or approximately 56 thousand people.
From the very beginning of the war of 1870, the superiority of the Germans in organization and in the art of warfare became obvious. The wars of the great Napoleon, followed by successes in the Crimean War, and even more clear achievements in Italy in 1859 (under Magenta and others) instilled in the French a belief in their invincibility, they rested on their laurels, not paying due attention to improvements in military affairs . The experience of the American Civil War taught the French nothing, they believed that the armies in the United States, recruited from ordinary people, not professional soldiers, could not teach anything to an army like the French, so the lessons of the American war had no value.
The French seem to have lost sight of the fact that four years of constant fighting with varying degrees of success can produce high-level soldiers whose practical knowledge of military affairs will be greater than if all their service and training in military affairs were carried out in peacetime.
Consequently, the French did not take advantage of the cavalry experience developed in America. Therefore, the guard and reconnaissance service of their cavalry turned out to be below any criticism, and their actions in battle, extremely brave and courageous, but equally thoughtless, led only to fruitless casualties at Vert and Sedan.
Nothing stands out more clearly in descriptions of the 1870 campaign than the ineptitude of the French in the performance of guard and reconnaissance services. It was completely neglected, as happened, for example, at Beaumont, or, as in other places, it was executed so carelessly that the French troops were repeatedly attacked by the enemy in their bivouacs in broad daylight and were taken by surprise.
Four years before the start of the Franco-Prussian War, the German cavalry was already dealing with Austrian cavalry, whose reconnaissance and guard service was carried out equally ineffectively. Accordingly, the Germans became more bold in conducting reconnaissance, which was greatly facilitated by the inactivity of the French cavalry in such operations. From the very beginning of the campaign, the German cavalry brought much benefit to their army, both by reconnaissance and by tirelessly conducting long-range surveillance and reconnaissance of the enemy in all directions.
Thanks to constant impunity, German patrols walked behind the French lines and made bold and risky searches in small groups of cavalrymen, collecting and bringing back very important information regarding enemy positions and movements.
The careful training of German soldiers in peacetime and well-written instructions for the performance of basic duties now proved to be of extraordinary value to them, enabling them to perform admirably the service which had been entrusted to them in war.
On the night of June 23-24, a patrol of Prussian lancers penetrated the French lines and blew up the French railway viaduct at Saargemund. From that day on, the Prussian cavalry began to constantly demonstrate its superiority. On July 26, the Württemberg General Staff officer Count Zeppelin, together with 4 officers and 4 lower ranks, passed through the French forward posts located near Lauterburg and acted for 36 hours in the French rear, conducting reconnaissance. However, while resting at a small inn in Schirlenhof, south of Werth, 10 miles in rear of the French outposts, the group was unexpectedly attacked. Only Count Zeppelin managed to gallop away and bring back a large amount of information of extraordinary significance, on the basis of which a plan for the advancement of the Crown Prince's army was built a few days later.
Meanwhile, the French cavalry was inactive. General Abel Douai, along with his 2nd Infantry Division, did not have any cavalry. When he was pushed forward into an exposed position at Weissenburg, he was suddenly attacked by the enemy and Douai was completely defeated during the advance of the German 3rd Army. This was the first Prussian success, and was followed two days later by a second, at Werth, where the French right wing also suffered seriously from the advancing Prussians. During these battles, the French fought bravely and courageously, but were attacked unexpectedly and by superior forces.
At the Battle of Werth, Michel's French cuirassier brigade, from the French right flank, attacked the Prussian left flank, which was advancing towards Morsbronn and threatened to bypass the French right flank. This brigade, numbering a thousand men, advanced on Morsbronn in three lines over difficult terrain.
Despite rifle fire, they bravely rushed forward to strike the Prussian infantry, preventing them from forming into battle formation. The Germans met the attack in the formation they were in, without having time to form a cohesive square that would have given them the opportunity to fire with enormous advantage.
Nevertheless, within a few minutes, as a result of heavy rifle fire, the cuirassiers suffered huge losses. Those who remained tried to continue the attack, but were captured, and only a few managed to break through and escape by roundabout routes. But these remnants of the brigade were also attacked by the Prussian hussar regiment.
As a result of this battle, Michel's brigade and the 6th Lancers regiment, which attacked along with it, were almost completely destroyed, only a few managed to break through to their own. The Prussian hussars lost 1 man killed, 23 were wounded, and 35 horses were damaged. Infantry losses were very insignificant.
Thanks to the sacrifice of a cavalry brigade, the French managed to gain time for the retreat of their right wing. The attack was carried out brilliantly and in perfect order: the horsemen rushed towards the enemy without hesitation or stoppage, and yet the fire of the infantry, which was conducted from needle guns, was sufficient to defeat them and almost completely destroy them, so that the infantry did not even need to line up in a square. In this war we will see other examples of how cavalry had little chance of success if it operated in the old way.
After the battles of Werth and Spichern, the French, discouraged by their defeats, were forced to quickly retreat in different directions, the right flank under the command of MacMahon retreated first to the south and then in a roundabout way to Chalons, and the rest of the army (Bazaine) retreated to Metz.
At the same time, the German cavalry performed so magnificently that it proved its enormous capabilities and the usefulness it could bring in combat, despite the very significant improvement in the quality of firearms. Although the chances of success for cavalry on the battlefield were greatly reduced, there were still ample opportunities for its use, which the Germans did, and very skillfully.
The German cavalry hurried to get one or two marches ahead of the main infantry corps, constantly keeping the enemy in sight, and, spreading far and wide over a long distance, formed an impenetrable curtain or veil that hid the movements of the main army, allowing the latter to be at peace with respect to possible attacks by the enemy . She was sure that she was securely covered in this way. All these duties were carried out in the most remarkable manner, with courage, energy and skill, showing the enormous advantages afforded by superior numbers and well-organized mounted troops.
At a time when the armies of most countries began to reduce the number of cavalry, having come to the conclusion that it had become less necessary, in the Prussian (and North German) army, on the contrary, it was strengthened rather than reduced, constantly remembering the enormous value of cavalry.
The units and cavalry units moved far forward practically concealed for the French generals all information about the positions and intentions of the Prussians. The patrols of lancers and hussars appeared everywhere, and under their curtain it was impossible to detect from which part of the moving curtain of horsemen the main forces would appear.
The German corps walked 20–30 miles (32–48 km) behind their cavalry units in safety, both while moving and during halts and bivouacs. Meanwhile, the German cavalry advanced, drove MacMahon south of Metz, overran the entire territory between the troops of MacMahon and Bazaine, and soon reached the Moselle.
They reached Nancy, the main city of Lorraine, and on August 12 the city was surrendered to 6 Uhlan regiments, which were soon joined by a larger number of other mounted units. Soon the Prussian cavalry occupied the entire Moselle line, spreading all the way to the fortifications of Metz. It was thanks to the daring and dashing actions of the German cavalry that McMahon's reinforcements were unable to join the main forces of the French army.
The Germans then crossed the Moselle at Pont-à-Mousson, and the whole great mass of cavalry advanced north to envelop the right flank of the French army at Metz. By this time it was clear that the French intended to retreat towards Verdun, and it was important to prevent, if possible, their advance.
The main forces of the Germans were still far behind, although they were marching at a forced pace. The advanced cavalry was supposed to hold the enemy until the infantry corps arrived. On the morning of August 15, the German advanced cavalry units attacked the Metz-Verdun road and were able to delay the French retreat for almost 24 hours.
General Forton's cavalry division, which formed the vanguard of the French army, in this transition encountered Redern's brigade from the 5th Prussian cavalry division, which had a battery of horse artillery. This small detachment of Prussian cavalry fought bravely and delayed the movement of the entire southern column of the French army with artillery fire.
It is necessary to note the ineffectiveness and lack of initiative in the response by the French cavalry, since General Forton had a significant number of cavalrymen and could easily throw Redern’s small Prussian brigade out of the way, thereby ensuring the continuation of the movement. However, instead of advancing, he retreated to Vionville, and with this the fate of Bazaine's army was practically sealed.
The next day, after a difficult march, German infantry divisions began to approach one after another, the French attempts to resume the movement towards Verdun led to the battle of Mars-la-Tour and Vionville, which ended unsuccessfully for the French. The French retreated to Gravelotte, where the decisive battle took place. It led to Bazin being surrounded at Metz, where he finally surrendered.
In the midst of the battle on August 16 at Vionville there was a critical moment when the 6th French Corps under the command of Marshal Canrobert, initially outnumbering the Prussians, pressed with enormous force and threatened a decisive attack on the weary troops of Elfensleben and Flavigny.
Having neither infantry nor artillery in reserve, Elfensleben decided that his only hope was to mount a decisive attack with his entire cavalry, which was done. Admittedly, it seemed to be something of a last resort, since it was clear that all the soldiers would be sacrificed.
The brigade, consisting of 3 squadrons of the 7th Cuirassier Regiment and three from the 16th Uhlan Regiment, was commanded by General Bredov. He formed them in a single line, but due to a delay in the deployment of the 16th Lancers, the attack began in ledges. Under heavy artillery fire, they rushed forward, soon reached the guns, cut down the artillerymen with broadswords and sabers, and rushed at full speed further towards the infantry lines located in the rear. She met the attacking squadron with volleys of gunfire.
Nevertheless, the infantry lines were broken through, broadswords, sabers and pikes had a deadly effect, and several mitrailleuses were captured. Excited by success, carried away by the hot fury of the attack, the Germans could no longer unite or reorganize. And then the French cuirassiers of the 7th Cuirassier Regiment, along with lancers and spagis, suddenly attacked these cavalry, who were in disarray. In their hasty retreat they were poorly organized and suffered huge losses, but the sacrifice was duly made as they were able to delay a French attack that would otherwise have been fatal. It was the bravest attack of the war, the only one of its kind and to a certain extent successful.
Made later in the day to assist Wedel's infantry brigade, the attack by the 1st Prussian Dragoon Guards was not successful, and fire from the undisturbed French infantry drove them back with heavy casualties. Shortly after this, General von Barbie, with 6 regiments of cavalry on the Prussian left flank, attacked 10 regiments of French cavalry under the leadership of General Clerambault, who, strange as it may seem, met the attack by opening fire with carbines on the open plain. The Prussians, despising this fire, attacked with cold steel, and a short hand-to-hand battle soon began, ending in favor of the Germans, whose superiority and skill clearly dominated their enemy.
At the end of the battle, when it was already dark, an attack was made by the 6th Prussian Cavalry Division, when a brigade of hussars under the leadership of Rauch broke through several squares of French infantry. This happened thanks to the darkness, which hid the approach of the horsemen, and they were able to approach at close range. The fierce fire rained down on them from all the squares led to the rapid retreat of the division.
Almost only infantry and artillery took part in the battle of Gravelot - Saint-Privat, so we do not dwell on it.
In subsequent operations between 18 August and the Battle of Sedan, the contrast between the actions of the cavalry of the two armies became very clear. At the request of the French government, MacMahon was forced to begin an outflanking maneuver to try to rescue Bazin and link up with him.
This plan could only be carried out if it was carried out quickly, skillfully and secretly. The French cavalry had a real opportunity not only to regain their well-deserved reputation, but also to significantly help their army. However, they surprisingly consistently managed to fail on all counts, which is largely the fault of the commander-in-chief.
The most correct decision would be to concentrate all the cavalry on the right flank, so that, having set up a line of posts with supports, make it a curtain behind which the army would secretly carry out its movements. Failure to detect French movements for one or two days would undoubtedly increase their chances of success. Instead, part of the cavalry marched at the head of the columns, part equally on both flanks, and part was distributed among the corps. At first, at least half of the reserve cavalry was placed on the right flank, but on August 25 it was drawn towards Le Chene, and thus the right flank was left without cover precisely in the direction from which the greatest danger threatened; Bonnemann's reserve division was constantly moving on the extreme left flank, where it was impossible to expect an attack. Thus, during the entire further movement, the French army was covered only by cavalry units attached to the corps.
The result was as could be expected: the Germans soon discovered the movements and understood the French plan, after which their entire army turned to the right and rushed towards them. An impenetrable curtain of cavalry, spreading far and wide around, hid the movements of the Germans. And soon huge masses of German infantry came close to the flank and rear of the French columns, moving blindly, neglecting simple precautions.
First, on August 30, the Germans attacked the 5th French corps of General Falla, who was bivouacked north of Beaumont. For some unknown reason, the French completely neglected precautions and did not send cavalry to reconnoiter the forests south of Beaumont. There was an inexplicable miss, since the French had every reason to believe that the attack was most likely to come from this direction.
The Prussians, moving under the cover of the forests, came close to the camp and were able to clearly see how the French troops were preparing food and calmly resting, completely unaware of the danger that threatened them. German artillery shells burst unexpectedly among the French, the first sign of an attack that was boldly launched and proved completely successful. The French artillery did not even have time to harness their horses, so their guns were captured along with all their tents, baggage and supplies.
What happened became a prologue to the final defeat at Sedan. In this last battle of the Empire, the cavalry again proved that it had not lost the courage that had always distinguished the French soldier. At the end of the battle, General Ducrot decided to make a desperate attempt to delay the enemy with a large mass of cavalry, and then fight his way out with the infantry coming behind.
General Marguerite, together with the reserve cavalry division, was to attack and break through the enemy position, then turn right and crush the enemy in that direction. Bonnemann's 2nd Reserve Cavalry Division was to support this attack, with several mounted regiments of the 12th Corps acting as reserves.
The cavalry moved forward to attack, it rolled like a tornado and seemed to crush the Prussian infantry. The charging cavalry soon broke through the line of skirmishers and rushed forward towards the German battalions, who deployed in closed lines and met them with a deadly hail of bullets from needle rifles.
The attacks were repeated with brilliant courage. The cavalry bravely rushed forward, but they were mowed down in such numbers that along the entire front of the Prussian lines there were piles of dead and dying men and horses. This entire operation was a futile and terrible sacrifice of brave men.
“In this campaign, I believe, the question of cavalry attacking infantry armed with breech-loading rifles was finally settled. Under whatever circumstances such an attack was carried out - by the 8th and 9th French cuirassier regiments at Werth, the 7th Prussian at Vionville on August 16, or by the two French light cavalry brigades on the left flank at Sedan - the result was the same, the attacks resulted in horrific casualties, without any clear result.
General Sheridan was an attentive witness to the four charges of the French light horse at Sedan, and gave me the most detailed account of them. I examined the scene of the attack most carefully only 30 hours later, when the dead soldiers and horses lying everywhere had not yet been removed, so I was able to form an accurate picture, as if I myself had witnessed the attack.
The first attack, carried out by the 1st French Hussars, took place under the most favorable conditions possible and was, moreover, very skillfully organized. As soon as the Prussian riflemen, walking in front of the main infantry corps, entered the hill behind which the hussars were waiting, they immediately walked around the hill until they found themselves in the rear and on the right flank of the riflemen. In this way they passed before they were noticed, and then they attacked in the most valiant manner, attacking the whole line.
However, even under such favorable circumstances, the attack did not achieve the result that should have been discussed. The Germans immediately formed groups and opened fire; the few who fled to the rear, about 25 or 30 people, were cut down.
The fire from these clumsy little Prussian squares inflicted heavy losses on the hussars. The two squadrons attacking from behind wisely deviated and returned under the cover of the hill. Those who broke through the Prussian lines were killed, wounded or captured. Everything that happened did not delay the advance of the Prussian infantry even for 5 minutes.
Subsequent attacks by the 1st, 3rd and 4th African Regiments and the 6th Cavalry Regiment ended in nothing, although they were carried out in the most valiant and persistent manner. The Prussians simply waited for them, forming a line until the horsemen approached to within 140 meters. There was a pointless massacre without any success. The hillside was literally covered with the dead bodies of the horsemen and their small gray Arabian horses. These two brigades, consisting of five regiments, probably lost about 350 men killed, not counting the wounded and prisoners. It is impossible to imagine a greater shame.
General Sheridan assured me that the horsemen behaved in the most gallant manner, charging again and again after the signals to charge.
Until the last minute they were sheltered from enemy fire, carefully equipped, skillfully and bravely directed. The length of the attack did not exceed 350–370 meters, and yet the result was the complete destruction of the cavalry without any success.
It is with great pain that I have to talk about this. A friend of mine, whom I knew in Africa ten years ago, with the rank of major, commanded two squadrons of one of the regiments. He showed me a list of his two squadrons with marks on it next to the names of the soldiers. It turned out that out of 216 people who went into battle, fifty-eight returned. Moreover, they were under gunfire for no more than a quarter of an hour.”
After the Battle of Sedan, the war mainly focused on two sieges - Paris and Metz. At the same time, the cavalry provided excellent service in maintaining lines of communication and covering operations. During the action in some French provinces several cases involving cavalry occurred, but all of them were of a local scale.
Thus, during the battle of Amiens, several German squadrons attacked a naval battalion and captured several cannons. At Orleans the 4th Hussars and at Soigny the 11th Lancers also captured French guns. These minor successes achieved on the battlefield are not at all comparable to the enormous mass of cavalry, numbering almost 70 thousand, that the Germans fielded in this war.
At the beginning of the Siege of Paris, the French organized small guerrilla corps called Frantirieres (French Free Rifles). When they became numerous, the Prussian lancers could no longer move freely over considerable distances, but were almost always accompanied by battalions of infantry, moving with them to clear villages, forests and generally closed places, preventing the popular movement of these voluntary skirmishers, who fought with extraordinary bravery.
All of the above indisputably proves that the significant successes achieved by the Prussian cavalry at the beginning of the war should be attributed rather to the inaction of the French cavalry or its improper use, but not at all to the superiority in armament or organization of the famous lancers.
The system of attaching cavalry to infantry naturally deprived the cavalry of mobility. As a result, the cavalry lost its inherent qualities, which disappeared the moment the cavalry was attached to the infantry.
A careful study of the use of cavalry during the American Civil War would have shown the Germans that if their cavalry had been armed with rifles or carbines, they would have been able to do equally well or better what they did in the early period of the war, and later fight successfully. against the French free shooters.
In America, mounted riflemen constantly captured cities and villages, even occupied by infantry and artillery. The "house guards" (local militias), the same type of troops as the French Free Fusiliers, could never prevent the rapid advance of the Southern cavalry, who would probably laugh at the idea that they could be delayed and stopped, and that they need to be given infantry for the duration of their raids.
From this point of view, the experience of the Franco-German war is noteworthy, since the brilliant successes of the Prussian cavalry at the beginning of the campaign may have led to the expectation that they might be embarrassed by such undisciplined and irregular troops as the free skirmishers. What happened was the most striking lesson that the war since Sedan gave to a cavalry officer, and requires little thought than to identify the weak point and try to find an antidote.
This turned out to be the last great war, from which we can draw instructions for the actions of cavalry in the future. At the time I wrote this book there was a war going on between Turkey and Serbia, of which only vague and inaccurate descriptions can be gathered from the public press. So it is impossible at present to say whether any positive experience can really be drawn from the fighting that took place there. As far as we have been able to discover, the horsemen did not have a significant influence. The following passage, quoted from a newspaper, if true, clearly shows the value of the revolver and is therefore worthy of attention:
“During the Battle of Zaichar, the Serbian officer, Captain Frasanovic, showed himself in an extraordinary way. He took his saber in his teeth and his revolver in his hand, rushed through the Turkish half-battalion, grabbed the banner and carried it away, leaving behind a dead or wounded Turk with each shot.”
Here we will finish the historical essay dedicated to the cavalry and its service. We have traced its formation from the foggy period of the most distant Antiquity through all the changes and vicissitudes of the intervening centuries down to the present time. We hope that we have been able to clarify for the reader the gradual development of cavalry to its modern state. Let us now endeavor to complete our labors worthily, in order to decide, in the light of the experience of the past and the knowledge of the present, what may be considered the best system of organizing, equipping and employing cavalry in a future war.
author Potemkin Vladimir PetrovichCHAPTER THIRTEEN. DIPLOMATIC PREPARATION FOR THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1867 - 1870) The role of Prussia in the North German Confederation after the Peace of Prague. The peace between Austria and Prussia, signed in Prague on August 24, 1866, only confirmed the terms of the Nikolsburg Truce.
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For Napoleon III, the quick and decisive victory of Prussia over Austria in 1866 and its consequences were an unpleasant surprise. As “compensation”, he demanded from Bismarck consent to the annexation of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, which had been a member of Germany-158 since 1815, to France.
Russian Union, and since 1842 - the Customs Union of German States. But Bismarck did not even think of fulfilling his previous promises. This led to a sharp deterioration in Franco-Prussian relations in the late 60s.
Luxembourg never fell to Napoleon III. His fate was decided by the London International Conference, held in May 1867. Representatives of Austria-Hungary 1, Belgium, Great Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Prussia, Russia, France and Luxembourg itself took part in it. As a result of this conference, an agreement was signed that confirmed the independence and territorial integrity of Luxembourg. It was recognized as the hereditary possession of the Dukes of Nassau-Oran and declared an “eternally neutral state” under the guarantees of all parties to the treaty, except Belgium, which itself had a neutral status.
However, Napoleon III did not accept diplomatic defeat. He began in every possible way to prevent the inclusion of the states of Southern Germany into the North German Confederation, in any case, without appropriate territorial compensation. To this end, he tried to use the dynastic contradictions between the Hohenzollerns and the Habsburgs, which sharply worsened as a result of the war of 1866. He proposed to Franz Joseph a project for the formation of the South German Confederation led by Austria-Hungary. This union was to include the states of Southern Germany. However, the government of Austria-Hungary, preoccupied with internal problems, was not enthusiastic about Napoleon III's proposal, which remained without consequences.
Anticipating the possibility of war with France, Bismarck intensively prepared for it. As usual, he took care of the international isolation of the future enemy. His task was made easier by the fact that the expansionist policy of Napoleon III turned all the European powers against him: neither Great Britain, nor Russia, nor Austria-Hungary, nor even Italy showed any desire to help him in trouble. To be on the safe side, Bismarck agreed with Russia in 1868 that it would not only remain neutral in the event of war, but would also deploy large military forces on the border with Austria-Hungary capable of keeping the Austrians from attempting revenge. As before, Bismarck took advantage of Russia's desire to achieve, with the help of Prussia, a revision of the Paris Peace of 1856.
" As a result of a compromise between the government and the Hungarian national movement, the Austrian Empire was transformed into the dualist monarchy of Austria-Hungary in 1867.
Fearing to miss an opportunity, Bismarck, in his usual manner, began to provoke France into an armed conflict. To do this, he took advantage of disagreements between France and Prussia on a minor issue - over the candidacy to replace the Spanish throne. As a result of the revolution that took place in Spain in September 1868, Queen Isabella II fled abroad. The Cortes declared the throne vacant, and the government began searching for a new monarch. In 1869, Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, an officer in the Prussian army and a relative of King William I, received an invitation to take the throne. The French government categorically objected to his candidacy. However, with the consent of the Prussian king, Prince Leopold officially announced his consent to take the Spanish throne on July 2, 1870.
The French government perceived his decision as an openly hostile move on the part of Prussia. On July 5, Foreign Minister Duke de Gramont demanded that Leopold withdraw his candidacy. The tension between both countries reached a critical point, which was quite in accordance with Bismarck's intentions. However, contrary to his expectations, Wilhelm I, who was on the waters in the resort town of Emse, on July 12 announced his refusal to support Leopold's candidacy 1. But the verbal statement did not satisfy the French. The French ambassador Benedetti appeared on July 13 to the king with a demand to confirm in writing Prussia's commitment to never again support the candidacy of a German prince for the Spanish throne. Wilhelm found this demand excessive and rejected it. By telegram he informed Bismarck of the contents of his negotiations with the French ambassador. Bismarck, as he later said in his memoirs, by deleting something from it, but without adding or changing a word in it, gave it such a look that it could give “the impression of a red rag on a Gallic bull.” In this form, he published this document, which went down in history as the “Ems dispatch.”
If the “Emes dispatch” made an impression on the French government, it was only because it had already made its choice. On July 15, at his request, the Legislative Corps voted for war credits. In response, on July 16, Wilhelm signed an order to mobilize the Prussian army. On July 19, France declared war on Prussia. Bismarck achieved his goal: he
1 After much trouble, Alfonso XII, son of Isabella II, became king of Spain in 1874.
managed to lure Napoleon into a trap. Moreover, before the whole world and especially before German public opinion, France appeared in the role of an aggressor.
The first serious battles on the border in early August ended in defeat for the French army, which was forced to retreat into the interior of the country. One part of it, under the command of Marshal Bazin, was surrounded in the Metz fortress in mid-August. The other, under the command of Marshal MacMahon, was pushed back to the city of Sedan, where on September 2 it surrendered to the mercy of the winner. Napoleon III was captured along with MacMahon's troops. In Paris, this caused widespread unrest, as a result of which the Second Empire fell and on September 4, 1870, France was proclaimed a republic. The new government of "national defense" declared that it would continue the war for the liberation of the country. However, it did not have sufficient forces for this. On September 19, Paris was surrounded by German troops. A months-long siege of the French capital began. The capitulation of Metz on October 27 and the surrender of Orleans to the enemy on December 4 completed the military defeat of France. On December 27, systematic shelling of the French capital began.
The fall of the Second Empire and the defeat of France in the war with the German states served as a prerequisite for solving pressing problems of unification not only of Germany, but also of Italy. Moreover, the government of the Kingdom of Italy showed exceptional efficiency. Soon after the deposition of Napoleon III, it declared the 1864 convention on guarantees of the inviolability of papal possessions to be no longer in force and introduced its army into them. The success of the military operation was facilitated by the fact that French troops were withdrawn from the Papal States at the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War. On October 2, 1870, residents of the region and Rome voted in a plebiscite to join the Kingdom of Italy. In 1871, a special law guaranteed the Pope the opportunity to fulfill his duties as head of the Roman Catholic Church. The pope's possessions were limited to the territories of the Vatican and Lateran palaces, as well as a country villa. Rome was declared the capital of Italy (until 1867 the capital was Turin, then Florence). However, the Pope refused to recognize the temporal power of the kings of the Savoy dynasty and declared himself a prisoner of the Vatican 1.
1 The conflict between the secular state and the Pope lasted for many decades and was resolved only by the Lateran Agreements of 1929, in accordance with which the territory of Rome, where the papal residences and central institutions of the Catholic Church are located, became officially known as the “Vatican State”.
On January 18, 1871, a deeply symbolic event took place in the history of Germany. On the ruins of defeated France, under artillery cannonade in the Hall of Mirrors of the Grand Royal Palace in Versailles, Prussian King William I, in the presence of other German monarchs, dignitaries, military leaders, etc., announced that he was accepting the title of Emperor - Kaiser. Along with the member states of the North German Confederation, the German Empire included Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg and Hesse. The constitution of the North German Confederation was taken as the basis for the constitution of the new state.
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