Origin of matter. The myth of the eternity of matter has been refuted by science! Modern science has clearly established

French poet of the 15th century. Charles from Orleans wrote in one of his poems: “There is not a single animal, not a single bird that does not sing or scream in its own language!” But scientists are, of course, not interested in every sound made by an animal, and not every signal “transmitted” by it in one form or another. We are concerned with how human language, the greatest achievement of human history, could arise from the sounds and other signals inherent in animals. After all, language is not just a tool of communication; all the social experience accumulated by mankind, almost all scientific...
practical and “everyday” knowledge is stored and transmitted from generation to generation in linguistic form. Each person entering the world and mastering its material and spiritual riches uses language and auxiliary means that replace it - writing, drawings, maps. Human consciousness itself exists thanks to language. In a word, human culture and all of humanity in general can exist and develop only because a person speaks a language.

The secret here is that language has an important feature, noted by the founder of scientific linguistics, Wilhelm Humboldt: it “manages” to be at the same time a social phenomenon, reflecting the merits of collective knowledge, and does not depend on the will and consciousness of each individual person; but in a certain sense it is also individual - the form in which only logical thinking, inner speech, and poetic creativity of each individual can flow. Acting as an instrument of thinking, language, however, retains its objectivity, its social character: thanks to language, a person always, as it were, measures his behavior by a social yardstick, segments and perceives the surrounding reality in the way that the social experience of mankind dictates to him with the help of language, etc. d.

Even in antiquity, people puzzled over the question: why and how could language arise? Scientists of Ancient Greece put forward two opposing points of view, two theories. One of them was called the theory of “fusey”, which means “by nature, naturally” (from the same Greek root the name of the science of physics came); the other was called the theory of “theseus,” which means “by establishment, artificially.” According to the first of them, language arose on its own, without conscious human intervention, due to the action of the laws of nature. According to the second theory, language appeared as a result of an agreement or contract between people: let's call this object like this, and that one - like that.

It is clear that the theory of intelligent contract is wrong - it assumes that people already had consciousness by the time they developed language. And modern science has clearly established that human consciousness is impossible without language. Only society makes a person a person, and does this with the help of language.

So, the theory of “Theseus” is erroneous, and language arose due to natural laws.

But, in this case, what reasons led to the emergence of language? What did primitive language look like?

Science cannot yet answer these questions with complete confidence! But thanks to the joint work of scientists of different specialties - philosophers, anthropologists and ethnographers, archaeologists and linguists - in recent years it has become possible, based on objective scientific facts, to put forward some assumptions regarding the origin of the ancient language.

You know that labor created man and that articulate speech arose thanks to labor activity; in the process of labor, as Engels wrote, primitive people developed “the need to say something to each other.” But this need did not appear out of nowhere. There is not a single species of animal that does not have its own system of signals used for communication, for communication. For example, in a herd of hamadryas baboons, more than a dozen different sounds are used, each of which causes a completely specific reaction in the hamadryas.

But unlike people who consciously perceive speech and understand what is said to them, hamadryas cannot understand anything. This or that behavior in response to a heard signal arises in them thanks to the simplest conditioned reflex. For example, if a hamadryas hears another hamadryas shouting “ak, ak!”, then he will automatically run away, because in his psyche this sound is conditionally reflexively associated with the idea of danger. And vice versa: any fear, any feeling of danger will cause the hamadryas to involuntarily cry “ack!” In this respect, the sound signals of hamadryas are reminiscent of the interjections of human language: you and I cry out “ouch!” in the same way, regardless of whether we burned our finger, pricked ourselves, or slammed the door.

These are the sound signals that probably served as the basis for the formation of human language.

It is known that the speech of modern man is articulate. This means that it is possible to distinguish sentences, words, morphemes (i.e. roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings), syllables, and finally sounds. A careful study of the mechanisms of speech and how a child acquires language shows, however, that not all of these units of human speech arose simultaneously.

We can say with almost certainty that the speech of ancient man did not break down into sounds - a syllable was the smallest particle of his speech. This feature of the primitive language was reflected, although not directly, in the structure of some modern languages and especially in the patterns of language acquisition. For example, a child who does not yet know how to read and write, as a rule, does not know how to isolate vowel sounds in a syllable - for him they are merged together with consonants into syllables. He has to be specially taught, as psychologists say, sound analysis of words.

Obviously, the division of speech into morphemes is a rather late matter. After all, there are languages that have almost no prefixes, suffixes, or endings. Most morphemes in a wide variety of languages can be traced to full words - usually adverbs or pronouns. It is very likely that morphemes were not distinguished in primitive language.

In modern language, a syllable, a word and a sentence coincide only in rare cases (for example, if we shout to someone: “Stop!”). And in primitive language, apparently, a syllable was both a word and a sentence. And later, primitive word-sentences began to be decomposed into sounds and syllables in different ways, and combined in different ways in speech, which led to differences in the sound and grammatical structure of different languages.

But all the described features are characteristic only of “real” human language.

There is nothing like this in the signals used by animals. And it is not so easy to answer the question: what had to happen to our ape-like ancestors so that their communication system received a new quality and could become a tool of thinking?

In search of an answer, scientists turned to the study of living monkeys. Studying the great apes, or anthropoids, they hypothesized that human language arose from the so-called life noises - involuntary sounds, biologically insignificant and accompanying the various actions of chimpanzees or orangutans. However, this hypothesis has one weak side: after all, chimpanzees, orangutans and other anthropoids are not social animals; they live alone or in small families. And our ancestor was, of course, a herd animal, reminiscent of hamadryas, macaques, i.e., “lower” monkeys.

Meanwhile, hamadryas and other monkeys living in herds have very special sound signals that serve specifically for communication within the herd. And since human language undoubtedly arose in society, for the purposes of communication in the process of labor, it is most likely that the basis for its formation was not “life noise”, but means of signaling in the herd.

For example, among Pithecanthropus, joint labor activity, for example, hunting, played a large role. And we needed means of communication that would help regulate behavior, direct it in one way or another, and not just signal something.

But a person at this stage probably did not yet have consciousness. It appeared later, when it was necessary to designate not individual actions, but individual objects. “At a certain level of further development, after people’s needs and the types of activities through which they are satisfied have multiplied and further developed, people give separate names to entire classes of... objects that they already distinguish from experience from the rest of the external world” (K. Marx).

Now a person, hearing the sounds of speech, no longer blindly reacts to their sound, but realizes the meaning and content of speech. The language has acquired a symbolic character.

The origin of language has not yet been fully explained, and a lot of serious joint work by scientists from different specialties is required to answer with any certainty: was it so or not? But in any case, the problem is interesting.

Even in ancient times, people puzzled over the question of why and how language could arise. Scientists of Ancient Greece put forward two opposing theories. According to the first of them, language arose on its own, without conscious human intervention, due to the action of the laws of nature. According to the second theory, language appeared as a result of an agreement between people: let’s call this object like this, and let’s call that object like that.

It is quite clear that the theory of reasonable contract is incorrect. After all, it assumes that people already had consciousness by the time they developed language.

And modern science has clearly established that human consciousness is impossible without language. But in this case, what reasons led to the emergence of language? What did primitive language look like?

Science cannot yet answer these questions with complete confidence. But thanks to the joint work of scientists of different specialties - philosophers and psychologists, anthropologists and ethnographers, archaeologists and linguists - in recent years it has become possible, based on objective scientific facts, to put forward some assumptions regarding the ancient language.

It is known that work created man and that articulate speech arose due to labor activity. In the process of labor, as F. Engels wrote, primitive people developed “the need to say something to each other.”

There is not a single species of animal that does not have its own system of signals used for communication.

For example, in a herd of hamadryas baboons, more than a dozen different sounds are used, each of which causes a completely specific reaction in the hamadryas.

But, unlike people who consciously perceive speech, understanding what they are told, the hamadryas cannot understand anything. This or that behavior in response to a heard signal arises in them thanks to the simplest conditioned reflex.

Say, if a hamadryas hears another hamadryas shouting “Ak! Ak!”, then he will take flight, because in his psyche this sound is associated with the idea of danger. And vice versa, any fear, any feeling of danger causes the hamadryas to involuntarily cry “Ack!” IN In this respect, the sound signals of hamadryas resemble the interjections of human language: you and I cry out “Oh!” regardless of whether we burned our finger, pricked it or pinched it.

Language is also needed so that a person can use it to express his feelings.

These sound signals probably served as the basis for the formation of human language. At first, when the thinking of primitive people was still similar to the reflex behavior of an animal, when a person was not aware of individual objects, their properties, or his actions, these signals probably served only as a regulator of behavior. Where were these signals most needed? Of course, first of all in work, in hunting.

For example, in order to hunt and kill a large animal - a mammoth or a rhinoceros, it is absolutely necessary that the actions of all participants in the hunt be coordinated, so that during the hunt one participant can tell the other what he should do.

Later, when the economy of primitive man and his relationship with other people became more complex, especially when such advanced tools appeared that a person was able to carry out some complex actions alone, and the division of labor appeared, the need arose to designate individual objects, phenomena, actions , condition, quality.

The system of signs regulating street traffic is also a kind of “language”.

This means that the first theory is closer to the truth. Language arose due to the action of natural laws of nature. Only with the advent of man these patterns were refracted in his development in a new way and new ones appeared that did not exist before social patterns that eventually began to determine the development of the human race.

If the hamadryas hears the cry “Ak! Ak!”, he will run away, since with this cry he has an idea of danger.

But why do people speak different languages? Was there ever a language common to all humanity?

Based on our knowledge of modern languages, we cannot reconstruct such a common language. The solution to this question depends on anthropologists. If it is proven that modern man first appeared in one place, then such a common language must have existed. But no matter how this question is decided, it is clear that in the beginning there were fewer languages than now.

Linguists have restored, for example, the so-called common Indo-European language, from which all modern languages of foreign Europe (except Finnish, Hungarian and Basque) and most of the languages of the European part of the USSR, and in Asia - Persian, Afghan, Tajik, etc. originated. Why did this happen?

How could it happen that people first spoke one language, and then began to speak different ones? This is best illustrated with the following example. In the 17th century Settlers who spoke Dutch, which was no different from the language of other inhabitants of Holland, sailed to South Africa. Villages were founded, then cities. Various institutions arose, little by little their own culture was created, connected with the Dutch only historically. The settlers even began to call themselves not Dutch, but differently - Boers or Afrikaners.

What happened to their language? Due to the fact that there was virtually no connection with Holland, the Dutch language in South Africa began to change and deviate more and more from the “real” Dutch language. New words appeared, borrowed by the Boers themselves from the languages of the original inhabitants of Africa. The pronunciation of some sounds and grammar have also changed. The result was an essentially new language, Boer, or Afrikaans.

Why didn't all these changes take place in the Dutch language in Holland? Because all the inhabitants of Holland who spoke the Dutch language were connected (like the Boers in South Africa) by political, economic and cultural unity. The government of Holland issued a decree, it spread to its most distant corners, and the burgomaster of some provincial town, writing official documents for his small community, imitated the language of the government decree. And of course, the same books were read by educated people throughout Holland.

The Boers found themselves on another continent, and previously imperceptible deviations were given the opportunity to develop freely. Moreover, from deviations and “irregularities” they became the norm of the new, Boer language.

It also happens the other way around: if tribes or peoples that previously lived separately from each other merge into a single whole, their languages begin to mix. Long-forgotten peoples once lived on the borders of the Russian state - the Em, the Chud, the Torques, and the White Klobuks. They merged with the Russian people, and their languages merged with the Russian language.

But such complete fusion is rare. Most often, when peoples mix, their languages change only partially: some sounds begin to be pronounced differently; some grammatical forms are simplified; Instead of some words, others come into use. Before the Norman invasion led by William the Conqueror, Anglo-Saxon was spoken in England. The Normans spoke French, and as a result of the gradual mixing of Anglo-Saxons and Normans, modern English was obtained, which was not similar to either Anglo-Saxon or French.

This was roughly the case with the common Indo-European language. At some point in their history, Indo-European tribes began to roam the Eurasian mainland. Some of them reached India and encountered tribes there speaking the so-called Dravidian languages (they are still spoken in Southern Hindustan).

In subsequent centuries, features characteristic of Dravidian languages began to appear in their speech. And other Indo-European tribes headed to the territory of modern France: some unknown peoples lived there with very unique languages. We can judge their originality by the fact that the Celtic languages formed as a result of mixing with them (for example, Irish) are completely different from other Indo-European languages, for example, Russian, Greek, Lithuanian.

studying social experience using textbooks, where the necessary information is presented in linguistic form.

Finally, thirdly, language is needed so that a person can use it to express his feelings and emotions. For example, in poetry a person conveys his most intimate thoughts, feelings, and experiences. And all this thanks to language.

Without language there would be no man himself, because everything that is human in him is connected with language, is expressed in language and is fixed in language.

ON THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE

Even in ancient times, people puzzled over the question of why and how language could arise. Scientists of ancient Greece put forward two opposing theories. According to the first of them, language arose on its own, without conscious human intervention, due to the action of the laws of nature. According to the second theory, language appeared as a result of an agreement between people: let’s call this object like this, and let’s call that object like that. It is quite clear that the theory of reasonable contract is incorrect. After all, it assumes that people already had consciousness by the time they developed language. And modern science has clearly established that human consciousness is impossible without language.

But in this case, what reasons led to the emergence of language? What did primitive language look like?

It is known that labor created man and that articulate speech arose thanks to labor activity. In the process of labor, as F. Engels wrote, primitive people developed “the need to say something to each other.” There is not a single species of animal that does not have its own system of signals used for communication. For example, in a herd of hamadryas baboons, more than a dozen different sounds are used, each of which causes a completely specific reaction in the hamadryas.

But, unlike people who consciously perceive speech and understand what is said to them, hamadryas cannot understand anything. This or that behavior in response to a heard signal arises in them thanks to the simplest conditioned reflex.

Let’s say, if a hamadryas hears another hamadryas shouting “ak!”, “ak!”, then he will run away, because in his psyche this sound is associated with the idea of danger. And vice versa, any fear, any feeling of danger causes the hamadryas to involuntarily cry “ack!” In this respect, the sound signals of hamadryas are reminiscent of the interjections of human language: you and I cry out “oh!” in the same way. regardless of whether we burned our finger, pricked it or pinched it.

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Of course, first of all in work, in hunting. For example, in order to hunt and kill a large animal - a mammoth or a rhinoceros, it is absolutely necessary that the actions of all participants in the hunt be coordinated, so that during the hunt one participant can tell the other what he should do.

Later, when the economy of primitive man and his relationship with other people became more complex, especially when such advanced tools appeared that a person was able to carry out some actions alone and the division of labor appeared, it became necessary to designate individual objects, phenomena, actions, states , quality.

This means that the first theory is closer to the truth. Language arose due to the action of natural laws of nature. Only with the advent of man these patterns were refracted in his development in a new way and new social patterns that did not exist before appeared, which ultimately began to determine the development of the human race.

But why do people speak different languages? Was there ever a language common to all humanity?

Based on our knowledge of modern languages, we cannot reconstruct such a common language. The solution to this question depends on anthropologists. If it is proven that modern man first appeared in one place, then such a common language must have existed. But no matter how this issue is resolved, it is clear that in the beginning there were fewer languages than now.

The best way to show this is with this example. In the 17th century Settlers who spoke Dutch, which was no different from the language of other inhabitants of Holland, sailed to South Africa. Villages were founded, then cities. Various institutions arose, and little by little their own culture was created, connected with the Dutch only historically.

The settlers even began to call themselves not Dutch, but Boers or Afrikaners.

What happened to their language? Due to the fact that there was virtually no connection with Holland, the Dutch language in South Africa began to change and deviate more and more from the “real” Dutch language. New words appeared, borrowed from native African languages or created by the Boers themselves. The pronunciation of some sounds and grammar have also changed. The result was essentially a new language - Boer, or "Afrikaans".

Why didn't all these changes take place in the Dutch language in Holland? Because all the inhabitants of Holland who spoke the Dutch language were connected (like the Boers in South Africa) by political, economic and cultural unity. The government of Holland issued a decree, it spread to its most distant corners, and the burgomaster of some provincial town, writing official documents for his small community, imitated the language of the government decree. The same books were read by educated people throughout Holland.

The Boers found themselves on another continent, and previously imperceptible deviations were given the opportunity to develop freely. Moreover, from deviations, from “irregularities,” they became the norm of the new, Boer language.

It is quite clear that the theory of reasonable contract is incorrect. After all, it assumes that people already had consciousness by the time they developed language.

There is not a single species of animal that does not have its own system of signals used for communication.

For example, in a herd of hamadryas baboons, more than a dozen different sounds are used, each of which causes a completely specific reaction in the hamadryas.

Language is also needed so that a person can use it to express his feelings.

The system of signs regulating street traffic is also a kind of “language”.

If the hamadryas hears the cry “Ak! Ak!”, he will run away, since with this cry he has an idea of danger.

But why do people speak different languages? Was there ever a language common to all humanity?

Social studies assignments 10th grade. Municipal stage.

Preparation time 3 hours. Total 70 points.

1. Choose the correct answers. Write them down in the table (total 5 points).

Which of the following is a characteristic of economic culture?

a) level and quality of economic knowledge, b) electoral activity,

c) political absenteeism.

Social conflict is….

a) a special type of cooperative activity,

b) special interaction of individuals, groups and unification when their incompatible views, positions and interests collide,

c) an element of a culture of compromise.

1.3. The general features of a democratic regime are:

a) parliamentarism and pluralism of opinions,

b) censorship and dominance of one political position,

c) absolute control of the state over the economic activities of people, the absence of civil society.

1.4. The most important features of economic interests include:

a) economic apathy and inactivity,

b) a person’s desire to obtain benefits to provide for his life and family, as well as to achieve profit in the business sphere,

c) transition to a marginal state.

1.5. From L. Peter’s statement “Economics is the art of satisfying unlimited needs with limited resources,” the following conclusions can be drawn:

a) economics should only be studied by art historians,

b) in order to engage in economics, it is enough to study art,

c) in order to engage in economics, you need ingenuity, knowledge and experience.

Answers:


A	b	A	b	V

2. Establish the truth or falsity of the statements (“YES” or “NO”) and enter the answers in the table(total 10 points).

2.1. The Renaissance brought a different understanding of freedom, focusing on the humanistic (human) principle.

2.2. Morals are legally formalized rules in any state.

2.3. Economy is an economic system that ensures the satisfaction of the needs of people and society through the creation and use of necessary life goods.

2.4. Competition arises only under monopoly capitalism.

2.5. The combination of different groups of people is called differentiation.

2.6. The movement of people up or down the social ladder is called vertical mobility.

2.7. The UN has now been replaced by the League of Nations.

2.8. Consumption always interferes with the stimulation of the production process.

2.9. Self-governing units are usually called municipalities.

2.10. Political marketing creates an attractive image of politicians for voters.

Answers:


Yes	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	Yes

3. What unites the concepts that form each of the presented series? Give a short answer(2 points per answer, 6 points in total).

1. Majoritarian, mixed, proportional. Answer: types of electoral systems

2. Rockers, punks, music fans. Answer: youth subcultures

3. judicial precedent, legal custom, legal act. Answer: sources of law

4. There are errors in the above text. Find and fix them(2 points per error, 10 points in total).

Economics is the most important sphere of modern society. Economic life is currently studied only by pedagogical science. Modern scientists have clearly established that the equalizing principle of distribution generates enormous motivation among workers. On the other hand, graying studies indicate that the phenomenon of consumption does not in any way affect the growth of production. The most important economic indicator of any country is now gross domestic product (GDP), which only implies the projected cost of agricultural products. To increase GDP, most modern governments have decided to pursue large-scale nationalization of their economic sectors and a strategy of absolute state dominance in the economy.

Answer:

1. Economic life is studied by economic science.

2. The equalizing principle hinders the motivation of workers.

3. Consumption affects production growth.

4. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) means the total value of all final products and services produced by a country in a year, divided by the population.

5. Most modern countries have chosen privatization and reducing the regulatory role of the state in the economy.

Theories: A) activity theory; B) theory of value; B) categorical imperative; D) conflict theory, E) social action theory;

Answer:

Authors
Theories	IN	B	A	D	G

6. Parable(total 5 points):

Khoja Nasreddin addressed the crowd with the words:
- People, do you want knowledge without overcoming difficulties, truth without error, achievement without effort, advancement without sacrifice?
Everyone shouted: “We want it, we want it!”

What do you think Khoja Nasreddin answered?

Answer: “Wonderful,” said Nasreddin. “I want it too, and if I ever find out how to do it, I’ll be happy to tell you.”

Source - http://www.newacropol.ru/Alexandria/pritchi/nasredins_parable/

7. Economic problem(total 8 points).

Costs per 1000 units of production were formed based on the following:

salary - 20 million rubles;

raw materials and materials - 30 million rubles;

buildings and structures - 250 million rubles;

equipment - 100 million rubles.

All products were sold at a price of 122.5 thousand rubles,

The depreciation rate for buildings and structures is 5%, and the service life of equipment is on average 5 years. Determine your profit.

Solution:

Costs: 20 + 30 + 0.05 x 250 + 0.2 x 100 = 82.5 million rubles.

Revenue: 122.5 thousand rubles. x 1000 = 122.5 million rubles.

Profit: 122.5 - 82.5 = 40 million rubles.

8. Solve a crossword puzzle(1 point per answer, 15 points in total)

Horizontally: 1. A person who has broken with economic, social, cultural ties with the previous social community. 2. acute contradiction between people. 3. Position of a person in society, 4. Social interaction. 5. Representative of voters in parliament. 6. A minority in parliament or a political force that failed to enter parliament. 7. Extermination of entire population groups based on nationality. 8. The system of norms established by the state. 9. Belittling, belittling someone's rights.

Vertically: 3. Ancient Greek philosopher, 5. Historically formed in a certain territory, a set of people who have a common culture, language, and consciousness of their unity. 7. An important element of the employee’s work culture, 8. Ancient Roman philosopher and politician, 9. People’s attitude to the law, current legislation and legal practice. 10. A person’s belonging to a particular nation,

Answers: Horizontal: 1. Marginal. 2. Conflict. 3. Status. 4. Interaction. 5. Deputy 6. Opposition. 7. Genocide.. 8. Right. 9. Discrimination.

Vertically: 3. Aristotle. 5. Ethnos. 7. Discipline. 8. Cicero. 9. Legal consciousness.

10. Nationality.