There is no people who

trade would ruin

Benjamin Franklin,

American scientist and politician

Markets are like parachutes

only fire if they are open

Helmut Schmidt,

German politician

fifth Federal Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany

I sit from morning to evening with my head down,

I have absolutely nothing to bring to the world market.

I. Guberman,

Russian poet

International trade. Absolute and comparative advantage

There are two approaches to defining concepts closed economy And open economy. According to the first approach:

Closed economy(closed economy) – it is an economy not subject to any influence from international trade, and therefore there are no exports or imports of any kind.

In this interpretation, a closed economy is considered as a theoretical model that allows us to understand the mechanism of functioning of the national economy, which is the main task of macroeconomic analysis.

Open economy(open economy) – it is an economy involved in international trade and international financial relations with various countries of the world.

At the same time, different countries participate to varying degrees in the exchange of goods, services, money, capital, and labor with foreign countries. The smaller the country, the greater, as a rule, its relative dependence on the foreign market, and vice versa, the larger the country and the greater its provision of its own resources, the less this dependence. The nature and structure of the relationship between the economies of different countries and the outside world may be different, therefore countries differ in the degree of openness to the outside world. This criterion forms the second approach to determining closed and open economies. According to this approach:

Open economieshave minimal barriers (obstacles) to economic interaction with the outside world.( There are practically no countries that do not have such barriers at all).

Closed economiesThese are economies that have significant, sometimes prohibitive, barriers to such interaction. Most often, this is done to protect domestic producers from stronger competitors in the foreign market, and sometimes to create more favorable conditions for domestic producers to enter foreign markets.

An open economy excludes a state monopoly in the field of foreign trade and requires the active use of various forms of joint entrepreneurship, the organization of free enterprise zones, and also implies reasonable accessibility of the domestic market for the influx of foreign capital, goods, technology, information and labor.

How to determine the degree of openness or closedness of an economy? The degree of openness of the economy largely depends on the provision of natural resources, on the population size, on the capacity of the domestic market and on the effective demand of the population. In addition, the degree of openness of the economy will be determined by the reproductive and sectoral structure of the national economy. According to the degree of openness of the economy, countries can be divided into the following groups: countries with a relatively closed economy (the share of exports is less than 10% of GDP); countries with relatively open economies (export share more than 35% of GDP); countries located between the first two. Based on this criterion, the countries with the most open economies are Hong Kong, Singapore, New Zealand, Switzerland, and the least open ones are North Korea and Cuba.

The economies of almost all countries are open, connected to each other by a complex network of international trade and financial relations. Trade appeared when the first production and the first division of labor appeared, i.e. in primitive society. In the beginning there was a direct exchange of goods for goods, i.e. barter. But to complete a barter transaction, the desires of the two parties must coincide. But such a coincidence of desires did not always occur, so intermediate barter transactions had to be made, which took up additional time. Therefore, barter exchange developed into exchange through money. The exchange of goods for money is calledtrade.

international trade(international trade) – This is the exchange of goods and services between farms in different countries.

International trade is based on the international division of labor.

Why do people and states trade? They voluntarily exchange goods and services, because expect to benefit from the transaction. There are many reasons for trade between nations and factors that stimulate trade.

Factors stimulating the development of international trade:

ü socio-geographical, those. differences between countries in geographical location, territory, numbers, as well as in economic experience, knowledge, skills, habits, traditions, etc.;

ü natural-climatic, those. differences in climatic conditions, availability of natural resources, etc.;

ü technical and economic, those. countries have different levels of economic and technical development. Some produce this or that product cheaper and better, own certain inventions, discoveries, technologies;

ü scientific and technical progress, contributes to the constant updating of products, growth of the range and complexity of products. Therefore, even highly developed countries are not advisable to produce a huge range of products.

All over the world, international trade is part of everyday life. Americans drive Japanese cars, the French drink Scotch whiskey, the Swedes eat French cheese, Canadians import Korean computers, Belarusians buy Greek oranges. We all depend on goods and services created in other countries. The existence of international trade is so familiar to human consciousness that we don’t even think about why the world market emerged and flourishes?

Countries trade with each other in hopes of benefiting from the transactions. And they get it because trade allows states to exchange goods they have in abundance for what they need. The general principles of mutual benefit of trade and international specialization of production, based on the difference in production costs of the same product in different countries, were formulated by A. Smith and D. Riccardo.

A. Smith, studying the international division of labor, expressed ideas about which goods are profitable to export from the country and which to import, which is called the theory of absolute advantage.

Absolute advantagesappear when one country produces a given product with lower explicit (direct) costs than other countries.

Some territories, due to natural and climatic conditions, can produce something that is not available to others. Some countries, such as Zaire and South Africa, have huge mineral reserves. Others, such as Honduras and Guatemala, have the opportunity to grow tropical fruits due to their climate. Still others, such as Japan and America, have enormous technical resources and skilled labor. In each of the listed cases, the named conditions provide the country with absolute advantages in the production of individual goods and services. By specializing in production in which they have an absolute advantage, and by exchanging surplus production with each other, countries get more than they would have if they tried to produce everything they need themselves.

Let's look at example 1 absolute advantages. Let countries Alpha and Beta produce computers and cars. Data on production volume for the year are given in table 35. Determine the absolute advantage of the countries.

Table 35. Production of computers and cars

Solution: because Country Alpha produces 10 computers per year, and Beta produces 8, then Alpha has a comparative advantage in the production of computers. And Beta has an absolute advantage in the production of cars, because... she produces more of them than Beta.

ANSWER: Country Alpha should produce computers, and Country Beta should produce cars, then exchange these goods.

But if one country has a developed and efficient economy and can produce all (or many) types of products with lower direct costs, does this mean that it should produce all these types of products? Most states, however, do not have absolute advantages. But, nevertheless, it participates in international trade. Why? The answer to this question was found almost 200 years ago by the outstanding English economist David Ricardo (1772-1823). He showed that even when a country does not have an absolute advantage in anything, trade remains beneficial for both parties. D. Ricardo opened law of comparative advantage. Comparative Advantageappear when one country can produce at a lower opportunity cost.

D. Ricardo proved that any country will always have a product whose production will be more profitable at the existing cost ratio than the production of others. It is this product that she must export in exchange for others.

Example 2. Let now the same countries produce computers and cars, but country Alpha has more developed factors of production, so it produces more computers and more cars (see Table 36.). Determine how states should specialize

Table 36. Data on the production of computers and cars

Solution: Let's calculate the opportunity costs of producing 1 computer for each country (opportunity costs are the amount of one good that is given up when the production of another good increases by one unit). For country Alpha: 1K = 8/10 = 0.8A, for country Beta 1K = 6/8 = =0.75A. Production of one car for: country Alpha 1A = 10/8K = 1.25K, country Beta 1A = 8/6K = 1.3K. This means that when producing one additional unit of computers, Alpha loses 0.8 cars, and Beta loses 0.75 cars; and when producing an additional unit of car, Alpha loses 1.25 computers, and Beta loses 1.3 computers. Obviously, Alpha should produce cars, and Beta computers, because... the opportunity costs of these goods are correspondingly lower in each country than in the other.

ANSWER: Country Alpha should produce 8 cars, and Country Beta should produce 8 computers.

Comparative advantage, or lower relative production costs, determines the structure of commodity exchanges between states to this day. Comparative advantage is the main driver of international trade. Countries trade among themselves because they can buy goods from other countries at a lower price. Differences in production costs arise from differences in production methods and in the availability of factors of production. In addition, economies of scale make production specialization efficient.

Thus, we can conclude that rational economic management - the use of a certain amount of limited resources to obtain the desired result - requires that any product be produced by the country that has lower costs, that is, the country that has comparative advantages. For example, the United States exports airplanes, tractors, wheat, electronic computer equipment, optical instruments, etc. At the same time, the United States imports ships, some brands of cars and motorcycles, shoes, and clothing. Great Britain has comparative advantages in the production of tractors, explosives, paints, wool and fur, but not in the production of steel, synthetic and cotton fabrics, footwear and clothing. Saudi Arabia has a comparative advantage in oil production, as it has large deposits. It can produce oil cheaper compared to other countries, just as Chile and Zambia can produce copper relatively cheaper. Accordingly, these countries mine and export these minerals.

Specialization, based on the principle of comparative costs (advantages), contributes to a more efficient allocation and use of the country's resources, an increase in the level and quality of life of the population through trade with other countries (export-import).

International trade is beneficial for all its participants. Each country can find its place in the world market by using what it is rich in and in which it has a comparative advantage. Even such small countries in the world as, for example, Holland, Israel, Colombia, which do not have the opportunity to develop industrial sectors, receive high incomes, for example, from the supply of flowers to the world market. Many of the world's richest countries owe their prosperity to international trade.

Thus, international trade and the international division of labor are of great practical importance. Thanks to them, goods are produced in large quantities, with better quality and lower costs. Countries receive goods that they themselves either do not produce at all, or make more expensive, worse, or in insufficient quantities. Global output and product diversity are increasing. The export of goods, in addition, gives growth to the national economy and creates additional jobs.

In foreign economic activity, a distinction is made between export, import, re-export and re-import.

Export - export of goods from the country for sale or use in other countries. The economic efficiency of exports is determined by the fact that the country exports those products whose production costs are lower than world prices. The size of the winnings depends on the ratio of national and world prices of a given product.

Import - importation of foreign goods into the country from abroad. When importing, a country acquires goods whose production is currently uneconomical. When calculating the efficiency of foreign trade, the economic gain that a given country receives is calculated due to the rapid satisfaction of its needs for goods through imports and the release of resources spent on the production of similar goods in the country.

The total amount of exports and imports is foreign trade turnover with foreign countries.

Re-export –export from the country of goods previously imported from abroad without their processing.

Re-import –This is the import into the territory of the country of goods previously exported abroad.

Trade barriers

Most states actively participate in international trade. However, competition and protection of national interests in the world market necessitate the existence of various forms of state regulation of foreign trade. Historically, two types of state policy in the field of foreign trade have developed: free trade and protectionism.

Free trade or free trade(free trade) involves the free movement of goods and services between countries without known trade barriers.

The principle of “free trade” appeared in the form of a scientific theory at the end of the 18th century in England, then in the 19th century it began to act as the official economic policy of England. The advantages of free trade are that it stimulates competition and limits the monopoly of national firms. Manufacturers are forced to introduce innovations, improve product quality, reduce their costs and prices, and increase production efficiency. Free trade expands the supply of goods, which gives consumers greater choice of goods. The development of the international division of labor ensures the efficient allocation of resources, which leads to economic growth and higher material well-being of people. Finally, free trade promotes greater openness of societies, which means rapprochement and cooperation of peoples and countries.

However, states also pursue a policy of protectionism, using various barriers to free trade.

Protectionism(from the Latin protectio – protection, patronage) – This is a policy of protecting domestic producers from foreign competitors.

The essence of this policy is, firstly, to curb the import of highly competitive foreign products into the country, and secondly, to patronize the export of nationally produced goods. If protectionist policies are pursued, the benefits of specialization are reduced or even eliminated. If countries cannot trade freely, they must shift resources (or parts of them) from efficient uses (industries with low relative costs) to inefficient ones to satisfy a variety of needs (that could be satisfied by imports). Competition in the economy is also weakening, which leads to a deterioration in product quality, increased costs, and a decrease in the implementation of scientific and technical progress achievements, i.e. to a drop in production efficiency; As a result of the introduction of trade barriers, product prices increase and choice options decrease. Protectionism undermines export opportunities because international trade is a “double traffic street”, i.e. if imports are limited, exports will also be reduced.

There are, however, serious arguments in favor of protectionism: the need to ensure defense, the desire to increase domestic employment, diversification of the economy for the sake of economic stability, the need to protect “young” industries, the need to protect domestic producers in general, the need to protect against dumping (export of goods at a price lower than in the domestic market).

To pursue a policy of protectionism, states use various trade barriers, which can be divided into two large groups.

Types of trade barriers:

1. Tariff barriers, which represent a system customs duties: import and, to a lesser extent, export. The introduction of customs duties leads to an increase in the price of these goods and makes it difficult to sell them. Customs duties are: fiscal, those. duties imposed on goods that are not produced domestically (they replenish the country's budget); protectionist, those. tariffs designed to protect domestic producers from foreign competitors.

2. Non-tariff barriers which include restrictive administrative measures, come in various forms:

ü import (export) quotas – these are restrictions on the quantity of imported (exported) goods (for example, a limitation on the quantity of imported vegetables and fruits, which was introduced in 2002 in the Republic of Belarus);

ü embargo – partial or complete ban on trade with any country (most often used as a means of individual or collective pressure on certain countries, for example, a partial UN embargo on oil purchases in Iraq for its aggressive behavior in the 90s of the twentieth century);

ü standards – restricting imports or increasing the cost of imported goods by introducing certain standards, i.e. restricting or prohibiting the sale of goods that do not meet national or international standards;

ü subsidies – providing assistance to domestic producers (in particular, government support allows exporters to apply policies dumping, i.e. selling your goods at reduced prices);

ü licensing– means the need to obtain an appropriate document (license) for the import (export) of certain goods;

ü voluntary export restrictions – this is a voluntary restriction by the exporting country on the volume of its exports (for example, in 1981, Japanese automakers introduced voluntary restrictions on the import of their cars into America).

It also happens that, on the basis of protectionism, entire “trade wars” unfold between countries, for example, the “beef war” between America and the European Union: the Americans sought to expand the sales market in Europe for their cheap (thanks to the use of growth hormones) beef, the Europeans prevented this, citing on the carcinogenic danger of hormones, but more with the interests of their farmers in mind. Or the “steel war” between the USA and Russia, which flooded the American market with cheaper products. Cod, banana, wine and other wars are known. For example, “trade wars” between Russia and Belarus to limit the sale of Belarusian sugar and sweets in Russia; between Russia and Georgia on the ban on trade in Georgian wine and Borjomi mineral water in Russia, etc.

Currently, countries in most cases pursue a flexible foreign trade policy, combining methods of protectionism and elements of free trade. International organizations have been created to regulate relations between countries in the field of international trade:

ü UNCTAD – UN Conference on Trade and Development, established in 1964. UNCTAD has a membership of 193 states, including Belarus since 1964. The main goal of the Conference is to promote the integration of developing countries and countries with economies in transition into the world economy and development through trade and investment;

ü World Trade Organization (WTO), former General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), concluded in 1947 by 23 states. The World Trade Organization (WTO), created in 1995, replaced the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) as the sole international body dealing with the global rules of trade between nations. It is not a specialized agency, but it has mechanisms and practices for cooperation with the United Nations. The objectives of the WTO are to help streamline trade within a rules-based system; objective settlement of trade disputes between governments; organizing trade negotiations. These activities are based on 60 WTO agreements - the basic legal norms of international commerce and trade policy. The principles on which these agreements are based include non-discrimination (most favored nation treatment and national treatment clause), freer terms of trade, promotion of competition and additional provisions for least developed countries. One of the goals of the WTO is to combat protectionism. In 2013, the WTO included 159 states (including Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Armenia, Moldova, Estonia, Russia, Tajikistan, Ukraine). This organization resolves problems and controversial issues in global trade;

ü EFTA – European Free Trade Association, formed in 1960 by 7 European states: Great Britain, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Austria, Switzerland and Portugal, now it has 6 members: Austria, Finland, Iceland (since 1970), Norway (including Spitsbergen), Sweden and Switzerland . According to a special protocol, the EFTA agreement also applies to Liechtenstein, which is in a customs union with Switzerland. Its goal is to create conditions for free mutual trade for participating countries;

Social science. A complete course of preparation for the Unified State Exam Shemakhanova Irina Albertovna

2.15. World economy

2.15. World economy

World economy – 1) a set of interconnected national economies participating in the international division of labor; 2) a system of international economic relations that communicates between national economies. The international economic system includes trade, financial relations, distribution of capital resources and labor.

Characteristic features of the world economy: integrity; hierarchy; self-regulation and adaptation. The main trend in the development of the modern world economy is the increasing interdependence and interconnection of national economies, which is manifested in the globalization of world economic relations.

Closed economy– an economy in which resident economic agents, producing, distributing and consuming goods and services, interact only with each other.

Open economy– an economy in which resident economic agents interact with the rest of the world, consisting of all resident economic agents.

International division of labor (ILD)– territorial division of labor, providing for a stable concentration of production of certain products in individual countries. Factors encouraging countries to participate in MRI: volume of the country's domestic market; the level of economic development of the country; the country's provision with natural resources; the share of basic industries in the structure of the country’s economy (energy, mining, metallurgy, etc.). The main features of MRT: international specialization of production (production and territorial) and international cooperation of production (the process of sustainable production relations between independent enterprises of different countries).

International division of capital– different endowments of countries with production and financial resources, differences in accumulated production experience.

International division of a factor of production such as land– countries are endowed with natural resources to varying degrees: territory, water, minerals.

International Division of Entrepreneurial Capabilities is the result of differences in the level of economic development and in the provision of other factors of production (skilled labor, business experience, availability of management personnel).

World market(formed at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries, by the beginning of the 21st century it approached the state of perfect competition) - the sphere of stable commodity-money relations between countries based on the international division of labor and other factors of production.

Signs of a global market

– is a consequence of the development of the national market economy;

– manifests itself in international trade in goods and services under the influence of internal and external demand and supply;

– performs an informational role, allowing the manufacturer to compare its product and quality standards with internal and external competitors;

– performs a sanitizing role, rejecting goods and manufacturers that are not able to provide an international quality standard at competitive prices.

World economy- a set of national economies of the countries of the world, interconnected by mobile factors of production (main - natural or resulting from long-term historical development; developed - acquired by the country as a result of intensive capital investments).

Natural resource potential of the world economy: international labor migration; international trade in financial instruments (currency, securities, loans) and international payments; international relations in the field of information, R&D, etc.; economic policy of the state.

Natural resources(the primary source, the starting point of the economy of all countries at all stages of their development) are of two types: renewable (land, sea, rivers, solar heat and energy, forests, etc.) and non-renewable (those that are used once and are not reproduced by nature itself : coal, oil, gas, etc.).

International economics

Sectoral and socio-economic structure of the world economy consists of: industry, which is divided into mining and manufacturing; agro-industrial complex: modern agricultural production is based on diversified production cooperation connecting agriculture and related sectors of the economy; transport, which is the main infrastructure sector of the world economy; service sector.

By level of development and socio-economic organization of production in the complex structure of the world economy clearly visible center And periphery.

* Center constitutes a relatively small group of industrialized countries (24 states). These countries have a highly efficient and well-organized economy, are developing according to the type of “social market economy”, and are quickly introducing the achievements of scientific and technical thought.

* IN periphery includes developing countries. With all their diversity, a number of common features can be identified: the multi-structured nature of the economy with a predominance of non-market relations and non-economic levers of economic organization; low level of development of productive forces, backwardness of industry and agriculture; raw materials specialization.

The center and the periphery are closely interconnected, but their economic cooperation is contradictory. There is a process of gradual penetration of individual countries of the periphery into the center (South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Brazil, Argentina, which are on the verge of transition to the group of industrialized countries of the world).

In international practice, all countries of the world are divided into three main groups (the division is based on per capita income level):

A) developed countries with market economies have a high-tech and highly specialized industry, which allows them to receive high per capita incomes. Among such countries are: the largest countries with developed economies (Canada, USA, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Japan, France); euro area (European countries); European Union (27 member countries of the European Union); newly industrialized countries of Asia (Hong Kong, Singapore, Korea, Taiwan).

B) emerging market and developing countries:

– poor, but accumulating capital and developing their industry and market structures of the state. They have fairly large urban populations and stable, although low, growth in per capita income. These include part of the countries of the Middle East, India, Egypt, and Mexico.

– undeveloped countries are characterized by a low degree of industrialization, limited mechanization of agricultural production, and low per capita income. The poorest countries are located in Africa (Somalia, Ethiopia, Ghana, etc.).

– the group of “newly industrialized countries” is characterized by rapidly developing industry and dynamic per capita income. Examples of such countries are Trinidad, Israel, South Korea, etc.

– countries with economies in transition – China, Romania, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, etc.

International economics - a set of economies of the countries of the world, functioning as a single whole. Signs of an international economy:

Developed international trade.

International movement of factors of production (import and export of capital, labor, technology).

The international nature of production through the cooperation of enterprises located in several countries.

Independent international financial sector.

System of international organizations and other mechanisms of international regulation.

Open economic policy of states.

Strengthening the coordination of countries' efforts to resolve global economic problems of our time.

Communication technologies have made the international economy global.

Under world trade refers to the paid total trade turnover between all countries of the world, i.e. exports and imports. Trade in manufactured goods, in particular high-tech products, is developing most intensively in the exports of industrialized countries.

Main directions of foreign trade policy of states

* Free trade- a direction in the economic theory and politics of the industrial bourgeoisie, which put forward demands for freedom of trade and non-interference of the state in private business activities. In modern conditions, some principles of free trade are put into practice within closed integration groups (EEC, EFTA, etc.). Within them, the elimination of customs barriers between states serves as a tool for subordinating not only small and medium-sized, but also large capital to giant monopolies, and also strengthens the position of the latter in the fight against competitors not included in these groups. Free trade stimulates competition processes among domestic producers and in the world market as a whole; allows international trade to be carried out in accordance with the law of comparative competitive advantage; makes it possible to use international specialization; expands the boundaries of the market.

* Protectionism– theory and practice of foreign trade regulation, aimed at protecting national economic entities from foreign competition. In modern conditions, protectionism exists in various forms (unilateral - aimed at regulating elements of foreign trade without agreement with partners; bilateral, involving coordination of proposed measures with partners; multilateral, when the opinions of many countries are taken into account when developing trade policy). The most common protectionist measures are tariffs on exports and imports (customs duties) and non-tariff barriers.

Customs duty– mandatory payments that are established for the export or import of goods in accordance with its quantity or value.

Import duty– fee for importing goods into the country. In this case, the price of imported goods on the domestic market rises above the world price, since the value of the import tariff is added to the world price. Tariffs protect domestic producers in import-substituting industries, but domestic consumers lose out. An example of a protectionist policy is the Common External Customs Tariff adopted in the countries of the European Community.

The expansion of protectionist forms and methods is carried out as a result of the use non-tariff trade restrictions(import-export quotas, voluntary restrictions or export promotion, standards, etc.).

– Import-export quotas (restrictions in quantitative or monetary terms on the volume of products permitted to be imported or exported from the country are carried out by issuing licenses): import and export quotas. Quotas isolate the domestic market from the penetration of new and innovative foreign goods in excess of the issued license.

– Voluntary export restrictions on the part of exporting countries (exporting countries undertake obligations to limit exports to a specific country). For the importing country, with the introduction of the DEO, prices for imported goods can be significantly higher than with tariff restrictions or import quotas. Thus, by increasing prices, the decrease in export volumes is compensated.

– Non-tariff restrictions include sanitary and technical standards (mandatory compliance with national standards; availability of quality certificates for imported products; specificity of labeling and packaging of goods; requirements for the environmental characteristics of consumer and industrial goods); currency restrictions on the import of goods.

International economic organizations that contribute to the search for resolving contradictions and achieving compromise solutions between states on economic issues are acquiring great importance: GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, 1947); World Trade Organization (WTO, 1966), etc.

In recent years, there has been an increasing development free trade zones– areas not covered by the state customs regime. In world practice, free trade zones for general and special purposes (specialized) have become widespread. In general purpose areas, goods are stored, processed, sorted, labeled, and packaged. Specialized zones (or trade and production zones) are usually created for firms producing and selling export or import-substituting products.

Industrial production zones– areas with preferential treatment for firms producing export or import-substituting products.

Technology-implementation zones concentrate research, design and scientific-production firms around large scientific centers and use a system of preferences specially developed for them. An example would be technopolises and technoparks. Technoparks were first formed in the USA in 1951 (Stanford Research Park). Currently, there are more than 500 technology parks in the world. Technopolises are larger territorial-scientific complexes, including small towns, where high social and living standards are created as the initial conditions for the generation, development and implementation of innovations. Service areas– areas with preferential treatment for firms providing various types of financial and non-financial services. These also include offshore zones And tax havens. A company registered in an offshore zone must be a non-resident. In tax havens, both foreign and domestic firms receive tax breaks either for all or for specific activities. By organizing offshore zones, foreign capital is attracted, additional jobs are created, and income is generated from the presence of a registered company in the zone.

Multilateral trading system governed by WTO agreements based on the principles of: protecting the national market through tariffs; reduction and binding of tariffs; most favored nation treatment; national regime.

International financial markets – an environment of interaction between economic agents, residents and non-residents, attracting and presenting financing in various fields. These include: the credit market (bonds and bills; bank loans; notes and commercial paper); stock market (market for shares and derivative titles of property).

International financial organizations: International Monetary Fund (IMF); World Bank; World Bank Group (including the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the International Development Association (IDA), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), the International Center for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID); European Bank for Reconstruction and Development; Asian Development Bank; Eurasian Development Bank; Paris Club (informal association of governments of developed creditor countries);

Universal international economic organizations: UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC); World Trade Organization (WTO); Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), etc.

Specialized international economic organizations: World Intellectual Property Organization; International Air Transport Association; World Tourism Organization; Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC); International Institute of Statistics, etc.

From the book Encyclopedic Dictionary (M) author Brockhaus F.A.

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From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (MI) by the author TSB

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From the book Sniper Survival Manual [“Shoot rarely, but accurately!”] author Fedoseev Semyon Leonidovich

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DOSTOEVSKY AND WORLD CULTURE Almanac, with random frequency and circulation of 1500 copies, published on the initiative and under the editorship of Karen Stepanyan by the Russian F. M. Dostoevsky Society since the end of 1993. Numbers 1-10 came out. Headings: Invitation to dispute;

1. World economy: 1. 2. 3. a set of national economies connected by political and economic relations; a system of international economic relations linking national economies; a system that combines the economy and legal norms governing these relations.

The world economy is a set of national economies that are in constant dynamics, movement, functioning according to agreed rules

The world economy is heterogeneous. The international division of labor is based on the desire of countries to obtain economic benefits.

David Ricardo (1772 -1823) Theory of comparative advantage in foreign trade A country benefits if it specializes in the production of those goods whose average costs are relatively lower than those of other countries producing the same goods

Specialization: RAW MATERIAL COUNTRIES OF THE PERSIAN GULF ZAMBIA JAMAICA NAMIBIA AGRICULTURAL COUNTRIES INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES KENYA USA GHANA JAPAN SUDAN GERMANY ECUADOR CHINA N. ZEALAND KOREA

2. Foreign trade Trade between countries, consisting of IMPORT (input) and EXPORT (export) of goods and services. Import Export Foreign trade turnover

2. Foreign trade IMF (International Monetary Fund) Main functions: 1. promoting international v. Currently, cooperation during the IMF monetary unites 187 states' policies, and in its 2. expansion of world trade structures 2,500 people work 3. out of 133 lending 4. stabilization of countries. monetary exchange rates

2. Foreign trade WTO (World Trade Organization) v. At present, the main functions: All members of the WTO are obliged to provide time in the WTO to all 157 countries, the other of which in the share of members of the regime of the largest amount accounted for 97% of the world's trade turnover

3. Foreign trade policy is the activity of states aimed at developing trade relations with other countries of the world or groups of countries. protectionism free trade P. 175 Define these concepts

Social studies test World economy and international trade for 8th grade students with answers. The test is designed to test knowledge on the topic of Economics. The test consists of 3 parts. In part 1 there are 10 tasks, in part 2 there are 4 tasks and in part 3 there are 3 tasks.

1. The importation of goods from abroad for sale in a given country is called

1) immigration
2) export
3) import
4) emigration

2. The removal of goods from a country for sale in other countries is called

1) immigration
2) export
3) import
4) emigration

3. State economic policy that protects domestic producers of goods from competition from firms in other countries by establishing various types of restrictions on imports

1) protectionism
2) monopolism
3) mercantilism
4) oligopoly

4. A tax in favor of the state levied upon crossing the border from the owner of foreign-made goods imported into the country for sale is called

1) value added tax
2) income tax
3) property tax
4) customs duty

5. Which of the named organizations Not refers to international economic organizations?

1) NATO
2) IMF
3) WTO
4) ECOSOC

6. The foreign economic policy of the state, which is characterized by low duties or their absence for foreign goods imported into the country

1) free trade
2) protectionism
3) liberalism
4) trade unionism

7. In the modern international division of labor, Russia acts mainly as a supplier

1) energy resources
2) nanotechnology
3) information technology
4) innovative technologies

8. Exchange rates are set

1) on the currency exchange
2) Central Bank of Russia
3) International Monetary Fund
4) World Bank

9. The price of one country's currency expressed in another country's currency is called

1) fixed rate
2) exchange rate
3) equilibrium supply
4) exchange rate

10. Are the following statements about devaluation correct?

A. During devaluation, the goods of foreign firms immediately become more expensive in the domestic market.
B. During devaluation, goods of domestic producers in foreign markets become significantly cheaper.

1) only A is correct
2) only B is correct
3) both judgments are correct
4) both judgments are incorrect

1. Read the text below, each position of which is numbered.

(1) An analysis conducted in 2000 showed that 87% of Russian exports go to industrialized countries. (2) The former union republics of the USSR accounted for only 13% of exports. (3) Researchers believe that the problems of Russian exports and imports will remain one of the main problems of Russia’s domestic and foreign policy for a long time. (4) Apparently, it will take many more years to improve the structure of exports and create a normal system of relations with trading partners.

Determine which text provisions

A) reflect the facts
B) express opinions

2. Below is a list of organization names. All of them, with the exception of one, are international economic organizations.
International Monetary Fund, World Bank, Eurasian Economic Community, European Free Trade Association, Interpol.
Find and identify an organization that is not an economic organization.

3. Insert the missing concept: “The ability of currencies to exchange among themselves is called __________.”

4. Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing. Select from the list provided the words that need to be inserted in place of the gaps.

“The World Trade Organization was created in 1994 to achieve the following stated goals: ensuring a full __________(1) population; growth of __________(2) and trade exchange of goods and __________(3); optimal use of sources of __________(4) to ensure long-term __________(5), protection and conservation of __________(6).”

The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word (phrase) can be used only once. Choose one word after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words in the list than you will need to fill in the blanks.

A) service
B) production
B) employment
D) raw materials
D) development
E) need
G) environment

1. Read the text and complete the tasks.

“At the end of 2010, negotiations were held between the government delegations of Russia and China, at which it was decided that China would buy from Russia not only oil, coal and electricity, but also gas. It was stated that deliveries could begin as early as 2015. In addition, the parties agreed to build an oil refinery on Chinese territory and a coal liquefaction plant on Russian territory.
The faster the Chinese economy grows, the more energy it needs. For example, according to the Energy Information Administration, gas consumption in China will grow by 6.8% annually and in 2020 will amount to 200 billion cubic meters (currently 81 billion). Russia, which accounts for more than a quarter of the world's natural gas reserves, is naturally not averse to organizing sales to China. In July 2009, Gazprom began construction of the Sakhalin-Khabarovsk-Vladivostok gas pipeline system, which will not only provide gas to a number of Far Eastern regions, but also create infrastructure for gas exports to Asia.
As for the oil, it will go along the “branch” of the Eastern Siberia - Pacific Ocean oil pipeline, which was specially built for China. At the end of August, the Russian part of the “pipe” was completed and filled with technological oil, now China will have to complete work on the section to Daqing.
A new area of ​​cooperation is oil refining. It is assumed that an oil refinery with a capacity of 13 million tons of oil per year will be built in Tianjin (then an ethylene production plant will also be built). It will be built jointly by Rosneft and CNPC, which will invest about five billion dollars in the project at the first stage. It is planned that within the framework of the joint venture, 500 gas stations will also appear in northern China, and petroleum products can be exported. A coal liquefaction plant will be built on Russian territory (another source of raw materials for the electric power industry). In addition, Russian coal miners can increase the export of raw materials to China, but the problem is that the existing ports are already loaded to capacity, and there is not enough railway capacity. The parties have yet to resolve these issues.
But the cheapest energy is nuclear. China, like Russia, wants to increase the share of nuclear energy in the country’s overall energy balance. Russian specialists have already built two power units of the Tianwan NPP, and now we are talking about the construction of the third and fourth. According to Izvestia, until recently, Russia and China could not resolve financial issues related to the construction of the first stage of the station, but in the end everything was resolved, and, perhaps, a contract for new construction will be signed in the near future.”

1) Define the concept of “foreign trade policy” and make two sentences that reveal its meaning.

2) Why is the agreement mentioned in the article beneficial for China and Russia? Using the text, give at least three points.

2. Give two examples of foreign trade agreements concluded by the Russian Federation in recent years.

3. Choose one of the statements below, reveal its meaning by identifying the problem (the topic raised) posed by the author; formulate your attitude towards the position taken by the author; justify this relationship. When expressing your thoughts on various aspects of the problem raised (the designated topic), when arguing your point of view, use the titles received while studying the social studies course, relevant concepts, as well as facts of social life and your own life experience.

1. “Trade has never ruined a single nation” (B. Franklin).

2. “Free trade is not a principle, but a means to an end” (B. Disraeli).

3. “As for intermediation, when goods are bought not for oneself, but for resale, here they usually make money on both the seller and the buyer.” (F. Bacon).

Answers to the social studies test World economy and international trade
Part 1
1-3, 2-2, 3-1, 4-4, 5-1, 6-1, 7-1, 8-1, 9-2, 10-4
Part 2
1. AABB
2. Interpol
3. convertibility
4. VBAGJ

Textbook: Bogolyubov, Gorodetskaya. Social science. - M.: Education, 2010 (§ 22).

1. Introduction to the lesson.

1.1. Determining the lesson plan, the sequence of actions during the lesson, determining the objectives of the lesson:

Know the structure of the world economy;

How is foreign trade carried out?

What factors determine the foreign trade policy of the state

What is currency

Be able to explain the role of the state in international economic relations

Be able to assess the consequences of foreign trade policy

Competently structure your behavior in situations related to changes in exchange rates

1.2. Checking your understanding of the material covered. Draw students' attention to the “assessment sheets” that must be completed at the end of the lesson. And now a small test (on the board) - self-test

Self-assessment sheet

Grade to whom	Test	Learning new material			Solution tasks	Final
		World farming	External trade	Currency
Self-esteem
Class
Liked Job

1.3. Test - checking the material covered.<Рисунок 1>. The grade is given after self-test.

1.4. Referring to the preliminary homework given to a number of students and presenting their responses.<Рисунок 2>. You see the question they proposed and what options they offered. Which of the proposals, in your opinion, is more in tune with the topic of our lesson?

2. Learning new material

2.1. When starting to study a new topic, I would like to turn to history to answer the question - what is the world economy?

In the middle of the 19th century. The English economist D. Ricardo used the following example - England and Portugal traded wine and cloth. It was cheaper to produce both wine and cloth in Portugal than in England. And Portugal could provide both countries with these goods. In fact, Portugal began to specialize in the production of wine, and England in cloth.<Рисунок 3>.

By the beginning of the 21st century, there was practically no large-scale production left in Western Europe, requiring large labor costs and also damaging the environment. But the volume of such production has increased in the countries of Southeast and South Asia. Here, production is much cheaper due to the availability of cheap labor, raw materials, low taxes and undeveloped environmental legislation.<Рисунок 4>.

Based on these examples, try to define what the world economy is?

The world economy is a system of international economic relations that links national economies;

The world economy is a set of national economies connected by political and economic relations.

(the teacher, walking around the class, finds similar 3, inviting the students who gave them to write down the definitions on the board).

2.2. The term “foreign trade” is closely related to the concept of world economy. Read the text on your desks.

Foreign trade originated in ancient times. Although, in the conditions of a subsistence economy, a small part of the products entered foreign trade. But even then, foreign trade was necessary for many countries. Remember why the ancient Greeks founded colonies throughout the Mediterranean - bread was brought from the colonies to the metropolis, and olive oil, wine, and handicrafts were brought from the metropolis.

There are many reasons that brought foreign trade to life. Firstly, the countries of the world differ in geographical location, natural and climatic conditions (for example, in mineral reserves, size and quality of fertile lands, etc.). Goods that are not in demand within the country can be profitably sold abroad. Thus, in the Middle Ages in Europe, spices were valued, which were widely grown in the countries of the East. Another example: imagine that in England we would have to abandon the traditional tea drinking at 5 o'clock in the afternoon. But tea does not grow in the British Isles. This means that it must be imported from abroad. And it would hardly be possible to drink a cup of coffee in the morning without foreign trade with the countries where this crop grows. Many familiar products, products and materials are the subject of export and import. So, foreign trade is trade between countries, consisting of import (import) and export (export) of goods and services. The volume of foreign trade activity of a country, measured in monetary terms, is called foreign trade turnover. It is equal to exports + imports for a certain period. The need to trade internationally is also related to factors such as differences in population and the level of skill of local goods producers. In the world economy, an international division of labor has developed - the specialization of countries in the production of one or another product for the production of which they have the most favorable conditions.

Russia participates in the international division mainly as a supplier of energy resources (oil and petroleum products, natural gas), ferrous and non-ferrous metals, fertilizers, timber and paper products

Give 2 examples of foreign trade from the history and modern times of the Russian Federation. (the teacher, walking around the class, finds similar 3, inviting the students who gave them to write down the definitions on the board).

2.3. International trade policy is part of foreign economic policy.

Foreign trade policy is usually understood as the activities of states aimed at developing trade relations with other countries of the world or groups of countries.

Foreign trade policy is one of the most important parts of foreign policy.

If a state seeks to protect its own industry and agriculture from foreign competitors, it resorts to a policy of protectionism.

<Рисунок 5>.

If, on the contrary, the state is interested in greater imports of goods, then its foreign trade policy will be called free trading, i.e. “free trade”.<Рисунок 6>.

2.4. But foreign trade in the modern world would be impossible without currency. Discussion of a term by solving a problem.

Task: a student says to a peer: I have currency in my pocket. As much as 50 rubles. In response to him: What kind of currency is this? If you had 50 dollars, that would be a different matter. What do you think? A discussion in which students should come to the conclusion that currency is any type of money in circulation.

For currency exchange, an important indicator is the exchange rate - this is the price of the monetary unit of one country expressed in the monetary units of another country.

Example: the cost of 1 trip by bus in the Sunny City will cost 10 pounds, and in the Flower City 30 pounds. The ratio will be 1:3, which means 1 pound will cost 3 dowels.

There are different exchange rates: fixed (set by the state) and exchange rates (set by those who buy and those who sell). Market laws apply to currencies

Demand > offers = rate increase

Demand < offers = depreciation

To consolidate the definition and all the material of the subtopic, rationally solve a number of simple problems.

Problem solving:

1. You are going to go on holiday to Bulgaria. Do you plan to spend 7000 rubles within 14 days, how much is lev (Bulgarian currency) if the exchange rate is 1 ruble = 0.03 lev (1 lev = 28.98 ruble)
2. Are you going to go to England, what currency will you take euros, dollars, pounds sterling? Imagine that there were no pounds sterling in any exchange office and you were offered dollars or euros. Choose the best rate if 1 pound sterling = $1.58 or 1.28 euros.

To summarize the study of the subtopic, it is necessary to conclude that in order for the national currency exchange rate to remain stable, the country’s economy must be competitive.

3. Summing up

3.1. Confirm or refute the opinion of Benjamin Franklin “Trade has never ruined a single nation” - yes - no, prove your point of view<Рисунок 7>.

If you find it difficult to answer this question, then try the following test<Рисунок 8>, write down the answers in your notebook.

3.2. Students grade themselves and their classmates. Submitting "self-assessment sheets".