Types of metal processing for jewelry. Types of processing of precious metals. Main types of materials used
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Topic: Techniques of artistic processing of metals in jewelry
Introduction
Chapter 1. Features of artistic metal processing in jewelry making
1.3 Types of metals
Chapter 2. Jewelry box manufacturing technology
2.1 Jewelry box manufacturing technology
Conclusion
List of used literature.
Applications
Introduction
Relevance of the topic. Artistic processing of traditional metals has been known since ancient times. A man, having once encountered gold on his way, was fascinated by its beauty, amazed by its ability to retain its sunny color and shine, and to easily lend itself to any artistic treatment. Using these qualities of metal in combination with the harmony of lines and shapes, man created one of the inimitable types of decorative and applied creativity, which is still relevant today and continues to develop non-stop, showing increasing interest in this type of art.
Artistic metal processing today, as in the old days, continues to delight and surprise lovers of aesthetics and beauty. Jewelry art has been with man for thousands of years, and products were for him a symbol of grace, striving for beauty and perfection.
Thanks to the beauty of the material, the talent and technical skill of the performer made it possible to give the products sophistication, high artistic value, and special expressiveness. Products created by masters are designed to serve not only as decorations and household items, they are capable of carrying an educational principle: satisfying a person’s aesthetic needs, shaping his artistic taste, culture, and awakening interest in creativity.
Among the works of decorative and applied art that were created in the past and are being created today, metal products occupy a large and honorable place.
When creating an original design in modern conditions, there is a need to widely use various devices and means of small-scale mechanization. High quality work must be achieved not only through manual operations, but also by skillfully using mechanized techniques that facilitate accelerating and replacing manual labor, especially in those cases where it is most difficult.
Thus, thanks to the beauty of the material, the talent and technical skill of the performer, they make it possible to give the products sophistication, high artistic value, and special expressiveness. Products created by masters are designed to serve not only as decorations and household items, they are capable of carrying an educational principle: satisfying a person’s aesthetic needs, shaping his artistic taste, culture, and awakening interest in creativity.
The artistic processing of jewelry will be relevant at all times, as it becomes more and more popular and multifaceted in modern society. Nowadays, artistic metal processing is a stylish and fashionable area of decorative and applied art.
Purpose of the study: the use of artistic techniques of metal processing in jewelry.
The object of the study is the process of designing and creating jewelry, using the example of making a box.
The subject of the study is the peculiarity of using the technique of artistic processing of traditional metals in jewelry.
The research hypothesis can be the following assumption: if you use modern techniques of artistic metal processing, this will contribute to the high-quality production of jewelry, taking into account national stylistic features.
Research methods. To solve the problems, the following system of research methods was used:
Analysis of the collection of information obtained from fiction, allowing us to determine the area and direction of creative work.
Observing creative processes, photographing artistic activities and developing your own sketches.
Study and generalization of artistic and technological experience.
Scientific novelty is as follows:
The possibility of creating decorative products based on creative and practical activities, using various types of artistic metal processing techniques, has been experimentally proven.
The conditions and requirements for the implementation of the relationship between technical and artistic activities when organizing practical work in the decorative arts using artistic processing of metals and various materials are determined.
Practical significance. The prospects for jewelry created by means of artistic metal processing have been determined. A technology for making jewelry and applying practical skills in various types of decorative and applied arts activities have been developed.
The thesis consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, a list of references and an appendix.
CHAPTER 1. Features of artistic processing of metals in the manufacture of jewelry
1.1 History of the development of artistic metal processing
Jewelry making is one of the oldest forms of art of processing precious metals, precious stones and other materials, which has become widespread among the types of decorative and applied areas. Jewelry that has survived to this day gives an idea of the traditions, tastes and skill of jewelers of the past.
At first, people used only gold for artistic processing, then gradually began to use silver and other metals and alloys in combination with various precious stones. They were valued not only for their ease of fusibility, but above all for their incredible color beauty. Gold in its color resembles the sun, and this luminary in ancient cultures was associated with the supreme deity. It is no coincidence that artistic products made of gold or silver are, as a rule, sacred cult objects: amulets, amulets and others. The skills of processing precious metals already in the early period of the Iron Age, i.e. 5000 years ago, served as the origin of jewelry art. In the Ancient East, Western Asia and Egypt, jewelry making reached its full bloom when, along with numerous jewelry commissioned by representatives of the nobility, jewelry was created that were works of jewelry art, since in ancient times jewelry made of precious metals was a measure of the wealth and power of the ruling classes, an indicator position on the social ladder and place in society.
The gold products of the ancient Greeks appear to be more complex in design, more colorful in decoration and intricate in form. This suggests that the Greeks learned metal processing techniques early. For classical ancient Greek jewelry (V-IV centuries BC), the most important means of artistic effects was the matte shine of gold. Already by this period, they could create flexible, lightweight jewelry from metal that would harmonize with the freely falling folds of clothing. The campaigns of Alexander the Great played a role in changing the style of jewelry art of the ancient period, during which the Greeks became closely acquainted with the art of the countries of the East, having a noticeable influence on the art of the Scythians and Sarmatians, who, in turn, according to the religious ideas of this people, carried a protective principle, and their main visual motif was the theme of animals. A characteristic “animal” style developed, expressed in the predominance of animal motifs.
The processing of precious metals reached its undoubted development during the Renaissance. Products began to take on a voluminous, multifaceted shape; the composition was completed, the finishing of the products acquired a detailed meaning. Master jewelers of the Renaissance created magnificent products: silver vessels with multi-figured scenes in relief, pendants with enamel in relief, carved stones.
Due to the fact that man has learned many types of artistic metal processing, further development moves to the introduction of new technologies that began to speed up the processing process.
Thus, the ancient craftsmen, from generation to generation, with each era, carefully passed on their knowledge, skills and practical methods of work, which made it possible to preserve and bring to modern days the art of decorative and artistic processing of metals and other materials.
1.2 Basic characteristics of metals
Metals are a group of chemical elements united by a number of characteristic common properties of metals. They have fairly high electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are highly ductile and have a characteristic metallic luster.
All metals consist of many individual grains - crystals, tightly adjacent to each other and tightly bound together by internal adhesion forces. Therefore, metals are classified as crystalline solids.
Crystal formation usually occurs when liquid molten metal cools. This process proceeds as follows: when a liquid metal is cooled, its solidification begins with the formation of crystallization centers in which the metal atoms are arranged in a certain order, forming a crystal that has the correct shape of geometric figures - a cube, a prism, etc. The shapes and sizes of crystals are different, from several centimeters to thousandths of a meter. The shape and size of metals depends not only on the conditions in which they are formed, but also on the subsequent processing of the metal.
It is necessary to note the main criteria by which metals are worthy in the manufacture of jewelry. To produce high-quality, highly artistic products, it is necessary to know and distinguish between metals and their properties by which they are characterized: physical, chemical, mechanical and technological.
Physical properties include:
Color is the property of light to show a visual sensation in accordance with the spectral composition of the reflected or emitted radiation.
Gloss is a property of a metal surface that reflects light. Color and shine are very important, as they characterize the artistic and aesthetic aspects of metal as a material in the manufacture of jewelry.
Density is the ratio of the mass of a substance to its volume.
Melting point is the temperature of transition from a crystalline solid to a liquid state.
Electrical conductivity is the ability of a metal to conduct electric current.
Thermal conductivity is the ability to transfer thermal energy from more heated areas of the body to less heated ones.
Magnetic properties - the ability to respond to the action of a magnet.
The chemical properties of metals include:
Corrosion resistance is the property of metals to resist (without being destroyed) the action of aggressive environments.
Solubility is the ability of metals to dissolve in acids, electrolytes and other aggressive environments.
On the mechanical properties of metals:
Plasticity is the ability to undergo irreversible deformation, i.e., pressure treatment.
Hardness is the ability of a metal to resist the indentation of a harder material. There are several methods for determining the hardness of metals. The Brinell method is based on pressing a steel ball into the surface of the metal being tested; Rockwell method - by pressing in a diamond cone or steel ball; Vickers method - on indentation of a diamond tetrahedral pyramid. This property is often used when choosing cutting tools for metal cutting.
Strength is the ability of a metal, under certain conditions, to take on certain loads without breaking. The highest load that a metal can withstand without breaking is called tensile strength.
Elasticity is the property of a metal to restore its shape after the cessation of the external forces that caused the deformation. The greatest stress after which the metal returns to its original shape is called the elastic limit.
Endurance is the ability of a metal to resist repeated loads.
Physical and chemical properties include:
Color. Metals are opaque, i.e. do not let light pass through them, and in this reflected light, each metal has its own special shade - color.
Of the technical metals, only copper (red) and its alloys are painted. The color of other metals ranges from steel gray to silver white. The thinnest films of oxides on the surface of metal products give them additional colors.
Specific gravity. The weight of one cubic centimeter of a substance, expressed in grams, is called specific gravity.
Based on their specific gravity, light metals and heavy metals are distinguished. Of the technical metals, the lightest is magnesium (specific gravity 1.74), the heaviest is tungsten (specific gravity 19.3). The specific gravity of metals depends to some extent on the method of their production and processing.
Fusibility. The ability to change from a solid to a liquid state when heated; is the most important property of metals. When heated, all metals pass from a solid to a liquid state, and when a molten metal is cooled, from a liquid to a solid state. The melting point of technical alloys does not have one specific melting point, but a temperature range, sometimes quite significant.
Electrical conductivity. Electrical conductivity involves the transfer of electricity by free electrons. The electrical conductivity of metals is thousands of times higher than the electrical conductivity of non-metallic bodies. As the temperature increases, the electrical conductivity of metals will decrease, and as the temperature decreases, it increases. When approaching absolute zero (-2730C), the electrical conductivity of infinite metals ranges from +2320 (tin) to 33700 (tungsten). Most increase (resistance drops to almost zero). The electrical conductivity of alloys is always lower than the electrical conductivity of one of the components that make up the alloys.
Magnetic properties. Only three metals are clearly magnetic (ferromagnetic): iron, nickel, and cobalt, as well as some of their alloys. When heated to certain temperatures, these metals also lose their magnetic properties. Some iron alloys are not ferromagnetic even at room temperature. All other metals are divided into paramagnetic (attracted by magnets) and diamagnetic (repelled by magnets).
Thermal conductivity. Thermal conductivity is the transfer of heat in a body from a more heated place to a less heated place without visible movement of particles of this body. The high thermal conductivity of metals allows them to be heated and cooled quickly and evenly.
Of the technical metals, copper has the highest thermal conductivity. The thermal conductivity of iron is much lower, and the thermal conductivity of steel varies depending on the content of components in it. As the temperature increases, thermal conductivity decreases, and as it decreases, it increases.
Heat capacity. Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise body temperature by 10.
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat in kilograms - calories that must be supplied to 1 kg of a substance in order to increase its temperature by 10.
The specific heat capacity of metals is low compared to other substances, which makes it relatively easy to heat them to high temperatures.
Expandability when heated. The ratio of the increase in the length of a body when it is heated by 10 to its original length is called the coefficient of linear expansion. For different metals, the coefficient of linear expansion varies widely. For example, tungsten has a linear expansion coefficient of 4.0·10-6, and lead 29.5·10-6.
Corrosion resistance. Corrosion is the destruction of a metal due to its chemical or electrochemical interaction with the external environment. An example of corrosion is the rusting of iron.
High resistance to corrosion (corrosion resistance) is an important natural property of some metals: platinum, gold and silver, which is why they are called noble. Nickel and other non-ferrous metals also resist corrosion well. Ferrous metals corrode more strongly and faster than non-ferrous metals.
Mechanical properties include:
Strength. The strength of a metal is its ability to resist external forces without breaking.
Hardness. Hardness is the ability of a body to resist the penetration of another, harder body.
Elasticity. The elasticity of a metal is its ability to restore its shape after the cessation of external forces that caused a change in shape (deformation.)
Viscosity. Toughness is the ability of a metal to resist rapidly increasing (impact) external forces. Viscosity is the opposite property of brittleness.
Plastic. Plasticity is the property of a metal to deform without destruction under the influence of external forces and retain a new shape after the force ceases. Plasticity is the opposite property of elasticity.
Technological properties of metals:
Hardening is the ability of metals to acquire higher strength after thermal, chemical-thermal or mechanical treatment.
Solderability is the property of metals to form permanent connections using molten filler material - solder.
Malleability is the ability of metals to be subjected to forging or other types of processing under pressure (drawing, stamping, pressing, rolling).
Fluidity is the ability of metals in molten form to fill a casting mold.
Casting shrinkage is the ability of a metal to reduce its volume during the transition from a liquid to a solid state. This must be taken into account when making the olive mold.
Thanks to knowledge of these properties of metals and alloys, many defects that arise during metal processing can be prevented and eliminated.
1.3 Types of metals
Currently, it is difficult to name a modern industry where metal is not used. Machines, machine tools, tools, and all kinds of household items are made from metals. Metals play an equally important role in the art industry.
In modern science, the number of metals and alloys exceeds 65. However, in the field of applied art, only a relatively small part of them has direct application, and some of them are not used at all.
Let's consider metals and their alloys that have direct application in the art industry, that is, metals that serve as materials for the manufacture of jewelry.
First of all, such materials include: a group of ferrous metals, i.e. alloys of iron and carbon - cast iron and steel, as well as a group of non-ferrous metals - copper and its alloys (brass and bronze), aluminum and magnesium and their alloys, zinc, nickel, tin and lead, as well as silver, gold and platinum, usually classified as a special group of precious metals.
In addition, we will consider some of the non-ferrous metals that are of less importance in the art industry. These metals are used either as small additions to alloys to change their properties, or as coatings in the manufacture of tools and fixtures.
Ferrous metals are the industrial name for iron and its alloys. In terms of scale of production and use, ferrous metals are far ahead of all existing metals and alloys.
More than 90% of all structural and instrumental materials are made from them. The main difference between ferrous metals is their ability to be magnetized. In everyday life, all iron-based alloys - steel and cast iron - are called iron.
Iron (Fe) is a silver-white metal, shiny, malleable and ductile. Density 7.87; melting point 1539 °C; Brinell hardness 60 (Mohs 5). In air it oxidizes and becomes covered with loose rust. It is not found in nature in its pure form. Iron is obtained from iron ores. Iron with impurities is called industrial iron. Technical iron contains 99.8...99.9% iron, the rest is impurities, containing more than a dozen elements. Iron in its pure form has no practical use; it is used only in alloys. Iron alloys are called steel or cast iron depending on their carbon content.
Steel is an alloy of iron with carbon and other elements, the carbon content of which is less than 2%. Depending on the composition, steels have different physical and chemical properties.
Based on its composition, steel is divided into carbon and alloy (containing other components).
In terms of quality - steel of ordinary quality, high-quality, high-quality and high-quality.
By purpose - for structural, instrumental and special purposes.
The majority of equipment, fixtures and tools for jewelry production are made using structural and tool steels.
Cast iron is an iron alloy containing more than 2% carbon. Based on their composition, cast iron is divided into unalloyed and alloyed (containing chromium, nickel, manganese and other alloying elements).
Based on their structure, a distinction is made between white cast iron (with white fracture) and gray cast iron (with gray fracture).
The bulk of the cast iron is processed into steel, the rest is used for other purposes. Cast iron is used for shaped casting. Machine beds, parts of internal combustion engines and other mechanisms operating under conditions of increased wear, etc. are made from it. It is widely used as a material for applied art products: vases, sculptures, fountains, fences, gates, gratings, etc. In jewelry production, in addition to machine beds, molds (molds for casting ingots) are made from cast iron.
Non-ferrous metals and their alloys.
Pure non-ferrous metals (chemical elements) are usually grouped according to similar properties. For example, light metals (density below 3.0), heavy metals (density higher than that of iron - 7.87), low-melting metals (melting point below the melting point of tin - 232 CC), refractory (with a melting point higher than than that of iron - 1539 °C), precious metals, etc. In this manual, non-ferrous metals and their alloys are considered from the perspective of their use in jewelry practice as direct (included in alloys of precious metals), as well as indirect participants in production or materials possible for use. Knowledge of the properties of non-ferrous metals will help in diagnosing products made of precious metals, in contrast to close imitations.
Copper (Cu) is a reddish-pink metal, soft and ductile, with high thermal and electrical conductivity. Easy to solder. Polishes well. Due to its softness, it is difficult to process with cutting tools. Has poor casting properties. Density 8.96; melting point 1083°C; Brinnell hardness 35. Chemically inactive. In a humid environment, it becomes covered with a greenish coating of cuprous oxide (copper patina), which preserves it from further destruction. Copper easily dissolves in nitric and concentrated hydrochloric acids when heated. It dissolves in dilute hydrochloric acid in the presence of oxygen. Copper is widely used in all industries. In the art industry it is used for enamel products and other crafts. Copper is a component of almost all precious metal alloys. It serves as the basis for copper alloys - brass, bronze, cupronickel, nickel silver.
Brass is a copper alloy, two-component or more, with the main alloying element being zinc. The copper content in brasses is usually more than 57%. Brass with a high copper content (90% or more) is called tompak, with a copper content of 79...86% - semi-tompak. Based on their composition, brass is divided into simple (two-component) and special (multi-component).
According to their purpose, they are divided into deformable and foundry. Brasses are yellow in color and can be easily processed by pressure (with the exception of lead-containing ones) in cold and hot conditions. All brass is well soldered, easily processed with a cutting tool, and polished well. Density of brass 8.20...8.60; melting point 900...1045 °C. In a dry room they retain color and shine for a long time. In the open air, brass is unstable, quickly loses its shine and darkens. Dissolves in most acids. They are widely used in industry, as well as as a decorative material for artistic crafts, embossing, cheap jewelry haberdashery, souvenirs, commemorative medals, etc. The mechanical properties of brass (grades L62 and L68) are similar to gold alloys of 583 standard and are used as educational material for practical training of jewelers.
Bronze is a copper alloy in which the main alloying component can be any metal except zinc. Bronzes can be two-component or more. The color depends on the composition, but most often it is golden yellow. Compared to brass, bronzes have higher strength, high casting qualities and wear resistance. They are easily soldered and polished. Based on their composition, bronzes are divided into tin, aluminum, silicon, beryllium and others. Bronze density 7.50...8.80; melting point 1010...1140°C.
Compared to brass, it has higher corrosion resistance. Bronze (especially beryllium) is resistant to air, water, organic acid solutions, and carbon dioxide solutions. Easily dissolves in nitric acid and in the presence of an oxidizing agent in sulfuric and hydrochloric acids. Bronze is widely used in technology, in the art industry and is an indispensable casting material; it is used for the manufacture of interior parts - chandeliers, sconces, candelabra, various figurines, etc. Commemorative badges, medals, and souvenirs obtained by casting are also made from bronze.
Cupronickel is a copper-nickel alloy containing up to 30% nickel. The color is silvery-white, with a yellowish tint on the cut and polished parts. Soft, ductile, easy to process with cutting tools and soldered. Density 8.90; melting point 1170 °C. Corrosion-resistant in air. Oxidizing in a humid environment, it becomes covered with a green coating. Dissolves in nitric acid. Hot sulfuric and hydrochloric acids are corrosive to it. Widely used for the manufacture of haberdashery products, as well as tableware products. Typically, tableware products are plated with silver.
Nickel silver is a three-component copper-based alloy, which in addition to copper contains 13.5...16.5% nickel and 18...22% zinc. Nickel silver resembles silver in appearance. Depending on the nickel content, it may have a bluish or greenish tint. It has sufficient strength and ductility and solders well. Density 8.45; melting point 1050°C.
Lead (Pb) is a bluish-gray metal with a strong shine when freshly cut. Very malleable, soft (easily cut with a knife), viscous. Density 11.34; melting point 327°C; Brinell hardness. Stable in dry air. In a humid environment, it quickly becomes covered with a dark gray oxide film, which preserves it from further destruction. Lead is resistant to sulfuric and hydrochloric acids. It dissolves well in nitric, as well as acetic, citric and tartaric acids, and is destroyed by alkalis. Soluble lead compounds are poisonous and require caution when working with them. In all alloys of precious metals, lead impurity is harmful, therefore, during operation, precious metals are protected from lead getting into them. In the individual production of jewelry, lead or lead-tin (depending on the required rigidity) pillows are used as matrices for shaping parts. Lead is also one of the components in the composition of niello.
Aluminum (A1) is a light metal of silvery-bluish-white color, malleable and ductile. Polishes well. Has high electrical and thermal conductivity. Under normal conditions, it cannot be soldered using either contact or flame soldering.
Precious metals.
Eight metals, separated into a separate group, are called precious, or noble. These include gold, silver, platinum, as well as platinum metals (platinoids): palladium, rhodium, iridium, ruthenium and osmium. The basis for use in jewelry is actually three metals - gold, silver and platinum. Possessing unique properties - beautiful color, softness, plasticity, the ability to combine with precious stones and enamels, to look noble both in polished and matte form, they are used as alloys for the manufacture of jewelry. The cost and noble properties of metals determined the name of the entire group.
The leading place among them is occupied by gold and silver; the largest number of gold alloys in a wide range of colors are used independently. In addition, gold products are made in combination with silver or platinum.
It is not by chance that platinum metals are allocated to a special group. In nature, they usually accompany each other, and in addition, they have a number of common properties. All are white, with differences in shades, and have high corrosion resistance. Not all platinum group metals are used in jewelry production, so the focus of this section is on precious metals that are directly related to jewelry production.
Gold (Au) is the only metal with a bright yellow color. It is distinguished by the highest ductility and malleability of all precious metals; it can be cut with a knife. It has a high gloss and good thermal and electrical conductivity. Gold density 19.32; melting point 1063°C; Brinell hardness 20 (Mohs 2.5). Gold has high chemical resistance: neither oxygen nor sulfur affects it, even when heated; resistant to moisture; does not react with acids, alkalis, salts. However, it dissolves in mixtures of acids - hydrochloric and nitric (aqua regia); sulfuric and manganese; sulfuric and nitric, as well as in hot selenic acid. It also dissolves in aqueous solutions of metal cyanide in the presence of oxygen or other oxidizing agents, and in solutions of thiourea in the presence of an oxidizing agent.
Easily combines with mercury to form an amalgam. Reacts with chlorine, bromine and iodine. In nature, gold usually occurs in the form of a metal. There are two known ways to concentrate it. These are primary (ore, bedrock) or hydrothermal formations. In primary deposits, gold is found in primary vein minerals and crystalline rocks in the form of inclusions and inclusions, sometimes invisible to the naked eye. A deposit is considered commercial if the gold content in the rock exceeds 2 g per ton. Secondary, or alluvial, were formed as a result of the destruction of ore (primary) deposits. The destruction (weathering) of gold-bearing rocks leads to the release of gold, which, together with the rock, is carried out by water and lies along the path of runoff in various depressions along the entire path of movement.
The high density of gold does not prevent it from moving over long distances and being deposited along the beds of streams and rivers, forming significant accumulations of placer gold. Gold in such deposits has completely different sizes in the form of small irregular grains, plates, flakes, spongy, thread-like, tree-like formations, distorted crystals, etc. Gold in placers is usually purer than ore and has a higher purity.
Individual metallic fragments are considered to be nuggets.
The idea of their mass or size changes over time; for example, in the 1954 TSB, nuggets are considered to be grains weighing 5 g or more. Nowadays, it is customary to consider nuggets that exceed 1 g. Gold in nature never exists in its pure form. In him
impurities are always present. The color of natural gold varies and depends on the presence of foreign metals as impurities.
Methods of gold mining mainly depend on the nature of the deposits and the thickness of the gold occurrence. The bulk of gold is mined from ore deposits. In addition to mining from alluvial ore deposits, gold is also mined as a by-product. Mining of gold found in minor concentrations of rocks from developed deposits, for example, non-ferrous metals, is considered associated. Associated gold extraction from non-ferrous metal ores takes up an increasing percentage
in total gold production.
Natural gold is never pure. Extracted from various sources (ores, placers, by-products), it contains many impurities and is the starting product for obtaining pure gold. The products of the mines are usually called schlich gold. The purity of spot gold varies and can range from 500 to 970 purity, i.e. from 50 to 97% pure gold in the metal mass. Since spot gold consists of particles of different purity and different contents, it requires purification from impurities to a uniformly high purity.
The use of precious metals as currency and for the preparation of alloys requires that they be obtained in a state of high purity. This is achieved through refining (purification, refining) at special refining enterprises.
Refining methods depend on the nature of the original product and the required purity of gold. All gold-containing metal prepared for refining is subjected to receiving smelting in order to determine the content of gold and other impurities in the resulting ingot and select a purification method. The highest degree of purification is achieved by the electrolytic method.
Pure gold is a relative concept, the degree of purity is expressed
breakdown 999; 999.9, etc., but there is no 1000th sample. Gold, like all metals, is marked. The grade of pure gold ZL 999 means that its composition is 99.9% gold (ZL), the rest is impurities; Zl" 999.9 - contains 99.99% gold, the rest is impurities. Impurities include lead, iron, antimony, bismuth, copper, silver within acceptable limits.
Refined gold is produced in bars of various weights. The degree of purity according to special technical conditions can reach 99.9999%. The bulk of pure gold is used to form alloys used for the production of jewelry, coins and medals; dentures; gold leaf; decorative galvanic coatings. Gold is also used for the needs of the electronics industry, instrument making, etc.
Silver (Ag) is a white metal, very malleable, ductile
and malleable, can be cut with a knife. Silver is harder than gold, but softer than copper. It polishes very well, has the highest reflectivity, and is the most electrically and thermally conductive metal.
Silver density 10.50; melting point 960.5 °C; Silver is resistant to moisture, does not interact with organic acids, alkali solutions, nitrogen, carbon, and is resistant to oxygen. Silver is resistant to hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids. Dilute sulfuric acid also does not dissolve it. Aqua regia, which dissolves gold, forms a protective film on the surface of silver. However, with prolonged exposure to air, silver gradually darkens under the influence of hydrogen sulfide in the air. Silver combines easily with sulfur. Ozone also forms a black coating on the surface of silver. Chlorine, bromine, iodine react with it even at room temperature. Silver dissolves easily in nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid when heated. Silver dissolves in cyanide alkalis and combines well with mercury, forming a silver amalgam.
In nature, silver forms more than 60 minerals, in which it exists in different states. Mainly in sulfur compounds with a high silver content (up to 87%). However, despite the large amount of silver minerals in ores, they are found in small quantities, often scattered among other minerals. Native silver is found much less frequently than native gold, as it forms compounds more easily with other elements. Native silver is a natural alloy with gold, copper, iron, bismuth, mercury, platinum and other elements. It occurs in the form of irregular grains, plates, leaves, wire-like and thread-like secretions. Large nuggets are extremely rare and can reach hundreds of kilograms.
The main sources of silver are complex ores of non-ferrous metals, from which silver is extracted along with lead, zinc, copper, nickel, as well as gold and uranium. The extraction of silver from silver-containing minerals is carried out similarly to gold through amalgamation and cyanidation, depending on the nature of the raw material. The resulting product is subjected to refining. The principle of refining is to dissolve silver in a nanodeposit and deposit its crystals on the cathode. The precipitated silver, after filtering and washing, is subjected to smelting. And insoluble anode sludge containing gold, platinum,
subjected to further processing. Refined silver is produced in ingots of various weights, in powder, and also in granules. Silver purity can reach 99.9999%. Due to its unique properties: high degrees of electrical and thermal conductivity, reflectivity, photosensitivity, etc. - silver has a very wide range of applications in electronics, electrical engineering, precision instrument making, rocketry, medicine, for protective and decorative coatings, for the manufacture of coins, medals and other memorabilia.
Platinum (Pt) is a grayish-white shiny metal, heavy and refractory. In terms of ductility and malleability, it is inferior to gold and silver. It can be rolled into the thinnest sheets (up to 0.0025 mm) and drawn into the thinnest wire (up to 0.001 mm). Density of platinum 21.45; melting point 1769°C; Brinell hardness 50. Chemically, platinum is the most stable metal. It does not oxidize in air even when heated and, when cooled, retains its color. Resistant to damp environments. Acids alone do not affect it; it dissolves in hot aqua regia. Platinum is corroded by potassium cyanide and molten
alkalis. In nature, platinum is most often found in the native state, in the form of grains and flakes of various sizes, rarely in the form of large nuggets. Native platinum is a mineral containing, in addition to platinum, iron, iridium, rhodium, palladium, copper, nickel and polyxene. Polyxene does not have a constant composition and is a source of extraction of many metals. Platinum ores, which are also a source of platinum and platinum metals, are rare in nature. The main source of platinum production is copper-nickel deposits, from the ores of which platinum is extracted as a by-product. In nature, platinum group metals usually accompany each other. Along the way, platinum and other platinum metals are obtained during the refining of gold. Refined platinum is produced in bars with a purity of up to 99.99%. Platinum has been used for jewelry making since ancient times. High grade platinum alloy is considered
a classic jewelry material for making items with precious stones. But its use in jewelry has decreased significantly. Platinum has found wide application in various fields of industry.
1.4 Types of artistic metal processing
Jewelry finishing is the final treatment of the surface, bringing it to a marketable state. Finishing operations can be classified into three types:
mechanical finishing - polishing, texture, embossing, engraving;
decorative and protective coatings - enameling, blackening;
chemical treatment - oxidation and electroplating.
Polishing.
The essence of the polishing process is to remove micro-irregularities from the metal surface, thereby achieving a high class of cleanliness and a mirror-like surface. Polishing is one of the finishing processes for processing products, but not always the last. Jewelry may be polished before oxidizing, before being coated with a layer of another metal. If the products cannot be polished entirely after assembly, some of their parts are polished during the mounting process. There are mainly two types of jewelry polishing: mechanical and electrochemical. Mechanical is called piece-by-piece
polishing products with and without abrasive. Mass methods of polishing - in drums and containers, despite the fact that they are actually also mechanical, are called tumbling and vibration processing.
Electrochemical polishing is the anodic etching of products in an electrolyte environment under the influence of electric current, i.e., the reverse process of gold and silver plating.
Mechanical polishing. Mechanical abrasive polishing
carried out on polishing machines using elastic wheels and brushes with abrasive pastes, and non-abrasive - by hand, with special polishing. For abrasive polishing of jewelry, single-spindle and double-spindle machines are used, equipped with attachments for attaching polishing tools and extraction devices with waste collectors for subsequent extraction of precious metals.
The tools for mechanical polishing are elastic wheels and brushes. The materials of the wheels must hold abrasive pastes well on the surface and be durable in use. The purpose of a polishing tool depends on the material from which it is made and its shape.
Filigree.
In the manufacture of jewelry, a special place is occupied by the technique of filigree or filigree (from the Old Russian yekat - to twist), which consists of the formation of complex lace patterns by hand from pieces of thin wire of different lengths, smooth or twisted, round or flat. Elements of a filigree pattern can be very diverse: in the form of a rope, lace, weaving, herringbone, track, satin surface, etc. The individual filigree elements are connected into a single whole using soldering. Filigree is often combined with grains, which are small metal balls that are soldered into pre-prepared cells (recesses). The grain creates a spectacular texture and play of light and shade, thanks to which the products acquire a particularly elegant, sophisticated look.
The materials for filigree products are alloys of gold, silver and platinum, as well as copper, brass, cupronickel, and nickel silver. Jewelry made using the filigree technique or with filigree elements is very often (in order to enhance its appearance) oxidized and silvered. Filigree is often combined with enamel (including enamel), engraving, and embossing. The filigree technique can be used to make all types of jewelry without exception.
There are openwork and background or soldered filigree.
Openwork filigree is a kind of lace pattern with a pattern that is visible through and through. Filigree soldered onto a specially prepared background, solid (solid filigree) or filigree (openwork), is called background. Both openwork and background filigree can be flat and voluminous. An example of openwork filigree can be flat brooches, an example of background filigree can be pendants, earrings of conical and cylindrical shapes. Elements of openwork and background filigree are very diverse and numerous in shape, size, and name.
Surface - round wire of various (specified) lengths and cross-section from 0.2 to 1.3 mm; wire flattened on the sides is called flat satin stitch.
Rope - a flagellum twisted from two wires of any cross-section, often rolled (flat rope); The granular surface formed on the edges of a flat rope allows you to create the effect of a particularly beautiful granular pattern in decoration.
Cord (lace) is an element twisted from two, three, four wires or two ropes, or ropes and wire.
A braid is a kind of braid woven from three or more wires; often used as a side rim for flat filigree decorations.
Herringbone - two adjacent ropes with a spiral directed in different directions, with a slight or complex bend.
A round track is a slightly stretched spiral made of round smooth surface of small cross-section; often used to highlight individual ornaments from the overall pattern. artistic processing metal jewelry
A crumpled and flattened path is an element in the form of a tumbled or flattened spiral, the rings of which, leaning on one another, partially cover each other.
A zigzag track is a jagged track made of flat stitch, round and flat rope, or a snake made of flat or round rope; used as intermediate elements of openwork filigree, as well as in the manufacture of background filigree with an openwork background.
Grain is small metal balls.
Ring - a ring made of flat and round satin stitch, round or flat rope; used primarily for setting background filigree and as an integral part of other elements.
Half ring - part of a ring; used as an independent element for setting the background filigree and as an integral part of other elements.
Cucumber - a cucumber-shaped element made from flat or round rope.
A pear is an element shaped like a drop, made from a flat or round rope.
Petal - made of flat or round rope or flat satin stitch, an element in the form of a daisy petal.
Tee - a trefoil made of flat or round rope or flat satin stitch.
The head is an element in the form of an inverted comma, made from a flat, or less often from a round rope.
Grass - made of flat satin stitch or flat round rope, curled in one direction in a flat spiral.
Curl - made from flat satin stitch, flat or round rope, an element in the form of a bow with the ends bent inward to form rings.
A leaf is a flat, laterally crumpled spiral in the shape of a leaf made from a flat rope.
The curl is a trefoil welded from three leaves of different shapes.
A bug is a ring made of a round track (spiral) with a grain in the center.
The rosette is a spiral ring of crumpled track, transformed into a spherical concave cup with grains inside.
Invoicing.
The textured surface of jewelry began to be called a surface that is different from polished, pleasant to look at, and bearing a decorative load. The surface texture can be different - finely pitted, finely lined, matte, etc. Most often, the effect of combined processing of texture with gloss is used. Areas of textured surface can be obtained: using the casting crust of products obtained by casting (by molding the prepared product accordingly); using a stamped surface (after sandblasting the working surface of the stamp); etching in various acid compositions, obtaining different shades and textures of the oxidized surface; mechanical matting (bevel, ground pumice, brushing), etc. The textured surface serves as a background for hand and diamond engraving, highlighting the relief image, areas with
glossy contour, as well as for internal hard-to-reach surfaces of the back of jewelry.
Brushing is a very old and common method of obtaining a textured surface. On silver items, brushing is often the final treatment. The surface is brushed on polishing machines with wire brushes (hair-type circles). The wire on the brushes is steel or bronze, smooth or wavy, varying in cross-section and length. As a rule, the wire cross-section is limited to the range 0.08...
0.15 mm, and the diameter of the circle is 70...150 mm. The brushing operation is also carried out at intermediate stages of manufacturing and processing of products - to remove oxidation in hard-to-reach places before tumbling, coatings, etc.
Embossing is a type of artistic processing of metals using special punches - embossing, as a result of which the workpiece takes on a relief image. The essence of the minting process is that as a result of pressure applied to the mint (by a hammer blow), a mark remains on the metal in the shape of the working part of the mint. The given design is knocked out by repeated blows of various stamps. There are hand and machine embossing. Embossing is considered manual if the process of punching out the image is done manually.
Machine embossing is a stamping operation performed on presses using dies. Modern equipment makes it possible to obtain high-quality images, so stamping has significantly reduced the use of hand-chasing in the manufacture of jewelry. And embossing should be considered not as a type of artistic design, but as an independent type of product manufacturing, which occupies a large place in the art industry. Sheet metal with good ductility is used as a material for embossing. These are gold, silver, copper and its alloys (tombac, cupronickel), aluminum. Most often, copper and tombac are used, which have excellent decorative qualities, the ability to accept chemical and electrochemical coloring, acquiring high anti-corrosion properties. The plasticity of these materials allows for deep relief drawing. The thickness of the workpiece is determined by the dimensions of the embossed product. For small-sized products, sheets with a thickness of 0.3.." ..0.8 mm are used.
The main tools for minting are coins and hammers.
A mint is a steel rod, usually faceted, 90...120 mm long for small forms. The cross section of the coin must be variable. A thickening is left in its middle part for stability and vibration damping during impact. The working end of the coin is hardened. Its other end, which is used for striking, is also slightly heated, without, however, giving it
loosen, thereby maintaining the length of the mint. Not at all hardened
Only the middle part remains - this dampens vibration. The coins are made from steel rods of grades U7 and U8, then processed (on an emery grinder or by hand) so that the longitudinal axis of the coin passes strictly through the center: this ensures the stability of the coin during impact. When processing a coin, its edges, most often four, are preserved. The coins differ in the shape of the working part (strike), which depends on the purpose of the tool. There are many varieties of coinage, but in addition, each coiner also uses sets of coinage of the same variety, differing from each other.
from each other in size and pattern of the strike, curvature of the convexity, surface condition, etc. The main types of coins have their own names. Below are their brief characteristics.
Kanfarniks are a form of combat in the form of a blunt needle, leaving a dotted mark. They are used to transfer a design onto metal by embossing the image along the contour, as well as to decorate the background with dots. The smaller the size of the product, the sharper the strike is selected.
Consumables - a linear form of combat, reminiscent of a screwdriver blade. Necessary for embossing a continuous line. For curved lines, coins with a curved strike are used. Consumables are used to outline the image on the metal along the dots of the kanfarnik. The length and curvature of the battle are chosen depending on the size of the design.
Loshchatniki - have a flat fight of various shapes. Apply
for leveling planes, raising or lowering flat areas of the image. The difference in combat forms is due to the nature of the pattern, in particular the contour line of the flat area. The surface treatment of the strikes of these coins is also different. To obtain a shiny mark, polished combs are used; for a matte mark, combs with varying degrees of
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SOME TYPES OF JEWELRY TECHNIQUES:
I. filigree (FILIGREE) - openwork or soldered onto a metal background patterns made of smooth wire, twisted from two or three threads, then flattened into ribbons.
The following types of filigree are distinguished:
1. Openwork - a lace pattern with a see-through pattern.
2. Background - filigree soldered onto a specially prepared background.
Elements of openwork and background filigree:
Smooth is a round wire of various lengths and cross-section from 0.2 to 1.3 mm.
Grain - small metal balls ranging in size from 0.2 to 2 mm.
A ring is a round element with an outer diameter of no more than 3 mm made of flat and round satin stitch, round or flat rope. Mainly used for setting the background filigree background.
Filigree can be flat or voluminous. Flat openwork filigree
Brooches or animal figurines. Volumetric openwork filigree - vases, cups, boxes, and background - pendants, earrings of conical or cylindrical shapes.
In flat openwork filigree, multifaceted filigree is distinguished
A filigree composition consisting of many patterns soldered on top of one another and located in different planes, that is, the product acquires volume.
II. ENAMEL is a special alloy of glass, painted in various colors with metal oxides. Enamel is coated with a thin layer of metal products and fixed to them by firing, as a result of which it turns into a shiny surface with stable bright colors.
Types of enamels:
Champlevé - enamel applied to the recesses of products. Recesses for enamel can be prepared by casting or stamping, chasing, engraving, and etching. This technique uses both transparent and opaque enamels.
Cloisonne - partitions made of flat rolled wire are installed or soldered onto the plate. The spaces between them are filled with enamel. The partitions are curved in accordance with the contours of the design, and areas of enamel form colorful decoration elements.
Picturesque enamel - the base plate is covered with a thin layer of transparent or opaque enamel. The design is applied with carefully ground paints and then fired. After firing, the painting is covered with a colorless enamel glaze.
III. BLACKING - has much in common with enameling. When heated, a black mixture of silver, copper, lead and sulfur (niello) melts into the recesses of the design engraved on the surface of the product and forms a flat color contrast.
TYPES OF SURFACE FINISHING:
Gilding and silvering are galvanic coatings of less resistant metals with resistant metals to give products an elegant look and protect them from corrosion. The layer of gilding or silvering may vary depending on the type of product and its purpose. For earrings, brooches and medallions made of silver, the gilding thickness is 1 micron, for chains - 2 microns.
Rhodium plating is the process of applying a layer of rhodium to silver items to protect them from tarnishing.
Oxidation is a decorative coating of the surface of silver and silver-plated products or individual parts with a dark coating with a smooth transition to a light tone in convex areas.
Diamond cutting is a type of decorative processing in which a regular geometric pattern is applied with a diamond cutter.
Polishing is a metal finishing operation. The product acquires a mirror shine. Manual polishing is preferable to mechanical polishing.
Matting is one of the finishing operations. As a result of processing, the product acquires a rough surface. The combination of a matte surface with a mirror gives the products a special appeal.
Satin finishing is done with round brushes made of thin brass or steel wire on a rotary machine. Thin longitudinal marks give the product a matte surface.
Micro-embossing is produced by means of small strikes with a hammer on the surface of the product to give an iridescent effect.
The current trend is to use two or three types of surface finishing in one product. This technique is used for contrast and expressiveness.
Precious metals of the platinum group are not common in nature in their pure form. All metals undergo a complex technological processing process called refining.
Refining is a metallurgical process for obtaining precious metals by purifying them from contaminants. The refining process is complex in its principle, so it is carried out at special enterprises around the world.
The refining procedure consists of several stages:
- chemical purification of metal (platinum group metals are purified by dissolution in mineral acids and further separation from the solution with special reagents).
- physical grinding of metal.
- further processing of the metal with concentrated solutions, necessary to achieve the highest quality of the purified metal.
Mostly for the refining procedure, concentrates from precious metal mines are used, as well as precious metals that are recycled.
To carry out the refining procedure for materials such as gold and silver, “dry” and “electrolytic” refining methods are used. This method is simpler, since gold and silver have a simple dissolution pattern.
For the group of platinum metals, the “wet” refining method is predominantly used. The essence of this method is to dissolve precious metals or scrap of these metals in aqua regia, which is a catalyst and accelerates the process of isolating pure metal from a slag solution using various reagents.
The history of material culture has recorded amazing metal products made by masters of the past: cast bells and sculptural monuments, forged fences and weapons, vessels and lamps, and much more. Each such item contains the work of a master craftsman who knows the techniques of processing gold and silver, bronze and iron, and is able to emphasize in the product the features of the material necessary to solve an artistic problem.
Modern technology has replaced many manual metal processing techniques with industrial methods. But for the production of unique and small-scale products, manual processing methods are preserved and passed on to new generations of craftsmen and artists.
Crafts of artistic metal processing began to take shape in Russia in the 17th century. Many of them still exist today. The main methods of metal processing are as follows.
Casting is an ancient and very common method of making products by pouring molten metal into special molds. The cooled casting is cleaned and finished.
Forging is one of the methods of processing metals by pressure, associated with blacksmithing. Unlike precious metals, which can be cold forged, iron requires heating to temperatures above 1000 ° C, when it can be bent and deformed to obtain a design or ornamental elements of a given shape and size.
Forging is close to the technique of perforation, when openwork ornaments are cut out of thin sheet metal (tin).
Embossing is the embossing of a relief in a thin metal sheet or plate. Embossing is performed by striking a special steel rod with a hammer, obtaining the required volume on a plate or three-dimensional object.
Scan (from ancient Russian skat - twist, twist) is an original jewelry technique for creating patterns from smooth or twisted wire (twisted into ropes). Such an ornament can become an overhead decoration for an object made of metal, wood, stone, or it can be used to make openwork vases, boxes, and jewelry. Filigree is often supplemented with metal balls (grains), which enrich the surface of the ornament. Filigree soldered onto the surface of a metal object forms a contour pattern for cloisonné enamel or colored stone inserts.
Enamel, or painted enamel, is a unique painting of metal products with enamel paints on a white enamel primer. The uniqueness and complexity of this technique of decorating products determined its limited use in centers of artistic metal processing. The glassy coating that forms the basis of the enamel provides a thin, shiny layer to the surface of painted and fired plates mounted in filigree frames. Transparency, purity and sonority of enamel paints give products with enamel elegance and decorativeness.
Blackening - one of the traditional types of decoration of silver and gold - is based on fusing into a carved, engraved pattern of niello - an alloy of silver, copper, lead or tin and sulfur. After firing, excess niello is removed with files, and the surface of the product is ground and polished. The alloy remains in the engraving, standing out in contrast against the background of the light metal.
Veliky Ustyug blackened silver. In Veliky Ustyug already in the 16th century. Various crafts began to appear, including the processing of silver, copper, and iron. The glory of Veliky Ustyug for a long time was blackened silver, which not only acquired its own artistic style, but also influenced the development of blackened silver in Moscow. Veliky Ustyug products of the 18th century. - These are metal engravings, the strokes of which are filled with a black metal alloy. The deep matte background covered with gold emphasized the depth of the blackened design on boxes, snuff boxes, and perfume bottles. The design theme corresponded to the purpose of the item. Thus, scenes of hunting and military battles were depicted on snuff boxes, and motifs of walks and ceremonial trips were depicted on boxes for women’s jewelry.
By the beginning of the 19th century. With the transition of art to the “classicism” style, the shapes of products become simpler, the drawing acquires more clarity. Craftsmen rarely use gilding, and on the free field of light silver the blackened engraving is made almost like a drawing on paper. Quite realistic portraits and city plans with a large number of inscriptions are transferred to snuff boxes.
Modern craftsmen create mostly blackened jewelry. On plates of different shapes they engrave a rosette, an unfolding flower bud or a spiral curl of an ornament, leaving a small free field of silver. Thanks to this technique, even small earrings acquire decorative expressiveness, which is emphasized by gilding the ornament or framing the plates.
Rostov enamel. Craftsmen from the city of Rostov, Yaroslavl region, initially painted icons, crosses, and plates with enamel to decorate church books and vessels (chalice). The enamel plates depicted figures of saints, biblical scenes, and monasteries.
In the 19th century there is a transition to realistic images. A large place in the work of masters is occupied by portraits, sometimes painted in one key: brown or black enamel.
Further development of the art of Rostov enamel followed the path of active restoration of floral and plant compositions in the decor of brooches, powder boxes, small mirrors, and toilet boxes. The masters continued to improve their subject painting. Landscapes of Moscow and his hometown, architectural monuments, and then compositions of thematic content are increasingly consolidated in the works of artists.
The improvement of enamel painting is associated with the use of filigree (filigree) products in the composition. It has become a full-fledged and integral part of jewelry. Filigree pendants complement earrings and pendants; filigree forms an expressive setting for brooches.
Krasnoselsky jewelry industry. This craft in the Kostroma region is the largest center for the production of jewelry from non-ferrous metals of various types of processing. The fishery developed at the end of the 19th century.
The modern creativity of Krasnoselsky jewelers is traditionally focused on the manufacture of jewelry, as well as tableware: jugs, shot glasses, cups. Among many works, filigree stands out with the greatest originality and variety of ornaments. It is used to create large goblets and vases, decorative plates and jewelry.
Kazakovskaya filigree. Kazakovsky filigree developed in the mid-1930s. as an original direction of metal processing in the village. Kazakovo, Nizhny Novgorod region. Using this technique, three-dimensional objects are created: glass holders, candy bowls, fruit plates. Their design and ornamental decoration is made up of openwork filigree. In the ornament of the Cossack filigree one can trace the change and development of the design from geometric zigzag ribbons to floral motifs, skillfully translated into decorative forms. Some imitation of lacework turned into a metal pattern, which is characterized by the elasticity of curls and joints, connected by constructive rods. The ornament is distinguished by its cleanliness and careful finishing, which made it possible to supplement the range of products with boxes, caskets, and vases, which are also decorated with floral ornaments.
Mstyora fishery. Mstera fishing developed in the 19th century. At first, chased frames for icons were made from metal.
In Soviet times, craftsmen switched to making dishes from non-ferrous metals, followed by silvering and gilding. For decoration, trays, glass holders, and candy bowls were engraved with ornaments in the form of modest bouquets, twigs, and rosettes. Areas of the engraved design, as a rule, were gilded and polished, the rest of the metal surface remained matte.
Various methods of artistic metal processing also have a long history. Some of them arose in ancient times, but have not lost their value to this day, others were developed relatively recently. The modern jeweler's arsenal includes artistic casting, carving, engraving, filigree, embossing, notching, and various types of enamels. These techniques are still based on manual processing techniques and are therefore very labor intensive. Most often they are used for original works. Moreover, manual, exclusive production these days is fundamental both for the creation of new product models and for fresh style ideas.
- Enamel(from the French “to melt”). The Old Russian name for enamel “enamel” comes from the Greek “fingitos” - “shiny stone”. Enamel is a thin layer of glass alloy, the color of which depends on the oxides of the metals in its composition. Iron oxide, for example, gives enamel a yellow or brown tint; manganese oxide—violet, brown, black; cobalt oxide - shades of blue and cyan; lead chromate and chromite are pink, bright red and brown. Based on their composition, enamels are divided into transparent, translucent and dull, or opaque. Firing of the enamel applied to the product, depending on its composition, is carried out at a temperature of 600 to 800 °C. The first appeared in Ancient Egypt in the 2nd millennium BC. The emergence of this technique is apparently associated with the accidental cracking and melting of small inserts that adorned the product. colored glass placed between golden partitions. Despite the fragmentary information, it can be argued that in the Eastern Mediterranean enamel was known already by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The development of scientific knowledge in the leading center of European culture of the Middle Ages - Byzantium led to the appearance in the 7th century of the most complex techniques of cloisonne enamel.The work of Byzantine enamellers quickly reached amazing perfection. Cloisonne enamel was performed on a thin, usually slightly convex gold plate. Using a template, the master made an impression of a tray - a kind of miniature bed for enamel. At the bottom of the tray, the thinnest ribbon-partitions were soldered on edge, “outlining” the clear contours of future images; they were filled with enamel mass. The enamel plate was then fired and finally polished. The color scheme was rich and rich. Cloisonne enamel was used to decorate headdresses, plates with it were sewn onto the ceremonial clothes of secular rulers and church hierarchs, they were preserved in abundance on the frames of icons and church books. A remarkable monument to the work of Byzantine and Italian enamellers of the 12th century. is the golden decoration of the altar barrier of St. Mark's Cathedral in Venice.
Enamel based on filigree pattern, in which colored enamels fill the contours formed by filigree (filigree), was very popular in the art of China, Transylvania (the northwestern part of modern Romania) and Italy in the 15th-17th centuries. Around the middle of the 16th century. this technique was used by Russian craftsmen in Moscow, the cities of the Russian North and Veliky Novgorod. The best of such work was carried out in the Tsar's workshops at the Armory Chamber. Among them is the Gospel frame commissioned by Ivan the Terrible for the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The colors of the enamels here echo the pure, rich tone of cornflower blue Ceylon sapphires. In the 17th century, especially exclusive and varied enamel works were created in Moscow, a leading center of artistic crafts. In Moscow Posad, preference was given to soft blue-green enamels. It was used to color patterns of marked herbs on caskets, bowls and blush boxes, which were found not only in boyars' chambers, but also in the houses of wealthy townspeople. This pattern was enlivened by miniature silver plates in the form of stars and rosettes, complemented by drops of white enamel pearls. In our catalog of expensive gifts you can purchase jam with amethysts.
Engraving (guilloche)
In the Baroque and Rococo eras, enamel became one of the leading elements of artistic decor. Enamels on an engraved surface, painted enamels, and luscious miniatures are abundantly decorated with snuff boxes, watches, rings, toilet boxes and perfume bottles. On them we see lush garlands of flowers, charming compositions on historical and biblical subjects, and even battle scenes. Small enamel masterpieces delighted contemporaries with their vivid colors and richness of shades. The wide recognition of miniatures in Russia led to the establishment in 1779 of a class of enamel painting at the Academy of Arts. In the era of historicism, motifs of filigree enamel and carving products from pre-Petrine Rus' were revived. Ornaments taken from handwritten books appeared on a wide variety of objects - from ceremonial, gift dishes and caskets to miniature jewelry. They were carried out by a number of workshops, among which the firms of I. Gubkin, P. Ovchinnikov, and I. Khlebnikov became especially famous. During the years of unprecedented prosperity of enamels, their palette expanded fantastically. Faberge, for example, has almost one and a half hundred colors and shades! At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. many domestic and foreign masters preferred guilloché enamel. For the companies of L. Cartier, C. Faberge, I. Britsyn and others, things with guilloché enamel have become a kind of calling card. The silky shine of the engraved pattern, applied by a special machine and covered with transparent or translucent enamel, created a charming effect. Gold and silver with guilloché enamel - from cufflinks and ladies' cigarette holders to table clocks and photo frames - were considered a unique symbol of elegance. Guilloche enamel(guilloché enamel) is a technique of covering a metal surface with several layers of transparent colored and colorless enamel, previously engraved with a special mechanical device, which creates a pattern on it in the form of thin wavy lines, scales, spirals, clearly visible through the enamel surface. You can order from our catalog of expensive gifts.
Leading jewelers in Europe - from the Parisians Lalique and Vever to the masters of Moscow and St. Petersburg - willingly turned to new materials and enamel production techniques: bright decorative enamel varnishes, enamels with the effect of opalescence (light scattering), so beloved in the Art Nouveau era, and magical delicate window, or stained glass, enamels. Items decorated with window enamel are especially elegant. Applied to an incised or openwork filigree pattern, when viewed in the light, they produce an effect similar to stained glass. Fragile and complex to make, these products required exceptional care from the craftsman, and therefore work with them was available only to selected companies.
Carving, engraving- the oldest artistic technique of processing metals, wood, bone and stone, known to mankind for thousands of years. It is based on applying a linear design or pattern to the surface of the product. Over time, masters moved from planar carving to engraving, which made it possible to give the image three-dimensionality and volume. In Russia, the engraving technique was mastered at the turn of the 17th–18th centuries. One of the outstanding carvers of that time was the master of the sovereign Armory Chamber Vasily Andreev. Images or patterns applied with a chisel serve as the first stage of work on a product decorated with niello, but at the same time the carving line is taken out somewhat deeper than usual.
Blackening
Blackening - an ancient way of decorating items made of silver and gold. Its essence lies in applying a liquid alloy (black), which includes silver, copper, lead and sulfur, to the engraved surface of the metal. The color and sheen of the blackened pattern or image can vary from velvety black to bluish-grayish black. Back in the 16th century. In his Treatise on Goldsmithing, Benvenuto Cellini described several recipes for rabble. Finely ground powder is diluted with a solution of borax, potash and table salt to the state of liquid sour cream. This mixture is used to cover the pattern or background of the image. After firing at a temperature of 300–400 °C, excess stains are removed from the product; This is followed by polishing, and then the black coating acquires its characteristic shine and clarity. Products decorated using this technique were known back in antiquity. They are mentioned by Pliny the Elder. In the Middle Ages, beautiful niello was made by masters of Byzantium, the Middle East, Italy, the Caucasus, and Ancient Rus'. Noble luxury distinguishes the works of the “blackened craftsmen” who served in the workshops of the Moscow Kremlin in the 16th and 17th centuries. The rhythmic ornament of herbal curls that decorates the side of a golden dish weighing almost 3 kg, which served as a wedding gift from Ivan the Terrible to his second Circassian wife Maria Temryukovna, goes back to Renaissance motifs. According to legend, it was presented to the young queen after her first wedding night: on it lay her new headdress - a woman’s kika, which replaced the girl’s kokoshnik and the wedding crown. Blackening and large precious stones are perfectly combined decorating a golden censer in the shape of a single-domed church, granted by Tsarina Irina Godunova to the tomb of the Moscow sovereigns - the Archangel Cathedral of the Kremlin in honor of the soul of her husband, Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich. In the 18th century the art of black engraving was clearly manifested in the works of the masters of Veliky Ustyug and Tobolsk. Black graphics depicting monuments of ancient Russian architecture against a background of thick grasses, drawn along deep carvings, decorate products created at the end of the 19th century. masters of the factories of the Moscow merchant Vasily Semenov and in the workshops of the firms of P. Ovchinnikov and I. Khlebnikov. Here, as in the products of the 18th century, blackening on silver was combined with beautiful gilding. Nowadays, this ancient technique has been preserved in the North Caucasus, in the village of Kubachi, and far in the north of Russia, at the famous Northern Chern factory in Solvychegodsk, where they create a variety of silver jewelry: bracelets, earrings, rings, pendants, luxurious tableware and religious objects . In our catalog of expensive gifts you can order one of our most popular lots of charka in the form of a hussar shako.
Coinage
Coinage- a type of cold metal processing. It consists of applying a relief to the workpiece by hitting a hammer (punch), the tip of which is made in the shape of a ball, star, square, groove, etc. Malleable and malleable precious metals - gold and silver - are ideal for this type of work. The masters of Ancient Rus' used up to 450 coins for various purposes: with the help of some they gave the background a matte texture, with others they applied patterned borders. Goldsmiths widely used coining until a stamp was invented, which speeded up and reduced the cost of working on products. Along with embossing, basma stamping was often used - a metal processing technique to obtain relief images on its surface by extrusion.
Notch (touching)- an ancient artistic technique of decorating with precious metals (gold or silver) contrasting colors of bronze or steel products, including damask steel. In our catalog of expensive gifts, you can order a designer one with precious stones. This method of decoration was used for finishing military and ceremonial weapons, armor, etc. The essence of the process is that notches are made on the surface of the objects and gold or silver is stuffed into the resulting recesses wire, creating the finest pattern of curls and stylized grasses, as well as images of animals or people. Often, memorial inscriptions were made using the notching technique: the names of the owners, the signatures of the masters, or texts of a moralizing nature. Tauching was widely used in the XII-XVII centuries. It was brilliantly mastered by masters of Byzantium, the Middle East, China, Japan, the North Caucasus and Ancient Rus'. Currently, this technique has been preserved in the decorative and applied arts of Italy, Spain, Iran, China and Japan. The artists of the Dagestan villages of Kubachi, Tula, Izhevsk and Zlatoust are famous for it.
In our catalog you can purchase everything. We also have stone-cutting figurines, miniature sculptures in gold and silver.
Artistic metal processing is one of the ancient types of decorative and applied arts, highly developed by Russian craftsmen back in the days of Kievan Rus. They mastered many methods of artistic casting, filigree-enamel techniques, gold marking, and techniques for making niello patterns. The works of Kyiv foundries and goldsmiths were distinguished by their perfection of execution and were widely known abroad.
Foundry, blacksmithing and jewelry production continued to develop in the future, as evidenced by numerous finds of archaeologists discovered in Old Ryazan, on the territory of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, in Novgorod, in Tver and in a number of other places. This branch of decorative and applied art again flourished in the XIV-XVII centuries, during the era of the formation of the Russian state. Moscow, Yaroslavl, and Veliky Ustyug are becoming major centers of artistic metal processing. In the XVI-XVII centuries. There is a rapid development of the metallurgical and metalworking industry. Metal is beginning to be widely used in architecture. During the period of Baroque and Classicism, specialized workshops and factories were created in Moscow and St. Petersburg (Chopin's bronze foundry, etc.). Comprehensively trained masters of artistic metal processing are grouped at large arms factories: Tula, Sestroretsk, Zlatoust. At the same time, private enterprises owned by Bibarsov, Naryshkin, Batashov, and Demidov are engaged in the production of iron artistic castings.
Along with the factory industry, small handicraft production is developing: blacksmithing and foundry in the Pavlovskaya settlement of the former Nizhny Novgorod province, minting in the Yaroslavl, Vyatka and Vladimir provinces, jewelry - in the area of the village. Krasnoe near Kostroma, as well as in the Rybnaya Sloboda of the former Kazan province and in the vicinity of Bronnitsy near Moscow.
Traditional metalworking enterprises restored in Soviet times include the factories: “Northern Chern”, “Rostov Enamel”, Krasnoselskaya Jewelry Factory, a branch of the Bronnitsky Jewelry and Art Factory in the village of Sinkovo near Moscow, art workshops at the Lenin Machine-Building Plant and the Kasli Machine-Building Plant, etc.
During the production process, a variety of materials and methods of processing are used. The main materials are ferrous, precious and non-ferrous metals; in jewelry, metal is often combined with semi-precious natural and artificial stones (diamonds, rubies, etc.), colored glass, bone, horn, mother-of-pearl, and plastic. There are several most commonly used technological techniques for artistic metal processing.
Filigree (filigree) is a method of making artistic products from twisted or smooth wire, sometimes flattened by rolling. The material is silver; gold is used less frequently. The elements of the scanned pattern are connected by soldering. The filigree can be openwork or soldered; in the latter case, the filigree pattern is soldered onto the surface of the product. Individual details of an openwork filigree pattern are sometimes given relief by punching.
Graining is the design of individual elements of products by soldering with metal balls (“punchers”) with a diameter of 0.5 to 1-4 mm. Used in combination with scanya. enamel (enamel) - a decorative coating applied to the surface of metal products. Based on their composition, enamels used in the art industry are divided into cold (i.e., not requiring firing) and hot. Cold enamel is made on the basis of urea-formaldehyde resins, applied to the product with a brush or spray, after which it is dried. Hot enamels are applied in the form of a pasty mass using a spatula, then dried and fired. The enamel coating has a hard, shiny surface and adheres firmly to the metal.
Enamels vary in color and light transmission. There are transparent enamels through which the metal base of the product shines through; translucent - “fawn”, shimmering in the light; opaque - “dull” enamels. In production practice, various methods of applying enamel coating are used; filling with enamel the recessed areas imprinted on the surface of the product - champlevé enamel; filling of cells separated by thin metal partitions or elements of a soldered filigree pattern - cloisonné enamel, or filigree enamel; filling the cells of the openwork pattern - “window” enamel. In some cases, the entire front surface of badges and medals that have a flat-relief image is covered with lightly colored transparent enamel in order to reveal relief modeling and simulate patina.
Enamel painting is the creation of ornamental and subject images on metal plates coated with single-color enamel. White enamel is most often used as a background coating. The painting is done with heat-resistant ceramic paints and is fixed by repeated firing.
Embossing (toreutics) is the processing of metal by hammering or flattening. The work is carried out with a special embossing hammer. Embossing can serve as an independent method of producing artistic products, using sheet material. In this case, flat-relief or volumetric products can be made. Relief embossing is carried out in various ways: by depositing metal on a backing matrix, applying a flat-relief pattern with special dies - punch embossing, freely forming a relief on a plastic backing - rubber, lead or resin. In the latter case, a set of coins is used - auxiliary tools in the form of blunt chisels, which are placed between the hammer and the material being processed. A type of punch embossing is shotting - printing a grainy texture on the surface of the product. Embossing is used in the same way as an additional operation in the refining and finishing of art casting.
Engraving is the design of artistic products by surface cutting. Engraving is done manually using special cutters - gravers. According to the nature of the technical techniques, there is a difference between line engraving - making a drawing with contour lines and strokes and relief carving - armor work; in the latter case, the background is sampled and the image details are cut into relief. Armor technology is often combined with coinage.
Notching - making a pattern by inlaying. The notch is made on steel or ivory with silver, gold or copper. The notching technique consists of making contour or local indentations on the surface of the product using a gravel and driving in metal wire or plates used for inlay.
Niello (nielo) - making a graphic pattern on the surface of silver products by fusing a niello composition. The composition of the black includes sulfur oxides of silver, copper and lead. The bluish-black niello alloy has a metallic luster, significant strength and ductility, and is combined with the silver base of the product. It is applied to the surface of products with an embossed or engraved pattern, after which the product is fired. melted niello, spreading, fills the recesses of the pattern; excess niello is removed by filing and grinding.
Pressing work - drawing out hollow volumetric products of concentric shape on a rotating blank.
Knurling is a method of applying a relief pattern or textured cut to concentrically shaped products. Knurling is done by pairing a rotating workpiece, mounted in a lathe chuck, with a steel wheel, on the surface of which a corresponding relief pattern is engraved.
Stamping is the processing of metal by embossing or striking. It is produced on mechanical presses with replaceable devices - stamps. The main elements of the stamps are a striking or chopping tool - a punch and a mat - a steel bed that repeats the configuration of the product. By stamping, flat sheet metal blanks are cut out, three-dimensional shapes are bent or stretched, and relief images are embossed.
Forging is the plastic processing of metal by flattening, bending, twisting, chopping, etc. It is performed mechanically or manually using simple tools: a hammer, anvil, chisels, shaped punches. In the manufacture of complex relief elements, molds are used.
Bending is a simplified type of forging, making products from factory blanks (rolled products) by riveting or welding bent elements.
Casting - forming products from molten metal. The most common methods of artistic casting: casting products into a one-sided or double-sided earthen mold using flasks - metal frames with high rectangular walls filled with molding sand; casting in a chill mold - a metal split "mold. When casting products of complex configuration, solid molds are used, obtained by molding and subsequent melting of wax models. In modern practice, the surface of wax products is first coated with a silicate shell, ensuring the purity of the casting - precision casting. In similar cases, it is used a method of piece molding, laying out an earthen casting mold from several component parts. To obtain hollow castings, earthen blanks - rods are laid out in a split mold, or the "splash" casting method is used, in which the liquid metal splashes over the walls of the mold, and its excess is removed, Material for Artistic casting uses cast iron, bronze, aluminum alloy - silumin, as well as various zinc alloys, for jewelry castings silver or gold is used.In jewelry production, injection molding is practiced.
Pickling is the removal of the surface layer of metal by chemical treatment (using acids and alkalis). Pickling serves as an intermediate operation used to remove scale or to degrease products before soldering or electroplating. Various flat-relief images are produced using deep etching (chemical milling).
In this case, electrochemical metal processing is also used.
Electroplating is the replication of artistic products by electrolytic means, that is, by building up metal into plaster, wax or graphite forms, suspended in an electrolyte solution and exposed to electric current. The materials used for making galvanoplastic copies are pure copper, zinc, and silver.
Mounting is the assembly of art products from several separately made parts. The joining of parts of metal products is carried out by riveting, seaming, crimping the joining parts on a lathe, spot welding, soldering, etc.
When riveting a stone in jewelry, the following technical methods are used: fastening in a caste (frame in the form of a smooth rim) is done by crimping the edges of the frame; fastening by means of “prongs” - pointed protrusions or teeth that grip the side bevels of the stone. When using small precious stones (diamonds, garnets, etc.), the so-called grisant setting is used; in this case, the edges of the stone are captured by burrs separated from the metal base of the product with a gravel. In inexpensive jewelry, stones are fixed with glue.
There are several types of finishing operations for metal processing.
Grinding - cleaning the surface of a product with sandpaper and abrasive pastes; produced manually or by machine.
Brushing is the finishing treatment of the surface of a product with metal rotating brushes in order to obtain a silky texture. This technique is used in the same way as an intermediate operation before electroplating.
Polishing - giving the surface of metal products a mirror shine. This operation is performed on rotating polishing wheels using polishing pastes. When processing individual areas, polishing is done with hand tools. In some cases, chemical or electrochemical polishing is used in specially equipped baths (a type of etching).
Matting - obtaining a fine-grained matte texture using sandblasting machines. The surface of products to be matted is treated with a stream of dry sand or an abrasive mixture.
Burnishing is the formation of a decorative and anti-corrosion coating on the surface of steel or cast iron products in the form of an oxide film. Burnishing is done by heating the product in an alkaline solution or in an oil emulsion. The oxide film obtained as a result of bluing has a blue-violet, brownish or reddish-brown color.
Nitriding is the thermal coloring of metal in a gaseous environment.
Anodizing is an electrochemical treatment of the surface of a product that promotes the formation of a transparent and durable film that is amenable to penetrating coloring. With the help of anodizing, aluminum can be painted in golden and silver colors, as well as in any other color.
Oxidation (patination) is the accelerated formation of a natural oxide film on the surface of silver, fashionable, bronze or brass products for decorative purposes. Oxidation is carried out chemically in a solution of liver sulfur (a mixture of polysulfides), in acids or other reagents.
Silvering, gilding, chrome plating, copper plating - applying decorative and anti-corrosion metal coatings using electrolytic or chemical methods.
“Frost on tin” is an ancient way of creating a decorative coating by revealing the crystalline structure on the surface of tinned products. The technological process of processing products includes tinning, sharp cooling of workpieces, etching of tin with a solution of hydrochloric acid, coating the surface of products with colored transparent varnish
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