Alexander's foreign policy 2 introduction. The main directions of the foreign policy of Alexander II

Main directions of foreign policy

1) the struggle for the abolition of the Paris treaty and a way out of international isolation

2)territorial expansion in Central Asia and the Far East

3) development of relations with the USA and establishment of diplomatic relations with Japan

Western direction

In 1871, Russia remained neutral in the Franco-German war and announced a unilateral withdrawal from the Paris Treaty and the restoration of the Black Sea Fleet. Grateful for Russian neutrality, Prussia, which also counts on Russia's non-interference in the process of German unification under its leadership, did not object to this step of the Russian leadership. Defeated France had no time for the Black Sea. Great Britain and Austria-Hungary formally protested, but did not show much zeal, hoping to reach an agreement with Russia on the Central Asian and Balkan issues, respectively.

In 1873, the “alliance of three emperors” was concluded between Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary with the obligation to hold meetings on foreign policy issues. The practical significance of this agreement was small, but it marked Russia’s exit from diplomatic isolation - Russia had official partners. Good neighborly relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary were important for Russia by ensuring security on the western border, which made it possible to more confidently pursue policies in other directions (Central Asia, the Far East).

East direction

Due to the defeat in the Crimean War, Russia's position in Europe weakened and a certain reorientation of its foreign policy took place from West to East.

1860 Treaty of Beijing. China recognized the Primorsky Territory as Russian in exchange for Russia's protection from becoming a colony of Great Britain and France after the second Opium War (1856-1860).

1867. Sale of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands to the United States. Alaska was a remote region of Russia, communication with which was difficult, and the costs of its maintenance and defense exceeded the income from it. American and Anglo-Canadian poachers ruled the territory with almost impunity (there were not enough troops and ships to protect against them). At the same time, there was a danger that it would be captured by Great Britain (whose Canadian possessions were already close to Russian borders) or the United States. The vulnerability of Russia's Pacific possessions became especially obvious during the Crimean War of 1853-1856, when the Anglo-French fleet shelled Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. The loss of Alaska was more a matter of time and the Russian leadership decided to take this process into its own hands and get at least some financial return. A series of events catalyzed this process. Firstly, in 1860 Russia received Primorsky Krai from China. Korean and then Chinese illegal immigrants began to move there. There were almost no people to guard the border. There were not enough resources to control both Alaska and Primorye at the same time, and something would inevitably have to be left behind. After long discussions in the State Council, they decided to place their bets on Primorye. The logic was simple - without Primorye, without access to the Pacific Ocean via the navigable Amur River, there would be no normal connection with Alaska and it would be lost anyway. A proposal was made to sell North American possessions and to direct all resources (human, monetary, technical) to the defense and development of Primorye. Secondly, in 1861, serfdom was abolished in Russia, the land was purchased by the state from the landowners, and money for this operation was borrowed from foreign banks. The debt had to be repaid as soon as possible. Thirdly, in 1865, the civil war ended in the United States, in which Russia supported the central government, saving the country from collapse (Russian squadrons guarded the American coast from the British, who supported the southerners), for which the Americans were grateful. Alaska could be transferred to a friendly state, blocking the British from accessing other Russian possessions that they had plans for - Chukotka and Kamchatka. Fourthly, in the early 1860s. gold began to be found in Alaska and people began to come there, incl. illegally, American and Canadian gold miners. There was a real danger that this territory would soon be lost, like California, which belonged to Mexico, but after the discovery of gold there, it was filled with American gold miners, who proclaimed their republic there and then joined the United States. Sale negotiations have begun. The Russian leadership set a goal for Ambassador Eduard Stekl to achieve at least five million dollars. He managed to reach the amount of seven million, and at the last moment even seven million two hundred thousand dollars. The proceeds went, incl. for the technical modernization of Russia, for example, for the construction of the Moscow-Ryazan and Kursk-Kyiv railways.

Due to the influx of American settlers, Russia had previously been forced to sell its colony of Fort Ross in California in 1841.

1875 Treaty of St. Petersburg with Japan on the division of the disputed Pacific islands. Russia transferred the Kuril Islands to Japan, and in return it recognized Sakhalin as Russian (previously a “joint possession”). Sakhalin was important to Russia for its coal reserves, necessary for the steam-powered Pacific fleet being created in connection with the acquisition of the Primorsky Territory and the construction of the port of Vladivostok.

Annexation of Central Asia (1864-1885).

By the middle of the 19th century. on the territory of Central Asia there were three large states - the Khiva and Kokand khanates, the Bukhara Emirate, which were constantly at enmity with each other, regularly experiencing internal conflicts (because they were not strictly centralized, representing rather a conglomerate of tribes under the leadership of khans and emirs), as well as independent Turkmen tribes, who similarly suffered from civil strife. Kazakh lands voluntarily became part of Russia back in the 18th century. for protection from militant neighbors. The prosperity and peace among the Kazakhs provided by Russia were attractive to many Central Asian residents, and stable access to the Russian market was desirable for Central Asian merchants. Caravan routes to Persia, Afghanistan, and India passed through Central Asia. Russia constantly sought to establish normal trade and diplomatic relations with the Central Asian states. However, Russian merchants were periodically killed and arrested, and Kazakh lands were raided, despite the peace agreements. By the 1860s Great Britain began to penetrate into Central Asia as part of its policy of “defense of India” - English emissaries appeared in the cities, the rulers negotiated with English ambassadors. Raids on Russian possessions became more frequent, but at the same time internecine struggle intensified. Not wanting the border areas to come under the control of a hostile power, Russia began a gradual expansion.

The first enemy was the Khanate of Kokand, which had previously tried to conquer Kazakh and Kyrgyz lands, but by 1864 had slipped into civil war. One of those who fought for power, emirlyashker (general) Alymkul, trying to rally the Kokand people around himself, declared war on Russia with the official goal of “liberating the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz” (who had previously voluntarily joined Russia due to their reluctance to live under the domination of the Kokand people). In 1864, Russian troops took Shymkent, in 1865 - Tashkent, in 1866 - Khojent. In 1867, the Turkestan Governor-General was formed with its center in Tashkent, which became the capital of the Russian Central Asian possessions.

In 1866, the Emir of Bukhara Muzaffar, counting on help from Great Britain, declared war on Russia, demanding the transfer of Kokand lands to himself and confiscating the property of all Russian merchants in Bukhara. A few weeks later, the Bukhara boys were defeated at Istaravshan. The British did not provide active assistance. The emir asked for peace, but the Bukhara raids continued. In 1868, after an attack on a Russian detachment near Jizzakh, the war resumed. In 1868, the Russian army took Samarkand without a fight, whose residents themselves opened the gates, and then assisted in the fight against the emir’s troops, who were soon completely defeated, and the emir again asked for peace. In 1868, Bukhara became a vassal of the Russian Empire.

In 1873, due to constant raids by Khivans on Russian merchant caravans, a military detachment was sent to Khiva. The Khiva troops did not offer significant resistance, the residents themselves opened the gates, the khan initially fled from the city, but then surrendered and concluded an agreement with Russia, according to which the Khiva Khanate became a vassal of the Russian Empire, which was beneficial for himself - this status protected him from the strengthening of Afghanistan. The Russians freed fifteen thousand Persian captive slaves, which improved Russian-Persian relations.

In 1870-80 her. Russian citizenship was also recognized by other small principalities and tribes, incl. Turkmen who wanted to protect themselves from the expansion of Persia and Afghanistan. In 1885, residents of Merv, who were afraid of Afghan conquest, sent a request to join Russia. The Russian detachment protected the dead, but the Russian-Afghan armed conflict worried the British government, which accused Russia of colonialism and the desire to conquer Afghanistan and India. The English press, which had previously praised the British colonial conquest of India, condemned Russia. Britain, which had previously unsuccessfully tried to conquer Afghanistan, said that it was a defender of the independence of this country. The “war alarm of 1885” arose, but the idea of a war with Russia over Central Asia did not receive support in British society, and Russian diplomats managed to convince the British that the Russians did not plan to conquer Afghanistan, much less India.

The borders of Russian Central Asian possessions were finally formalized by Russian-Chinese (1881), Russian-English (1895) treaties.

Peace reigned in Central Asia, civil wars ceased, and slavery was abolished. Infrastructure development began, schools, hospitals, railways, bridges, irrigation canals, etc. were built. At the same time, the residents of Central Asia preserved their culture, religion, and language, which received support from the Russian leadership.

Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878

Despite international obligations, the Turkish leadership did not provide equal rights to Christians. The abuses of tax collectors and the lawlessness of Turkish officials and security forces caused outrage in society and led to uprisings - in 1875 in Bosnia, and in 1876 in Bulgaria. The Turkish government unleashed mass terror against the civilian population, information about which gradually leaked abroad. The governments of France and Great Britain, which turned a blind eye to the genocide that was taking place (for the sake of maintaining lucrative contracts and because Turkey was used as a counterweight to Russia), were subject to increasing criticism from the public and the opposition. Outrage at the government's inaction also grew in Russia.

In 1876, Serbia declared war on Turkey, wanting to drag Russia into the conflict and at its expense to expand its territory, especially wanting to annex Kosovo. In response to warnings from Russian diplomacy about the consequences of this step, the Serbian leadership stated that Russia would not have the moral right to abandon the Serbs to their fate and was obliged to protect the interests of the Slavs. That same year, the Serbian army was defeated. The Serbian ruler, Prince Milan Obrenovic, telegraphed Emperor Alexander II, begging him to save Serbia. Russia declared an ultimatum to Turkey, demanding a cessation of hostilities, threatening war if it refused. Türkiye agreed. But despite the actual salvation of the country and the Serbian people, in Serbia Russia’s actions were perceived as a betrayal, because it did not get involved in the war and did not help the Serbs annex Kosovo, which strengthened the diplomatic rapprochement between Serbia and Austria-Hungary.

In 1876, the secret Reichstadt Agreement (named after the castle) was concluded between Russia and Austria-Hungary, according to which the Austrians promised to remain neutral in the Russian-Turkish conflict in exchange for receiving Bosnia. Fearing Russian military intervention, Great Britain convinced the Turkish leadership to agree to participate in an international conference on the issue of overcoming the internal political crisis. At the Constantinople Conference in January 1877, under pressure from Russia, Great Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy, the Sultan agreed to end repressions against civilians, to adopt a constitution and provide equal rights to Christians. But in practice, the terror continued. Hoping that the diplomatic fiasco of the great powers and public pressure would ensure the neutrality of France and Great Britain and being under pressure from its people (which threatened a coup or revolution), Russia declared war on Turkey in April 1877. The Russian army was still in the process of reforming and rearmament; finances did not allow for a long war, but the desire to save the Bulgarians from extermination turned out to be stronger. Serbian, Romanian, Montenegrin troops, Greek and Bulgarian militias joined the fight. Bulgaria was liberated, the Russian army approached Constantinople, the possible capture of which worried England, which sent a large squadron of the latest ships to the Bosporus and put pressure on Russia. On February 19, 1878, the San Stefano (named after the suburb of Constantinople) peace treaty was concluded. According to it, Bulgaria was declared independent and received territory from the Aegean Sea in the south to the Danube in the north, from the Black Sea in the east, to Lake Ohrid in the west (along the borders of church dioceses that were previously part of the Bulgarian Ohrid Patriarchate). But Great Britain, not wanting the emergence of a large state friendly to Russia in the Balkans and the weakening of Turkey, demanded a revision of this treaty (not disinterestedly - in return for this support, the Ottoman Empire gave Cyprus to the British, which strengthened their position in the Mediterranean). France joined this ultimatum, offended by Russia for its inaction in the Franco-German war of 1870-1871. and Germany, offended by Russia for its reluctance to support the project of the final defeat of France in 1875 (Germany was then planning a war, but Russia dissuaded it, wanting to leave France as a geopolitical counterbalance to an overly strengthened Germany) and no longer interested in Russia's diplomatic support in the unification of Germany which has already taken place. The Russian leadership was forced to agree, realizing that Russia does not have the strength to fight a second war like the Crimean one. In 1880, a new Berlin Treaty (Treaty) was concluded. According to it, the territory of Bulgaria was reduced three times and it became not completely independent, but autonomous. Austria-Hungary received the right to control Bosnia. Turkey once again promised to carry out reforms and ensure equal rights and protection for Christians (and again this was not implemented). Russia refused to give up the Bayazet region in the Caucasus, but managed to achieve Turkish recognition of the complete independence of Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro and the receipt of royal titles by their rulers. According to Russian society, the military victory ended in diplomatic defeat. The foreign policy consequences also turned out to be negative - the Balkan states began to focus on Western countries. Bulgaria, offended that Russia did not protect its territorial acquisitions, made friends with Austria-Hungary and Germany, a representative of the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha dynasty was elected to the Bulgarian throne, and in the First World War the Bulgarian army fought against the Russian one. Serbia, offended that Russia did not achieve the annexation of Kosovo, finally went into the orbit of Austro-Hungarian influence. Romania, offended by Russia for the fact that it achieved the annexation of only northern Dobruja to it (providing the Romanians with access to the sea), and not the entire region, and also because Russia did not give Romania Bessarabia, entered the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria -Hungary (1883). Greece, offended by Russia for not achieving its acquisition of Crete, also did not take a position friendly to Russia. Russia's financial losses were severe, the consequences of which had to be dealt with by obtaining unprofitable foreign loans. But nevertheless, Russia was able to achieve the preservation of peaceful relations with the great powers, which ensured the successful implementation of internal reforms in Russia during the reign of Alexander II.

Born April 29, 1818. Since he was the heir to the throne, he received an excellent education and had deep, versatile knowledge. Suffice it to say that the education of the heir was carried out by such different people as military officer Merder and Zhukovsky. His father Nicholas 1 had a great influence on the personality and subsequent reign of Alexander 2.

Emperor Alexander 2 ascended the throne after the death of his father in 1855. It must be said that the young emperor already had quite serious management experience. He was entrusted with the duties of the sovereign during periods of absence from the capital of Nicholas 1. A brief biography of this man, of course, cannot include all the most important dates and events, but it is simply necessary to mention that the internal policy of Alexander 2 brought with it serious changes in the life of the country.

In 1841, the Tsar married Princess Maximilian Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt, Augusta, and Sophia Maria. In Russia, the wife of Alexander 2 is known as Maria Alexandrovna. The two eldest of their seven children died early. Since 1880, Alexander 2 entered into a morganatic marriage (in which the spouse of the ruling person and their children do not have the privileges of the ruling house) with Princess Dolgoruka. This union brought the emperor 4 children.

The domestic policy of Alexander 2 was seriously different from that pursued by his father, Nicholas 1. The most significant of the emperor’s reforms was the peasant reform of Alexander 2. On February 19, 1861, serfdom was abolished in Russia. But this long-overdue reform simply could not help but entail a number of serious changes. The country was awaiting a series of bourgeois reforms by Alexander 2.

The first among them was the zemstvo reform carried out in 1864. In Russia, the institution of district zemstvo was established and a system of local self-government was created. The next was the judicial reform of Alexander 2. Legal norms adopted in Europe began to apply in the country, but some Russian features of the judicial system were preserved. This reform was carried out in the same year as the zemstvo.

In 1870, urban reform was carried out, leading to increased urban development and industrial production. Financial reform led to the creation of the State Bank and the emergence of (official) accounting. Among the tsarist reforms, it is worth noting the military reform of Alexander 2. It led to the introduction of new, close to European, standards in the army and the emergence of universal conscription. The consequence of all these reforms was the work on the draft of the first Constitution of Russia.

The significance of the reforms, often called by historians “revolution from above,” cannot be overestimated. Machine production began to actively develop in the country, new industries appeared, and the political system underwent changes. Liberal reforms led to the fact that the social movement under Alexander 2 sharply intensified.

The foreign policy of Alexander 2, as well as the domestic one, turned out to be very successful. The country was able to regain the military power lost during the reign of his father. In 1864, Turkestan and the North Caucasus were subjugated, and Poland was also pacified. The war with Turkey of 1877–1878 was one of the most successful and led to an even greater increase in the country's territory. However, Alaska was sold to the United States. The amount of 7 million 200 thousand dollars was relatively small even in those days.

The completely successful and reasonable reign of this emperor was overshadowed. Attempts on the life of Alexander 2 were made with depressing regularity. They tried to kill him in Paris (May 25, 1867) and in St. Petersburg (1879). There were explosions on the Emperor's train (August 16, 1879) and in the Winter Palace (February 5, 1880). The next assassination attempt, committed on March 1, 1881 by Grinevitsky (a representative of the People's Will) interrupted the life of the emperor. On this day, a draft of large-scale reforms was to be signed. It is difficult to imagine what the results of the reforms would have been if the project had nevertheless been signed by Alexander 2.

The future ruler of Russia was born on April 17, 1818 in Moscow. He became the first and only heir to the throne born in the mother see since 1725. There, on May 5, the baby was baptized in the Cathedral of the Chudov Monastery.

The boy received a good education at home. One of his mentors was the poet V. A. Zhukovsky. He told the crowned parents that he would prepare his pupil not to be a rude martinet, but a wise and enlightened monarch, so that he would see in Russia not a parade ground and a barracks, but a great nation.

The poet’s words turned out to be not empty bravado. Both he and other educators did a lot to ensure that the heir to the throne became a truly educated, cultured and progressively thinking person. From the age of 16, the young man began to take part in the administration of the empire. His father introduced him to the Senate, then to the Holy Governing Synod and other highest government bodies. The young man also completed military service, and very successfully. During the Crimean War (1853-1856) he commanded the troops stationed in the capital and held the rank of general.

The reign of Alexander II (1855-1881)

Domestic policy

Emperor Alexander II, who ascended the throne, inherited a difficult inheritance. A lot of foreign policy and domestic policy issues have accumulated. The financial situation of the country was extremely difficult due to the Crimean War. The state, in fact, found itself isolated, pitting itself against the strongest countries in Europe. Therefore, the first step of the new emperor was the conclusion of the Paris Peace, signed on March 18, 1856.

The signing was attended by Russia on the one hand and the allied states of the Crimean War on the other. These are France, Britain, Austria, Prussia, Sardinia and the Ottoman Empire. The peace conditions for the Russian Empire turned out to be quite mild. She returned the previously occupied territories to Turkey, and in return received Kerch, Balaklava, Kamysh and Sevastopol. Thus, the foreign policy blockade was broken.

On August 26, 1856, the coronation took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. In this regard, the highest manifesto was issued. He granted benefits to certain categories of subjects, suspended recruitment for 3 years and abolished military settlements since 1857, which were widely practiced during the reign of Nicholas I.

But the most important thing in the activities of the new emperor was abolition of serfdom. A manifesto about this was announced on February 19, 1861. At that time, there were 23 million serfs out of 62 million people inhabiting the Russian Empire. This reform was not perfect, but it destroyed the existing social order and became a catalyst for other reforms that affected the court, finance, army, and education.

The merit of Emperor Alexander II is that he found the strength to suppress the resistance of opponents of the changes, which were many nobles and officials. In general, public opinion in the empire sided with the sovereign. And the court flatterers called him Tsar-Liberator. This nickname has taken root among the people.

A discussion of the constitutional structure began in the country. But the question was not about a constitutional monarchy, but only about some limitation of absolute royal power. It was planned to expand the State Council and create a General Commission, which would include representatives of zemstvos. As for the Parliament, they did not intend to create it.

The emperor planned to sign the papers, which were the first step towards a constitution. He announced this on March 1, 1881 during breakfast with Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich. And literally a couple of hours later the sovereign was killed by terrorists. The Russian Empire was once again unlucky.

At the end of January 1863, an uprising began in Poland. At the end of April 1864 it was suppressed. 128 instigators were executed, 800 were sent to hard labor. But these speeches accelerated peasant reform in Poland, Lithuania, and Belarus.

Foreign policy

Emperor Alexander II pursued a foreign policy taking into account the further expansion of the borders of the Russian Empire. The defeat in the Crimean War showed the backwardness and weakness of weapons in the land army and navy. Therefore, a new foreign policy concept was created, which was inextricably linked with technological reforms in the field of weapons. All these issues were supervised by Chancellor A. M. Gorchakov. He was considered an experienced and efficient diplomat and significantly increased the prestige of Russia.

In 1877-1878, the Russian Empire fought with Turkey. As a result of this military campaign, Bulgaria was liberated. It became an independent state. Vast territories were annexed in Central Asia. The empire also included the North Caucasus, Bessarabia, and the Far East. As a result of all this, the country has become one of the largest in the world.

In 1867, Russia sold Alaska to America (for more details, see the article Who Sold Alaska to America). Subsequently, this caused a lot of controversy, especially since the price was relatively low. In 1875, the Kuril Islands were transferred to Japan in exchange for Sakhalin Island. In these matters, Alexander II was guided by the fact that Alaska and the Kuril Islands are remote, unprofitable lands that are difficult to manage. At the same time, some politicians criticized the emperor for annexing Central Asia and the Caucasus. The conquest of these lands cost Russia great human sacrifices and material costs.

The personal life of Emperor Alexander II was complex and confusing. In 1841 he married Princess Maximiliana Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria of Hesse (1824-1880) of the Hessian dynasty. The bride converted to Orthodoxy in December 1840 and became Maria Alexandrovna, and on April 16, 1841 the wedding took place. The couple have been married for almost 40 years. The wife gave birth to 8 children, but the crowned husband was not distinguished by fidelity. He regularly took on mistresses (favorites).

Alexander II with his wife Maria Alexandrovna

Her husband's infidelities and childbirth undermined the empress's health. She was often sick, and died in the summer of 1880 from tuberculosis. She was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg.

Less than a year had passed after the death of his wife, and the sovereign entered into an organic marriage with his longtime favorite Ekaterina Dolgoruka (1847-1922). The relationship with her began in 1866, when the girl was 19 years old. In 1972, she gave birth to a son from the emperor, named George. Then three more children were born.

It should be noted that Emperor Alexander II loved Dolgorukaya very much and was very attached to her. By a special decree, he bestowed the surname Yuryevsky and the titles of His Serene Highness on the children born from her. As for the environment, it disapproved of the organic marriage with Dolgoruka. The hostility was so strong that after the death of the sovereign, the newly-made wife and their children emigrated from the country and settled in Nice. There Catherine died in 1922.

The years of Alexander II's reign were marked by several attempts on his life (read more in the article Attempts on Alexander II). In 1879, the Narodnaya Volya members sentenced the emperor to death. However, fate protected the sovereign for a long time, and the assassination attempts were thwarted. It should be noted here that the Russian Tsar was not known for cowardice and, despite the danger, appeared in public places either alone or with a small retinue.

But on March 1, 1881, the autocrat’s luck changed. The terrorists carried out their murder plan. The assassination attempt was carried out on the Catherine Canal in St. Petersburg. The body of the sovereign was mutilated by the bomb thrown. On the same day, Emperor Alexander II died, having taken communion. He was buried on March 7 in the Peter and Paul Cathedral next to his first wife Maria Alexandrovna. Alexander III ascended the Russian throne.

Leonid Druzhnikov

Born on April 17, 1818 in Moscow. In 1855, Alexander became Sovereign of All Russia during one of the most difficult periods for the Russian Empire. Immediately after ascending to the throne, the newly-crowned emperor was faced with a huge problem in the form of Crimean War.

Foreign policy of Alexander II.

The Crimean War began in the last years of the reign of Nicholas I. The main reason for the war was the growth of anti-Russian sentiment in Europe. Most of all, England, France, Austria, and the Ottoman Empire did not want a strong Russia. The reason for the outbreak of war was a dispute between France and Russia over the rights to holy places in Palestine, and especially to Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem (then the church was under the control of the Orthodox Church, in our time it belongs to three dioceses at once - the Orthodox, Catholic and Armenian churches). The fact is that the cunning Turks, who then controlled these territories, made the same promises to both Russian Orthodox and French Catholics.

November 18, 1853 Russian Black Sea Fleet during the famous Battle of Sinop defeated the forces of the Ottoman Empire. However, after this victory, things became very difficult. The allied fleet of the British and French entered the Black Sea and joined the Turks.

During the Crimean War, fighting took place not only in the Black Sea, but also far beyond its borders:

Ground fighting in Silistria (the Black Sea coast near the mouth of the Danube) and Moldavia, first against the Turks, and a little later the British and French in 1853-1854. Russia was forced to retreat, since Austria-Hungary intended to enter the war, which could cause the Russian army to be completely surrounded.
Military operations in the south of the Caucasus. The Turkish attack was repulsed, and in 1855 the large Ottoman fortress of Kars was taken.
Attack on Odessa and Ochakov in 1854. The French-English ships fired at both cities, but met a barrage of return fire and retreated with losses. The large British steamship Tiger was sunk and 225 crew members were captured.
Allied attacks in the Sea of Azov in 1855. They ended with shelling of Taganrog and Mariupol, as well as robbery on the Belosarayskaya Spit and in the Berdyansk region.
British attack in the Baltic Sea. An attempt to lure the Russian Baltic Fleet from Kronstadt Bay into the open sea, since they could not take the fortress in any way. As a result, the British fired from afar, received return fire and retreated.
Attack of the British from the White Sea (in the Arctic). The Solovetsky Monastery was damaged, and the Resurrection Cathedral was destroyed (near the city of Kola on the Kola Peninsula).
The British attack from the Pacific Ocean on the Peter and Paul Fortress in the second half of August 1854. The garrison of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky successfully repelled the attack and defeated the landing force.
Attack on Kinburn (near Nikolaev) on the northern Black Sea coast - October 2, 1855. The city was captured.
Defense of Sevastopol. It lasted 11 months, but the heroic actions of the defenders did not save the city. Fall of Sevastopol occurred on September 8, 1855 after the sixth bombardment of the city by the French and the subsequent capture of Malakhov Kurgan.

On February 13, 1856 it was signed Treaty of Paris and the war ended. The allies captured Crimea, pushed Russia back from Bessarabia, but the offensive ended there (the allies understood that deepening into the lands of the Russian Empire threatened complete defeat and another Russian campaign to Paris). The cunning British stopped in time, and thus Russia was considered the losing side. By the way, Alexander II fought on at least six fronts and without a single ally. In such conditions, the Peace of Paris was far from the worst option for the Russian emperor. As a result of the treaty, political influence over Bessarabia was lost, although Alexander took back Crimea and Sevastopol in exchange for the Turkish Kars he captured. In addition, the Black Sea was declared neutral waters, where neither the Russians nor the Turks could have a combat fleet.

Of course, Russia could not remain in such cramped conditions for long. In addition, in the 70s of the 19th century, a liberation movement against the domination of the Turks began in the Balkan countries, and support for Orthodox citizens of other states was not the last point in the policy of the Russian sovereigns.

In 1877 it began Russian-Turkish war. The reason for the outbreak of war was the brutal suppression in Bulgaria April uprising Orthodox Bulgarians. During a lightning raid through the Balkan countries (the exception was the five-month siege of the city of Pleven in Bulgaria), with the support of the local population, Russian troops liberated all these territories from Ottoman influence. In 1878 it was convened Berlin Congress, a little later fixed Treaty of San Stefano between Russia and Ottoman Empire, according to which Romania and Montenegro became independent states. Bulgaria received broad autonomy and privileges for the Orthodox population as part of the Ottoman Empire, and Bosnia and Herzegovina received similar autonomy as part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. As for Russia itself, Alexander II returned Bessarabia and also recaptured the Kara region in the Caucasus. In addition, the Black Sea Fleet was restored.

During reign of Alexander II significant territories of Central Asia (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, part of Afghanistan and Iran), as well as the Far East (Transbaikalia, Ussuri Territory, Khabarovsk Territory and partly Manchuria) were annexed to the Russian Empire - according to Beijing Treaty 1860 with the Chinese.

In 1867, after long negotiations, the sale of Alaska To the United States of America for $7.2 million. This transaction was driven by the following factors:

It is not economically profitable to transport people and goods to such a remote region.
Alaska's vulnerability and the challenges of its protection.
An economic crisis caused, in large part, by the defeat in the Crimean War and the costs of it.
The fact of this sale established friendly relations with the United States of America for several decades, as well as the Japanese Empire (since at the same time the Kuril Islands were given to the Japanese Emperor in exchange for Sakhalin).