Sentences in Russian are built using syntactic means: these are word forms, function words, word order, intonation. Word forms are the main means: they connect sentence members, express relationships between them, and can also directly convey grammatical meanings. For example: Redela shadow Vostok alel (P.) conjugated verb forms, using the endings of number and gender, agree with the subject, and through the suffix -l- express the meanings of the real modality (indicative mood) and the past tense.

Service words are an auxiliary tool. Some of them (prepositions, conjunctions) participate in the grammatical connection of word forms: From the unaccustomed to crying and tears, his eyes itched (Ch.); others express shades of the grammatical meaning of word forms, members of a sentence (particles) or general grammatical meanings of a sentence (ligaments): The world was still not signed (A.T.).

Word order also helps to form a grammatical connection or express the meaning of a member of a sentence; for example, in the sentences My brother is a teacher and Teacher is my brother, the subject and the predicate are distinguished using word order: the subject is placed before the predicate.

Intonation draws up the sentence as a whole, expresses its completeness, conveys emotional coloring. Due to changes in pitch, voice power, tempo, thanks to pauses, intonation helps to convey the grammatical and semantic division of the sentence, highlight, emphasize individual parts. With the help of intonation, such general meanings of the sentence as narration, question, motivation are transmitted; Wed: Morning. - Morning? (question); Silence. - Silence! (order).

Intonation is a universal grammatical, semantic, emotional and stylistic means of the Russian language, characteristic only for a sentence.

Modern Russian literary language / Ed. P. A. Lekanta - M., 2009

Syntactic means

In Russian, the syntactic means by which sentences and phrases are built are diverse. The main ones are the forms of words in their interaction and auxiliary words. By means of inflectional indicators and auxiliary words, the syntactic connection of words in a phrase and sentence is carried out. For example, in a sentence The unheated sun looked at the earth through the cloud(Sh.) words are connected by generic endings ( the sun looked, the sun is not warming), as well as case endings in combination with prepositions ( looked at the ground, looked through the cloud).

When constructing a sentence, intonation and word order are also used. Intonation (messages, questions, motivations) is not only a means of grammatical organization of a sentence, but also an indicator of the completeness of a statement. The order of words is their mutual arrangement in the composition of a phrase and a sentence. The Russian language has certain rules for the mutual arrangement of words in different types of their combinations. So, the grammatical norm is the statement of the predicate after the subject; the agreed definition is usually placed before the word being defined, and the inconsistent definition after it. Deviations from this rule are used for stylistic purposes; compare: pure beauty genius(P.) - luxuriant nature wilting(G1.). Word order can be a formal indicator of the syntactic function of a word in the absence of basic indicators: cinema art - definition function (cf.: theater painting art); Marry - do not put on a bast shoe(Poel.) - the function of the subject prepositive infinitive.

Syntactic units are associated with units of other levels of the language system: they are built from words, more precisely, from word forms. Syntax thus relies on vocabulary and morphology. Syntax and morphology are especially closely related as two sides of the grammatical structure of the language.

Morphological units, morphological indicators are realized in speech through a phrase and a sentence. Morphological categories of parts of speech are the basis of syntactic relations (.western outskirts - defining relations "subject - attribute"), as well as syntactic categories (. a grenade blew - past tense, real modality).

Methods for learning syntax

Various methods for studying syntax are determined by the general level of development of science, the methodological basis of research and the outlook of the scientist, the practical tasks of using the results of scientific research in language teaching, etc. Related sciences, in particular logic, psychology, also have a certain influence.

The most significant studies of Russian syntax, which predetermined and prepared the current state of Russian syntactic science, date back to the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. They are represented by three methodological directions: logical (F. I. Buslaev), psychological (L. L. Notebnya, D. N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovskiy), formal (F. F. Fortunatov, L. L. Shakhmatov, L. M. Peshkovsky). These directions were a significant achievement for the linguistics of their time, but they suffered from one-sidedness. Representatives of each direction considered any other approach to syntax to be incorrect. Potebnya began to develop his syntactic system by criticizing Buslaev's logical concept. Representatives of the formal direction (especially Chess), having accepted some provisions of the psychological concept, emphasized the role of word forms in the syntactic system.

An important stage in the study of Russian syntax was a multifaceted approach to the sentence as a syntactic unit that has both logical, psychological and formal aspects. This dialectical approach was developed in the 1950s. V. V. Vinogradov, who, along with criticism of the methodological weaknesses of the three indicated areas, singled out and used everything valuable in them. Vinogradov developed the foundations of the structural-semantic method for the study of syntax. This method is now the most popular among researchers and is accepted in the university and school practice of teaching the syntax of the modern Russian language. The essence of this method lies in the joint consideration of the signified and signifying aspects of syntactic units. The description of syntactic units is based on both their grammatical semantics and formal means.

Elena Buzina

Syntactic means of artistic representation

When working on text analysis in the USE tasks, the student has to deal with terms whose meaning he vaguely imagines. This is especially true for syntactic concepts. Not subject-predicate and isolated definitions familiar from textbooks of the Russian language, but concepts associated with the pictorial, artistic possibilities of syntax. Teacher of Russian language and literature from Omsk Elena Vladimirovna Buzina successfully uses generalizing tables in her practice, which allow her students to comprehensively repeat the necessary terms before the exam. One of these tables - just in terms of syntax - we present to your attention today.

It (the language) has a freedom that does not exist in other languages:
from the rearrangement of words in a phrase, the meaning changes.
This freedom, the absence of obligatory clarification, which is born in Western European languages ​​from the rigidity of syntax, the absence of articles - all this provides the writer with endless possibilities, before him is not the depleted soil of past centuries, but a permanent virgin land. ( I. Ehrenburg)

In a work of art, in addition to the communicative task, syntax also has an aesthetic function, participating, together with other methods of linguistic expression, in creating artistic images, in conveying attitudes towards the depicted reality.

A distinctive feature of Russian syntax, according to well-known researchers of the language, is the freedom of movement of words within a sentence. Thus, the free word order gives the Russian syntax grammatical flexibility, generates a huge number of syntactic synonyms, with the help of which the authors manage to convey the subtlest semantic differences ( Golub I.B. Grammatical style of the modern Russian language. M., 1989. S. 153).

This circumstance gives rise to many figurative techniques used by the masters of the Russian word, and also forms the special properties of Russian syntax.

Indeed, syntax is not only special syntactic constructions, syntactic elements or units. This, according to S.I. Lvova, “... the language level at which all linguistic figurative means that do not exist in the text in isolation, but function in a syntactic unit - in a sentence are combined and interact” ( Lvova S.I. Literature lessons. Grades 5–9: A teacher's guide. M.: Drofa, 1996. S. 385).

Basic syntactic means

Reception	Definition	Example	Meaning
Syntactic means of creating an expression
Rhetorical exclamations	Contain a special expression, increase the intensity of speech.	Lush! It has no equal river in the world! (about the Dnieper). (Gogol)	They increase the emotionality of the statement, draw the reader's attention to certain parts of the text.
A rhetorical question	Contains an affirmation or a negative, framed as a question that does not require an answer.	What are you worrying me about? What do you know, boring whisper? .. What do you want from me? Are you calling or are you prophesying? (Pushkin)	Brightness, a variety of emotionally expressive shades. It can be used in colloquial speech, in journalistic and scientific prose.
Parallelism	The same syntactic construction of adjacent sentences or segments of speech.	The stars are shining in the blue sky Waves crash in the blue sea. (Pushkin)	Can reinforce rhetorical question and rhetorical exclamation.
Anaphora	The repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of sentences, poetic lines or stanzas (monogamy).	Only in the world and there is that shady Dormant maple tent. Only in the world and there is that radiant A childish thoughtful look. (Fet)	Enhances the expressiveness of speech, logical selection.
Epiphora	The repetition of a word or phrase at the end of a line of poetry.	Why am I known as a charlatan? Why am I known as a brawler? The slough in the heart cleared up like a mist. That's why I was known as a charlatan, That is why I was known as a brawler. (Yesenin)	Strengthening intonations, shades of sounding speech.
Inversion	Changing the usual order of words and phrases that make up a sentence in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech.	... where people's eyes are cut short. (Mayakovsky) Doorman past he's an arrow He flew up the marble steps. (Pushkin)	Gives the phrase a new expressive connotation.
Ellipse	The omission of an element of a statement that is easily recovered in a given context or situation.	We villages - to ashes, cities - to dust, In swords - sickles and plows. (Zhukovsky)	Gives the statement dynamism, intonation of live speech.
Default	A figure representing the opportunity to guess and think about what could be discussed in a suddenly interrupted statement.	I do not like, oh Rus', your timid, A thousand years of slave poverty. But this cross, but this ladle is white... Humble birthmarks! (Bunin)	Awakens deep thoughts and feelings. Often used in direct speech.
Various ways of breaking sentence closure
Offset of syntactic constructions	The end of the sentence is given in a different syntactic plan.	But those who are in a friendly meeting I read the first stanzas... There are no others, and those are far away ... (Pushkin)	Discontinuity of speech, excitement of the speaker.
Connecting structures	Phrases do not fit into one semantic plane, but form an associative chain.	Every city has an age and a voice, There are clothes and especially the smell. And a face. And not immediately understandable pride. (Christmas)	Gives expressiveness, segments of the text become emotionally rich and bright.
Nominative representations (isolated nominative)	Names the topic of the last phrase.	Moscow! How much in this sound Merged for the Russian heart... (Pushkin)	Designed to arouse special interest in the subject of the statement, enhances the sound.
Parceling	Dividing the sentence into separate segments (words).	And again Gulliver. Costs. slouching. (Antokolsky)	The logical stress on each word gives them a special power, expressiveness.
Period	Harmonic in form, a complex syntactic construction, characterized by a special rhythm and order of parts, as well as exceptional completeness and completeness of content. Two mutually balanced parts in a period: increase in intonation; lowering intonation. This determines the harmony and intonation completeness of the period.	When the yellowing field worries... (Lermontov) Do I wander along the noisy streets... (Pushkin)	The main provisions in the period make it possible to comprehend the text from different angles, to appreciate the variety of shades.
Polyunion (polysyndeton)	Polyunion and non-union can be used in a close context and give more expressiveness to speech and text.	There was typhus, and ice, and hunger, and blockade. Everything is over: cartridges, coal, bread. (Shengelaya)	Intonation and logical underlining of selected objects.
Asyndeton (asyndeton)		Swedish, Russian - Pricks, cuts, cuts... (Pushkin)	Rapidity, dynamism, saturation of impressions.
gradation	The arrangement of words, phrases or parts of a complex sentence, in which each subsequent one strengthens or weakens the meaning of the previous one.	In autumn, the feather-grass steppes completely change and get their own special, original, incomparable appearance. (Aksakov)	Increasing intonation and emotional intensity of speech.

Phonetic means of expression

1. Alliteration- strengthening the expressiveness of artistic speech by repetitions of consonant sounds.

Where is it, bronze ringing or Granite Granite ...(V. Mayakovsky)

2. Assonance- consonance, repetition of stressed vowels within a verse; enhances the figurativeness, expressiveness of speech, its semantic side.

Do I wander along the noisy streets,

I enter a crowded temple,

I sit between the young men of the mindless,

I indulge in other dreams.(A. Pushkin)

3. Onomatopoeia- a word that conveys the sound impression of a phenomenon, object; has an illustrative character (meow, giggle, chatter, rattle).

Birds prh ... prh ... fluttered.

(tropes, stylistic figures of speech)

1. Allegory- allegory; the image of an abstract idea, a specific concept in an artistic image.

Where, having slain the lion, the powerful eagle of Russia rested

In the bosom of peace and joy...(A. Pushkin)

2. Anaphora monophony, repetition of words at the beginning of a sentence, stanza.

Wait for me and I'll be back, just wait a long time.

Wait for sadness

yellow rain,

Wait for the snow to come

Wait when it's hot

Wait when others are not expected

Forgetting yesterday.(K. Simonov)

3. Antithesis- a stylistic figure of contrast, comparison, sharp opposition of concepts, images, states.

The rich fell in love with the poor,

The scientist fell in love - stupid,

I fell in love with ruddy - pale,

Loved the good - the bad:

Golden - copper half.(M. Tsvetaeva)

4. Non-Union- a stylistic device in which there are no (omitted) conjunctions that connect words and sentences in phrases; speech acquires greater conciseness, dynamism.

Swede, Russian - stabs, cuts, cuts,

Drum beat, clicks, rattle...(A. Pushkin)

5. Hyperbole- a stylistic figure, a figurative expression that exaggerates any action, property, quality, enhances the artistic impression.

... The mouth of a yawn is tearing wider than the Gulf of Mexico.

(V. Mayakovsky)

6. Gradation- "ladder", a stylistic figure, the arrangement of words and expressions in the phrase in the order of their increasing value; consistent injection or weakening of images, a number of homogeneous members of the sentence, close in meaning to words with an increase (or decrease) in their strength, with an injection of impression.

Don't worry, don't cry, don't work

Chilled forces, and do not torment your hearts.

You are alive, you are in me, you are in my chest,

As a support, as a friend and as a case.(B. Pasternak)

7. Nominative representations (nominative topics)- an isolated noun in the nominative case, names the topic of the narration, is intended to arouse interest in the subject of the statement, enhances its sound.

Moscow! How much in this sound

Merged for the Russian heart!(A. Pushkin)

8. Inversion- permutation, changing the word order established by grammar in order to enhance expressiveness, introducing additional shades of meaning.

... And the mounds are green

Runaway chain.(A. Fet)

Aragva light he happily

Reached the green shores.(M. Lermontov)

9. Irony- pretense, mockery, the use of the word in the opposite sense of the literal; the goal is subtle or hidden ridicule; the highest degree of irony is sarcasm.

Look at him: what a Hercules!

10. Pun- a play on words, built on homonymous words or combinations that generate humor, comedy.

He was careless for twenty years,

I did not give birth to a single line.(D. Minaev)

11. Contextual antonyms- words that are opposite in meaning in the context, word pairs with mutually opposite meanings in a particular text.

People have something in the house - cleanliness, beauty,

And in our house - tightness, closeness.(N. Nekrasov)

12. Contextual synonyms- words that are close in meaning; are used for enumeration, precision, gradation to avoid tautologies.

A new, wide, spacious life was drawn ahead.

13. Popular expressions- aphorisms, sayings, expressing any thought with the utmost conciseness in a refined form, usually have authors.

Blessed are those who believe...(A. Griboyedov)

14. Lexical repetition- repetition of a word, phrase in a sentence or in a text, enhancing emotionality, emphasizing the key word.

(M. Lermontov)

15. Litota- understatement of properties, qualities.

Your Pomeranian, lovely Pomeranian, is no more than a thimble.

I stroked all of it; like silk, wool.(A. Griboyedov)

16. Metaphor- the use of a word or expression not in a direct, but in a figurative sense; word, phrase, extended statement, which is based on a hidden comparison based on similarity ( iron will, hot heart, heavy character); the metaphor is paraphrased into comparison using the words like, like, like.

Falling off the maples all day long

Silhouettes of crimson hearts.(N. Zabolotsky)

The golden grove dissuaded me with a cheerful birch tongue ...(S. Yesenin)

(expanded metaphor, i.e. stringing metaphors)

Chair leg(erased metaphor).

17. Metonymy- the use of a word in a figurative sense, the replacement of a word or concept by another word or concept that has an external or internal connection with the first.

I read Apuleius willingly, but I did not read Cicero.(A. Pushkin)

Silencers are blissful in the world.(A. Griboyedov)

18. Polyunion- such a construction of a phrase in which all or almost all homogeneous members of the sentence are interconnected by the same union (more often the union and), thus the unity of the enumerated is emphasized.

Oh, red summer! I would love you

If it weren't for the heat, and dust, and mosquitoes, and flies ...(A. Pushkin)

19. Oxymoron- a combination of words that are contrasting in meaning, logically incompatible concepts that create a new concept or idea ( dry wine, "Living Corpse", "Optimistic Tragedy").

My sadness is light. (A. Pushkin)

Look, she's happy to be sad...(A. Akhmatova)

20. Personification- a special kind of metaphor, in which inanimate phenomena, objects are endowed with human feelings, thoughts, speech, properties of living beings, are depicted as living beings.

The trees tremble with joy, bathing in the blue sky. (F. Tyutchev)

Water

Favored

pour!(L. Martynov)

21. Paradox- a paradoxical combination of words, an unexpected conclusion that diverges from logic or customary opinion.

Hurry up slowly.(lat.)

22. Parceling, connecting structures- division of a phrase, sentence into parts; is a means of intonational expression, emphasizes an important meaning for the writer.

...But the mountains are close.

And snow on them. We'll spend time

At the stove. In Imeretin. In winter.

As in Peredelkino, as near Moscow. (V. Inber)

23. Period- a long complex (more often - complex) sentence, in content it develops one and consists, as a rule, of several similar syntactic units of the same type, often having the same conjunctions, similar grammatical construction.

When he [Pierre] on the first day, getting up early in the morning, left the booth at dawn and saw at first the dark domes, the crosses of the Novodevichy Convent, saw frosty dew on the dusty grass, saw the hills of the Vorobyovy Gory and the wooded shore meandering over the river and hiding in the lilac distance, when he felt the touch of fresh air and heard the sounds of jackdaws flying from Moscow through the field, and then suddenly light came from the east and the edge of the sun solemnly floated out from behind the clouds, and domes, and crosses, and dew, and distance, and the river, everything began to play in a joyful light - Pierre felt a new, untested feeling of joy and strength of life.(L. Tolstoy)

24. Paraphrase- retelling, a kind of extended metonymy, replacing a word or combination of words with a descriptive turn of speech that replaces the name, containing an unnamed directly object or person, assessment.

Sad time! Oh charm!

Your farewell beauty is pleasant to me ...(A. Pushkin)

You will soon find out at school

Like an Arkhangelsk man(Lomonosov. - Auth.)

By your own and God's will

Became smart and great. (N. Nekrasov)

25. Pleonasm- excess, unnecessary definitive words in a phrase (had a dream, underwear, came back), in artistic speech, a stylistic figure, which consists in the selection of synonyms; enhances expression.

In front of me is a wave boiling with white boiling... (G. Shengeli)

26. Rhetorical question- an interrogative sentence that does not require an answer, enhancing emotionality.

Familiar clouds!

How do you live?

To whom do you intend

Threatening now?(M. Svetlov)

27. Rhetorical address- a word or a combination of words that names the addressee in artistic speech, where appeals are carriers of expressive and evaluative meanings.

Farewell, free element! The last time in front of me You roll blue waves ...(A. Pushkin)

Hear me beautiful, hear me beautiful

My evening dawn, unquenchable love. (M. Isakovsky)

28. Rhetorical exclamation- an exclamatory sentence that enhances the emotional perception of artistic speech.

What a summer, what a summer!

Yes, it's just witchcraft.(F. Tyutchev)

29. Sarcasm- the highest degree of irony, an evil mockery.

“... next to the “slave” language, the servile language was born, claiming courage, but, in essence, representing a mixture of arrogance, flattery and lies”(M. Saltykov-Shchedrin)

"... he spoke smoothly, softly, as if a snake was crawling"(M. Saltykov-Shchedrin)

30. Synecdoche- a type of metonymy in which more is called instead of less, less instead of more, the plural is replaced by the singular, the whole is used instead of the part (and vice versa).

And it was heard before dawn,

How the French rejoiced.(M. Lermontov)

31. Syntactic parallelism- the same structure of sentences, a similar arrangement of elements, the same type of construction of sentences or sections of text, a compositional technique that emphasizes the structural connection of several elements of style in a work of art.

Diamond polished by diamond

The string is dictated by the string.(A. Nedogonov)

32. Comparison- figurative expression, built on the comparison of one object with another in order to create an artistic description of the first.

The maple leaf reminds us of amber. (N. Zabolotsky)

Wet Sparrow Lilac branch!(B. Pasternak)

Anchar, like a formidable sentry,

Worth - alone in the whole universe. (A. Pushkin)

It looked like a clear evening...(M. Lermontov)

The mountains are leaving

Over the mountains.

as if

Forever impaled

This

blue sugar,

Light

This cold.(N. Aseev) (detailed comparison based on several images)

33. Styling- a stylistic device, a reproduction of the manner of an author or the spoken language of a person belonging to a certain social stratum ( stories by M. Zoshchenko, works by A. Platonov).

34. Default- a stylistic figure, which consists in the fact that the begun speech is interrupted based on the guess of the reader, who must mentally finish it; interrupted utterance, emphasizes the excitement, emotionality of speech.

Though he was afraid to say

It would be easy to guess

When ... but the heart, the younger,

The more timid, the stricter...(M. Lermontov)

35. Ellipsis- omission in the phrase of a word that is easily implied.

Tatyana - into the forest; the bear is after her! ( A. Pushkin)

36. Epithet- usually a metaphorical adjective containing a sign of comparison, a figurative, artistic description of an object, action. Allocate folk poetic, constant epithets good fellow, clean field, blue sea, black clouds, red sun; individually-author's ruddy, loud exclamation, vital radiance (F. Tyutchev).

The music rang in the garden

With such unspeakable grief. (A. Akhmatova)

37. Epiphora- stylistic figure, repetition at the end of lines of a word or phrase.

Dear friend, and in this quiet house

The fever hits me.

Can't find me a place in a quiet house

Near peaceful fire!(A. Blok)

Antithesis - a turn in which opposing concepts are sharply opposed:

They agreed.

Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other.(A. Pushkin)

As a stylistic figure, the antithesis is based on a comparison of the features inherent in different objects and expressed by antonyms: I hate all kinds of dead things! I love all kinds life!(IN. Mayakovsky). Unlike an oxymoron, antithesis does not merge two opposite concepts into one: Hour separation, hour goodbye to them neither joy nor sadness(M. Lermontov). The opposition, emphasized in the antithesis, allows you to highlight both of its components, draw attention to them, make them brighter: Can't see to me, What whether, no bright days, no moonless nights(V. Vysotsky).

An antithesis can be polynomial if it includes several antonymous pairs:

fell in love with the rich- poor, the scientist fell in love- stupid, fell in love with ruddy- pale, fell in love with a good- harmful: golden- copper half.(M. Tsvetaeva)

The antithesis is often used in proverbs and sayings:learning- light, A ignorance- dark; Summer - hoard, winter- tidy, in the titles of works of art: "War and Peace", "Thick and Thin", etc.

Significant fragments of the text can be built on the antithesis:

The house has two elevators. One- weak, junk, often breaks. The other worked reliably without interruption. And suddenly it broke. Hopelessly. Motor burned out. Everyone began to use the second, frail elevator. At first, he barely coped, out of habit he failed, they thought he would not survive either ... But he gradually gained self-confidence and earned smoothly.

The law of life, it turns out, applies to technology. How many times have you seen: responsibility falls on someone's weak shoulders- and the frail creature, feeling its own need, feeling that hopes are placed on it, begins to work hard and work hard ...

(A. Yakhontov)

This text is based on antithesis: weak and strong, unreliable and reliable, uncertainty and confidence are contrasted.

Inversion ( lat. inversion- movement, rearrangement) is a stylistic figure consisting in a deliberate change in the order of words. Violation of the direct word order, in which the subject precedes the predicate, and the definition - the word being defined, can serve as an artistic device, resorting to which the author achieves intonational and stylistic expressiveness: ... I will be long, I will just talk in verse(V. Mayakovsky); The golden grove dissuaded with a birch, cheerful tongue(S. Yesenin). As you can see, the rearrangement of parts of the phrase gives it a peculiar expressive tone.

As a rule, authors resort to changing the usual word order in a sentence in order to emphasize the semantic significance of a word, stylistic coloring, or giving a special rhythm to a phrase: Howling in the long twilight, winter, formidable wolves from lean fields(S. Yesenin). In this example, the definitions after the nouns are clearly highlighted, helping to describe the uncomfortable twilight picture, and the phrase itself becomes more melodious, reminiscent of folk

poetics (compare: Dread wolves howl from the lean fields in the long winter twilight- direct word order).

To attract the attention of the listener, the reader, the authors resort to a variety of permutations, up to placing the predicate in the declarative sentence at the very beginning of the phrase, and the subject at the end, for example: I'll run out, I'll throw the body into the street(V. Mayakovsky).

Gradation is a figure, which consists in stringing syntactic units of the same type (for example, homogeneous members, phrases, parts of a sentence, subordinate clauses), in which their semantic or emotional significance increases (ascending gradation) or decreases (descending gradation). That is, during gradation, the enumeration elements are arranged in such a way that each subsequent one strengthens (less often weakens) the meaning of the previous one, due to which an increase in intonation and emotional tension of speech is created: mournful, pitiful, mournful howl(M. Tsvetaeva).

gradation combines V comparison in terms of similarity and contrast, since the components included in it have a common meaning, but at the same time they are opposed in terms of intensity, the measure of expressed meaning: On this pulpit, from which the Nobel lecture is read ... I climbed not three or four paved steps, but hundreds or even thousands of them- unyielding, steep, frozen(A. Solzhenitsyn).

Zeugma- such a technique of expressive syntax, in which the logical law is deliberately violated: logically heterogeneous components are included in the enumeration of homogeneous members of the sentence: Agafya Fedoseyevna wore a cap on her head, three warts on her nose, and a coffee hood with yellow flowers.(N. Gogol). As you can see, the syntactic construction in this case includes a number of homogeneous members that are grammatically equivalent, but semantically diverse, as a result of which a comic effect is created: Read, write, write. And rummaged in books, and in the ridges ...(I. A. Krylov); ... for power, for livery, neither conscience, nor thoughts, nor necks bend(A. S. Pushkin). In zeugma, the imposition of meanings is visible: here there is a game with meanings, when two meanings are combined in one word, and each finds its compatibility with logically heterogeneous enumeration elements: With one fierce will you took the heart and the rock(M. Tsvetaeva). In this example, two meanings of the word “take” appear: in combination with the word “heart”, it means “charm”, and in combination with the word “rock”, it means to win, conquer, conquer.

Repeat - This is the general name for a number of stylistic devices in which the repetition of an utterance element serves as a means of enhancing expressiveness. Repetitions can indicate the duration, intensity of the action, a large number or mass of objects, emphasize or clarify signs, enhance the emotionality of speech: And ringing, ringing, ringing, ringing wrists ...(M. Tsvetaeva). One of the purposes of repetitions is to deepen the semantic side of speech, highlight the idea, the main concept. Repetition can serve as the basis for the development of thought.

Anaphora (unity) is the repetition of the same elements (from sounds to sentences) at the beginning of each new phrase: O times! Oh manners!(Cicero). By pushing the most important recurring element to the first place, anaphora allows you to focus attention on it:

I like that you are not sick of me, I like that I am not sick of you.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

Anaphora can interact with other stylistic devices, such as syntactic parallelism:

And Razin dreams- dream: Like a marsh heron crying. And Razin dreams- ringing: Exactly droplets of silver drops.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

Anaphora contributes to the rhythm of speech:

This morning, this joy. This power and day and light.

This blue dome. These flocks, these birds, This cry and strings.

This dialect of waters.

Epiphora (single ending)- repetition of the last words of the phrase:

Oh, do not delay on the next

Belfry!

I want to howl your last

Belfry!

(M. Tsvetaeva)

Epiphora enhances the emotionality, intonational expressiveness of the text, highlights the main thing, emphasizes the emotional identity of successive segments of speech: They got a loaf of light bread- joy! Today the movie is good in the club- joy! Paustovsky's two-volume book was brought to the bookstore- joy!(A. Solzhenitsyn)

WITH And mploka is a combination of anaphora and epiphora in the text:

accustomed to the steppes- eyes accustomed to tears- eyes.(M. Tsvetaeva)

Anad And plosis- this is a joint figure - a stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of the last element at the beginning of the following phrase:

memory of you- quiet house. Quiet house - yours - under lock and key.(M. Tsvetaeva)

Polyunion (polysyndeton) is a repetition of the union, which serves for intonational and logical underlining. Usually coordinating connecting unions are repeated;

And the new sun will shine in the fog, And the shadows will be dragonflies, And the proud swans of ancient legends On the white steps will come out.

(N. Gumilyov)

Particularly expressive is the polyunion in a series of homogeneous members: And for him resurrected again and the deity, and inspiration, and life, and tears, and love(A. S. Pushkin).

Non-union (asyndeton) gives the utterance swiftness, creates the effect of an increase in tempo:

Booths, women, Boys, shops, lanterns, Palaces, gardens, monasteries, Bukharans, sleighs, vegetable gardens, Merchants, shacks, peasants, Boulevards, towers, Cossacks, Pharmacies, fashion stores, Balconies, lions on the gates And flocks of jackdaws on crosses flicker past.

(A.S. Pushkin)

With the help of the non-union connection of the elements of the enumeration, the poet draws a quick change of pictures. The combination of non-union and multi-union conveys the dynamics:

Swede, Russian - stabs, cuts, cuts,

Drum beat, clicks, rattle,

The thunder of guns, hubbub, neighing, groaning, And death, and hell from all sides ...(A.S. Pushkin)

Ellipsis - this is a stylistic figure, consisting in the intentional omission of any member of the sentence, which is implied from the context: Soon- sunset soon-. back: to you in the nursery, to me- letters to read daring ...(M. Tsvetaeva). The syntactic incompleteness of the sentence does not lead to its semantic

ness, since the situation, context, background knowledge allow you to mentally fill in the gap: me- free sleep, bell ringing, early dawns on Vagankovo(M. Tsvetaeva). Most often there are sentences with the omission of the predicate - the verb of movement, movement in space, verbs of speech, thought. The omission of the predicate gives speech a special dynamism and expression, creates a feeling of swiftness, unexpectedness of action, a quick change of events, mental tension: Joyfully take the book- ive class!(V. Mayakovsky)

Default - this is such a figure, which consists in the fact that the author deliberately does not tell, suddenly interrupts the thought, giving the listener (reader) the right to guess which words are not spoken, and creatively complete the thought:

I myself am not one of those Who are subject to charms by strangers, I myself ... But, however, I do not betray my secrets for nothing.

(A. Akhmatova)

Behind the ellipsis lies an unexpected pause, reflecting the speaker's thoughts. The author deliberately does not fully express the thought, giving the reader the right to guess for himself what was left unsaid. Silence may imply the omission of something that is very important and significant; what is left unsaid takes on greater significance than what is said openly.

Rhetorical exclamation- this is an emotionally colored sentence that serves to express feelings and attract the attention of the addressee of the speech, and the emotions in it are expressed not by lexical or syntactic means, but by means of intonation: What a summer! What a summer(F. Tyutchev); Yes, we are Scythians! Yes, we are Asians, with slanting and greedy eyes!(A. Blok); God! How good you are sometimes, distant, distant road!(N. Gogol); Oh, I believe, I believe, there is happiness!(S. Yesenin)

A rhetorical question- one of the most common stylistic figures, which contains an affirmation or denial, framed as a question that does not require an answer: Who dares to say what defined art? listed all its sides?(A. Solzhenitsyn). Rhetorical questions coincide in form with ordinary interrogative sentences, but differ in bright exclamatory intonation and emotionality:

Whose anger broke the earth in two?

Who raised the smoke above the glow of the slaughterhouses?

Or the sun

one

not enough for everyone?

Or is the sky above us a little blue?!

(V. Mayakovsky)

The rhetorical question is used not only in poetic and oratorical speech, but also in colloquial and journalistic texts.

Rhetorical address- this is an appeal to inanimate objects, absent, dead, abstract concepts. This figure serves not to name the addressee, but to draw the attention of the listener or reader to him: Are you my fallen maple, icy maple, why are you standing bending under a white blizzard?(S. Yesenin); Oh, red summer! I would love you...(A. Pushkin)

Question-answer unity- a stylistic device, which consists in the fact that the author asks a question and answers it himself: What is autumn? This is the sky, the crying sky underfoot (Yu. Shevchuk). This technique attracts the attention of the listener and reader, is a means of dialogizing monologue speech.

Syntax parallelism- this is the same syntactic construction of adjacent sentences or segments of speech:

We love everything- and the heat of cold numbers,

And the gift of divine visions

We understand everything- and sharp Gallic sense,

And the gloomy German genius...

Full syntactic parallelism is characterized by the fact that it contains two or more identical syntactic units, they have the same number of identically located components:

kiss on the forehead- erase care. Kiss you on the forehead.

kiss in the eyes- relieve insomnia. Kiss you in the eyes.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

Syntax parallelism may be incomplete: In my big city- night. From the sleepy house I go- away(M. Tsvetaeva). In this example, the incompleteness of syntactic parallelism is ensured by the fact that in constructions the elements have a partially different structure, for example, in the first sentence, the definition precedes the word being defined, and in the second it is in postposition.

Parceling - this is a technique that consists in the deliberate division of a sentence into several parts and the design of these parts as independent incomplete sentences. Such a division allows us to highlight additional semantic centers in the sentence, which means to draw the reader's attention to them: Words echo and flow like water- tasteless, colorless, odorless. Without a trace(A. Solzhenitsyn). Parceling gives rise to a specific intonation, that is, such a rhythmic and melodic design of the statement, which contributes not only to the semantic, but also to the expressive actualization of some words:

And for them here, and for everyone there is a bell tower! Like our hope. Like our prayer...(A. Solzhenitsyn).

Nominative representations (nominative topics)- this is an isolated noun in the nominative case, naming the topic of the subsequent phrase and designed to arouse special interest in the subject of the statement, to enhance its sound: Moscow! How much has merged in this sound for the Russian heart, how much has resonated in it.(A. Pushkin); Winter!.. The peasant, triumphant, renews the way on the firewood...(A. Pushkin).

Period- this is such a complex syntactic construction, harmonic in form, which is characterized by a special rhythm and order, as well as exceptional completeness and completeness of the content. The period is characterized by a special intonation: at first, the voice rises smoothly, then reaches its highest point in the main part of the utterance, after which it sharply decreases, returning to its original position. Compositionally, the period is divided into two parts: the first is characterized by an increase in intonation, the second - by a decrease, which determines the harmony and intonation completeness of the period: No matter how hard people tried, having gathered in one small place several hundred thousand, to disfigure the land on which they huddled, no matter how they stoned the earth so that it would not grow on it, no matter how they cleaned off any grass that had broken through, no matter how they smoked official coal and oil, no matter how they cut the trees and drove out all the animals and birds- spring was spring even in the city(L. Tolstoy).

The period is musical and rhythmic, which is achieved by its structure; uniformity, proportionality of syntactic units, often having a similar grammatical structure, approximately the same size. Their repetition creates a rhythmic pattern of speech.

Most often, the period is built as a complex sentence with homogeneous subordinate clauses that are at the beginning.

TESTS

A1	Determine which image will express. tool used in example
2. 3. 4.	Dawn with a red prayer book prophesies the good news (Yesenin) Roses redden with a scarlet mouth. (M. Kuzmin) A million Cossack hats poured onto the square. (N. Gogol) And the birds don't live here either, they just fluff mournfully and deafly... (N. Gumilyov)	A. metonymy B. epithet C. metaphor D. simile E. synecdoche
A2. 1. 2. 3. 4.	Yesterday in the morning the roof was powdered with the first frost. (M. Kuzmin) Hey, beard! how to get to Plyushkin? (N. Gogol) There would also be, I agree, Pathetic hacks and pedants - If only there weren't also, friends, Scotts, Shakespeares and Dante! (N. Nekrasov) This is the disk of the flaming sun. (A. Bely)	A. synecdoche B. occasionalism C. metaphor D. antonomasia E. comparison

A3	Determine which figurative and expressive; tool used in each example and match
1.	Forgive me, Caucasus, that I inadvertently mentioned them to you, You teach my Russian verse Kizilov to flow juice. (S. Yesenin)	A. allegory
2.	In the undershirt, the fellow runs, Heads in brackets, beards everywhere. (M. Kuzmin)	B. oxymoron
3.	In fact, three houses are calling for the evening. (A. Pushkin)	B. paraphrase
4.	It was when only the dead smiled, glad to be at peace. (A. Akhmatova)	G. synecdoche
		D. metonymy
A4
1.	Uncomfortable liquid moonlight... (S. Yesenin)	A. antonomasia
2.	Will I see the flight of the Russian Terpsichore fulfilled by the soul? (A. Pushkin)	B. hyperbole
3.	Mountains bend before this grief, the river does not flow ... (A. Akhmatova)	B. synecdoche
4.	You wandered around the edge of the forest - a girl without blood and without weight. (I. Severyanin)	G. lithota
		D. occasionalism
A5	Determine which figurative-expressive means is used in each example and match
1.	Again, with a learned and bold gait, I approach the cherished doors ... (N. Gumilyov)	A. hyperbole
2.	He danced, the spring rain wept, the thunderstorm froze. (S. Yesenin)	B. metonymy
3.	Irrevocably, irrevocably, irretrievably lashes the verse. (M. Tsvetaeva)	B. epithet
4.	... scrupulous London trades ... (A. Pushkin)	G. antonomasia
		D. personification
A6	Determine which figurative-expressive means is used in each example and match
1.	Singer of Feasts and languid sadness, If only you were with me... (A. Pushkin)	A. epithet
2.	Both of us still did not understand how small the earth is for two people ... (A. Akhmatova)	B. antonomasia
3.	As in a terrible year, exalted by Trouble, You were small, I was young. (M. Tsvetaeva)	B. antithesis
4.	Beautiful, like a heavenly angel, like a demon, insidious and evil. (M. Lermontov)	G. lithota
		D. paraphrase

A7	Determine which figurative-expressive means is used in each example and match
1.	The head is delusionally empty, because the heart is too full! (M. Tsvetaeva)	A. lithota
2.	We all learned little by little something and somehow ... (A. Pushkin)	B. synecdoche
3.	A rusty leaf falls from the trees. (F. Tyutchev)	B. antithesis
4.	Then our nearest church will give its voice from there. (A. Tsvetaeva)	G. hyperbole
		D. personification
J A8	Determine which figurative-expressive means is used in each example and match
1.	The kiss of autumn bliss burned in the forests ... (N. Gumilyov)	A. oxymoron
2.	I'm afraid I'll wake up dead tomorrow morning. (M. Tsvetaeva)	B. metonymy
3.	I'm not going to deceive myself, Concern lay in the misty heart. (S. Yesenin)	B. metaphor
4.	So we, holding Art in our hands, self-confidently consider ourselves the masters of it ... (A. Solzhenitsyn)	G. hyperbole
		D. epithet
A9	Determine which figurative-expressive means is used in each example and match
1.	In stray brotherhoods they die, but do not cry, they burn, but do not cry. (M. Tsvetaeva)	A. simploca
2.	In the field there was a birch, In the field there was a curly birch ...	B. gradation
3.	For the first time I sang about love, For the first time I refuse to make trouble. (S. Yesenin)	B. epiphora
4.	This street is familiar to me, And this low house is familiar. (S. Yesenin)	G. anaphora
		D. anadiplosis (junction)
A10	Determine which figurative-expressive means is used in each example and match
1.	With whitewash I blush pallor. (M. Tsvetaeva)	A. comparison
2.	Eyes like a reflection of pure gray steel, a graceful forehead, whiter than oriental lilies... (N. Gumilyov)	B. paraphrase
3.	Even in the dawn twilight of humanity, we received it [art]... (A. Solzhenitsyn)	V. allegory
4.	It's harder than taking a thousand thousand Bastille! (V. Mayakovsky)	G. oxymoron
		D. hyperbole

All	Determine which figurative-expressive means is used in each example and match
1.	I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry ... (S. Yesenin)	A. epiphora
2.	I will shed tears of meekness, I will bring my heart to happiness. I earthly bow to the stream, And to the poor hut, and to the field. (N, Gumilyov)	B. gradation
3.	I erected a monument to myself not made by hands... (A. Pushkin)	B. inversion
	Over the city - fog, fog. Love vintage fogs. (M. Tsvetaeva)	G. anaphora
		D. ellipsis
jA12	Determine which figurative-expressive means is used in each example and match
	... smitten with damask steel, he sleeps in the damp earth. (M. Lermontov)	A. epithet
2. \	In the worldly steppe, sad and boundless, Three keys mysteriously made their way ... (A. Pushkin)	B. lithota
	I immediately blurred the map of everyday life ... (V. Mayakovsky)	B. paraphrase
4.	Here the moose feels good: he has terrible strength in his long leg ... (M. Prishvin)	G. metonymy
		D. synecdoche
A13	Determine which figurative-expressive means is used in each example and match
1.	Not an impostor - I came home ... (M. Tsvetaeva)	A. synecdoche
2.	And it was heard until dawn how the Frenchman rejoiced. (M. Lermontov)	B. comparison
3.	...you look like an oyster from the shells of things. (V. Mayakovsky)	B. antithesis
4.	With an infernal roar and crackling, Tchaikovsky shook the fate of Paolo and Francesca to tears. (B. Pasternak)	G. paraphrase
		D. metonymy
A14	Determine which figurative-expressive means is used in each example and match
1.	If this or that warrior wants to provoke us with a war, our answer is: no! (V. Mayakovsky)	A. personification
2.	On fire, bugs of all systems, cars buzz. (V. Mayakovsky)	B. comparison
3.	For years someday in the concert hall Brahms will play me, - I will go out with longing. (B. Pasternak)	V. irony
4.	Evening, do you remember, the blizzard was angry ... (A. Pushkin)	G. metonymy
		D. synecdoche

A15	Determine which figurative-expressive means is used in each example and match
1.	I love you, my damask dagger, comrade bright and cold. (M. Lermontov)	A. rhetorical question
2.	Spring! Do not go away Today in the city. Flocks In the city, like seagulls, The ice screamed, melting. (B. Pasternak)	B. ellipsis
3.	But is love really a small flame that can be easily extinguished? (N. Gumilyov)
4.	O tears in the eyes! Cry of anger and love! Oh Czech Republic in tears! Spain in the blood! (M. Tsvetaeva)	D. rhetorical appeal
		D. nominative topics
A16	Determine which figurative-expressive means is used in each example and match
1.	I love you, Peter's creation... (A. Pushkin)	A. metaphor
2.	Sometimes he falls passionately in love with his elegant sadness ... (M. Lermontov)	B. metonymy
3.	Heart - hell and altar, Heart - heaven and shame. (M. Tsvetaeva)	B. paraphrase
4.	Wave violets and foam hyacinths bloom on the seaside near the stones. (M. Voloshin)	G. antithesis
		D. oxymoron
A17	Determine which figurative-expressive means is used in each example and match
1.	Cry, Youth! Cry, Love! Cry World! Howl, Hellas! (M. Tsvetaeva)	A. rhetorical exclamation
2.	Glory, glory to the sky in black clouds! (N. Gumilyov)	B. nominative topics
3.	February. Get ink and cry! To write about February sobbing ... (B. Pasternak)	V. gradation
4.	Black man, Black, black, Black man Sits on my bed... (S. Yesenin)	D. rhetorical appeal
		D. expressive repetition
A18	Determine which figurative and expressive means is used in each example, and match
1.	The sun is mine. I won't give it to anyone. Not for an hour, not for a beam, not for a glance. (M. Tsvetaeva)	A. asindeton (non-union)
2.	The rumor about me will spread throughout all of Great Rus', And every language that exists in it will call me, And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn, and now the wild Tungus, and the Kalmyk friend of the steppes. (A. Pushkin)	B. parceling

A18	Determine which figurative-expressive means is used in each example and match
3.	The roar of improvisations carried the Night, the flames, the thunder of fire barrels, the boulevard in the downpour, the sound of wheels, the life of the streets, the fate of singles. (B. Pasternak)	B. syntactic parallelism
4.	You philistine - oh, damn you three times! - and mine, poetically - oh, be glorified four times, blessed! (V. Mayakovsky)	G. polysinde-ton (multi-union)
		D. antithesis
A19	Determine which figurative-expressive means is used in each example and match
	Drops have the heaviness of cufflinks... (B. Pasternak)	A. epiphora
	Like a young snake - yes, an old one, Like a young wife - and an old husband. (M. Tsvetaeva)	B. gradation
	Cloak, playful, like a fleece, Cloak, bending the knee. (M. Tsvetaeva)	B. ellipsis
4.	I hear your cat step, a sign of treason! Your darkness darkens your eyes again, a sign of treason! (M. Kuzmin)	G. simploca
		D. anaphora

A20	Determine which figurative-expressive means is used in each example and match
1.	Share you! - Russian woman's share! (N. Nekrasov)	A. polysynde-ton
2.	Who will not tire of threats, Prayers, oaths, imaginary fear, Notes on six sheets, Deceptions, gossip, rings, tears ... (A. Pushkin)	B. rhetorical question
3.	I love frenzied youth, and crampedness, and brilliance, and joy, and I will give a thoughtful outfit. (A. Pushkin)	B. rhetorical exclamation
4.	Is it possible that our soul will not respond to such suffering?	G. asyndeton
		D. anaziplosis (junction)
A21	Determine which figurative-expressive means is used in each example and match
1.	The streets are our brushes! Squares are our palettes. (V. Mayakovsky)	A. zeugma
2.	Armed with a donut and Fet, I sat down on the slope at the Gremyachaya tower. (L. Losev)	B. anaphora
3.	Will the hour of my freedom come? (A. Pushkin)	V. gradation
4.	He is not mourning, he is not gloomy, he is almost like a through smoke ... (A. Akhmatova)	D. rhetorical question
		E. syntactic parallelism

TEXT ANALYSIS

(1) What did the 20th century show? (2) It began with a world war that shocked all humanists and crossed out humanistic ideals in one fell swoop. (3) But all the wildness of this war turned into "children's toys" compared to the horrors of the next - the second world war, which began just 20 years after the end of the first and made us think about the sinister, apocalyptic patterns of historical development. (4) The end of the Second World War - the use of atomic weapons - became the beginning of a new confrontation between different systems, an arms race, and an exit to such a turn when humanity visibly discovered the possibility of self-destruction.

(5) Until the 20th century, humanity lived and developed, realizing itself immortal. (6) In clashes, conflicts and wars, states could disappear, individual peoples and cultures could die, but all of humanity remained and continued its history. (7) Now a paradoxical situation has arisen: the buildup of strength, the technological power of humanity has led it to a state where it not only cannot realize the initial claims of all-round domination over circumstances, but, on the contrary, finally falls into the power of circumstances, becomes a hostage to the weapons of mass destruction, which it itself

invents. (8) So in the second half of the XX century. the problem of mankind's survival has arisen in conditions when scientific and technological progress creates an ever wider field of opportunities for a fundamentally new development of military equipment and weapons of mass destruction.

(V. Stepin)

In the article, the author raises a problem that is relevant in the age of scientific and technological progress and important for each of us. In order to encourage us to think together, V. Stepin begins his discussion with _____________. Opposite stylistic devices help the author express the scale of the two world wars of the 20th century.-____________And ____________(propositions 2 and 3). Assessment of catastrophic consequences

World War II intensifies due to __________, applied by the author in the sentence 3. Text style- journalistic, as evidenced by the use ____________ (sentences 4, 7, 8).

List of terms:

11) rhetorical question

12) metaphor

13) epithet

14) hyperbole

15) question-answer unity

16) stable combinations of words

17) litote

18) rows of homogeneous members

19) book vocabulary

20) parceling

TEXT 2

Read a fragment of a review based on the text you read. This fragment analyzes the language features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Fill in the gaps with the numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list.

(1) Dostoevsky once proclaimed that beauty would save the world. (2) A century later, our contemporary who survived too much, with a smile and pain, asked a counter question: who will save beauty? (Z) Our age, including its last third already running, shows that this question is not idle and not superfluous. (4) Beauty that can save the world, unfortunately, is itself very vulnerable. (5) Not only wood - stone too. (5) Bronze too.