Old Slavonic language. The history of the origin of the Old Slavonic language. Creation of the Old Church Slavonic language on the basis of the living Slavic dialect of the 9th century, possibly the dialect of the Thessalonica Slavs. Two types of the oldest alphabets: Cyrillic and Glagolitic, their sources of origin.

Morphology: a general overview of the noun (categories of gender, number and case, types of declension); verb (categories of number, voice, mood, tense, type of change by conjugation).

Syntax: word order in a sentence, basic constructions.

The concept of the Old Church Slavonic language

Old Church Slavonic is the oldest literary language of the Slavs. This is the earliest written processing that has come down to us, the written consolidation of Slavic speech. The dialectal basis of the Old Slavonic language was one of the dialects of the southern Slavs - the Thessalonica (South Macedonian) dialect. The first monuments of Old Slavonic writing date back to the 2nd half of the 9th century. (60s of the 9th century). They are both translations from Greek of liturgical books, and later untranslated, original works. Since the Old Church Slavonic language had a sound system, grammatical structure and vocabulary close to other Slavic languages, it very quickly spread in the Slavic countries as the language of church, scientific and partly fiction. All other Slavic languages ​​were fixed in writing much later (the oldest surviving Russian written monuments date back to the second half of the 11th century; Old Czech - to the 13th century; among the surviving Polish monuments, the oldest belong to the 14th century). Thus, the Old Church Slavonic language in a number of cases makes it possible to present Slavic sounds and forms at their most ancient stage of development.

The Old Church Slavonic language came to Rus' at the end of the 10th century (988) in connection with the adoption of Christianity as the language of church writing.

At present, the Old Church Slavonic language is dead: it is not spoken or written. The disappearance of the Old Church Slavonic language as a living one took place early, no later than the 11th century, and is explained by the fact that, being close to the languages ​​of those Slavic peoples among whom it was widespread, it itself was so exposed to the vernacular languages ​​of these peoples that it lost its original quality and finally disappeared as a language. However, his disappearance did not happen instantly. More and more elements of folk colloquial Slavic speech penetrated into church-religious literature. That type of Russian literary language, which was based on the Old Church Slavonic language, is called the Church Slavonic language of the Russian version.

Church Slavonic has long been a supra-ethnic language, performing the functions of a church-religious language. In Rus' they knew him, they studied him, but for the Russians he was not native. Scientists explain the preservation of the Church Slavonic language in Rus' until the time of Peter the Great by the needs of the church and cultural traditions.

Slavic alphabets

The oldest Old Slavonic alphabets that have come down to us are written in two alphabets - Glagolitic and Cyrillic.

Cyrillic later formed the basis of the Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Macedonian, Bulgarian and Serbian alphabets. The Glagolitic alphabet fell into disuse and was preserved only in Croatia in church use (until the 17th century it was used there for secular purposes).

The question of the origin of two Slavic alphabets and their mutual relationship has long occupied scientists. Old Slavonic monuments testify that two alphabets that were very different from each other already existed in ancient times.

The Czech scientist I. Dobrovsky believed that the Cyrillic alphabet was more ancient and that it was compiled by Konstantin. As for the Glagolitic alphabet, in his opinion, it arose around the 14th century. in Croatia. He explains its emergence as follows: the Roman Church in the areas that were under its subordination pursued everything that testified to a connection with Byzantium, i.e. with the Greek Church. And since the Cyrillic alphabet, based on the Greek script, clearly spoke of this connection, it was replaced by the Glagolitic alphabet in order to preserve the service in the Slavic language.

In 1836, the Slavic philologist V. Kopitar discovered an ancient manuscript written in Glagolitic in the library of Count Klotz. According to paleographic data, it was much older than those manuscripts that were still known and dated no earlier than the 14th century. This discovery led to a revision of the previous point of view on the origin of the Slavic alphabets. V. Kopitar put forward a hypothesis about the comparative antiquity of the Glagolitic alphabet compared to the Cyrillic alphabet.

Further discoveries in this area confirmed the point of view of V. Kopitar.

About the greater antiquity of the Glagolitic says the following:

The Glagolitic alphabet is poorer in terms of the number of letters, and, consequently, the Cyrillic alphabet is a more perfect alphabet.

Linguistically, the most ancient monuments are written in the Glagolitic alphabet (for example, the Kyiv leaflets, the Zograf and Mariinsky gospels).

There are many manuscripts written in Cyrillic on parchment with washed out Glagolitic, but there are no manuscripts written in Glagolitic in washed out Cyrillic.

All this gave reason to believe that the more ancient alphabet created by Constantine was the Glagolitic alphabet. Cyrillic, on the other hand, originated in eastern Bulgaria during the reign of Tsar Simeon (893-927), i.e. then, when the Christian religion had long been accepted there, but the service was performed by the Greek priests in the Greek language. Tsar Simeon wanted to oppose Byzantium not only state power, but also cultural power. In order to protect the independence of Bulgarian culture from unnecessary encroachments of Byzantium, it was necessary to introduce worship in the Slavic language. But the Greek priests had difficulty mastering the Glagolitic alphabet. Therefore, it was necessary to make a compromise solution: to replace the Glagolitic alphabet with another alphabet similar to Greek. It is assumed that, following the model of the Greek alphabet, this new Slavic alphabet was composed by the disciple of Methodius, Presbyter Constantine. Later, Slavic scribes began to identify Presbyter Konstantin with the first teacher Konstantin - Cyril, and the alphabet invented by him began to be called by the name of the second - Cyrillic.

Cyrillic

Each letter in both alphabets had its own name. Some letters were also used in a numerical sense, i.e. used in the meaning of numbers. Above the letter used in the meaning of a number, a title sign ~ was placed, and dots were written on the sides: - 3, - 80, etc.

Glagolitic

Both in that and in the other alphabet there were superscript, or diacritical, distinguishing marks.

Noun

The noun in the Old Church Slavonic and Synodal Church Slavonic languages ​​is characterized by grammatical categories gender, number, case. Grammatical category of gender It is represented by three large groups: masculine, feminine and neuter. This category is expressed semantically (male and female), morphologically (inflections, specific suffixes) and syntactically (consent with adjectives, participles, generic pronouns, numerals, past tense verbs). Grammatical category of number It is represented by three forms of the singular (about one object), dual (about two or paired objects) and plural (about objects more than one) number. The category of number is determined by different grammatical paradigms and differences in agreement for singular, dual and plural. In the Old Slavonic language there are groups of words singularia tantum, that is, words that are used only in the singular (etc.) and pluralia tantum, that is, words that are used only in the plural, etc.), which are closely related to the category of collectiveness. Collective nouns denoted a set of objects and were very often used instead of plural forms of nouns: Case category represented by seven singular forms (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, vocative), three dual forms (nominative = accusative = vocative, genitive = local, dative = instrumental) and six plural forms (nominative = vocative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative). The category of case helps to express the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence or utterance. A special place is occupied by the vocative case, which is outside of syntactic relations and performs the function of address. Grammatical category of animation absent in Old Church Slavonic. Instead, here is category of person. It inconsistently covers nouns denoting males in the singular and is expressed through the homonymy of the accusative and genitive cases, as well as through the use of inflections -ovi, -evi in ​​the dative case of the singular:). Depending on the paradigms that nouns form when changing in numbers and cases, it is customary to distinguish six types of declension in Old Church Slavonic. The first type of declension form feminine nouns and words denoting males. In the nominative case of the singular, these words have In the Proto-Slavic language, these nouns had the suffix-determinative *ā or *jā. Nouns have hard or soft stems, which determine the choice of one or another inflection. In the paradigm of nouns with a base on a back-lingual consonant, the alternation “back-lingual / whistling” before a vowel of diphthongic origin is relevant.

Old Church Slavonic nouns of feminine and masculine gender with an ancient stem on *ā

The second type of declension form masculine nouns with a hard and soft stem, having the ending in the nominative singular -b, -b, -and, as well as nouns of the middle gender with a hard and soft stem, having inflection in the initial form. In the Proto-Slavic language, these words had a determinative suffix *ŏ, *jŏ. Just as in the first declension, there is a dependence of the choice of inflection on the hardness or softness of the base; for nouns with a base on a back lingual consonant, the alternations “back lingual / whistling” before vowels are relevant And and diphthongic in origin, as well as "backlingual/sibilant" before a front vowel.

Old Slavonic masculine and neuter nouns with an ancient stem ending in *ŏ

The third type of declension form masculine nouns that end in the nominative singular -ъ: In the Proto-Slavic language, these nouns had a suffix - determiner *ŭ.

Old Church Slavonic masculine nouns with an ancient stem in *ŭ

The fourth type of declension form masculine and feminine nouns that end in the nominative singular –b: The stem of these nouns is semi-soft. In the Proto-Slavic language, they had the suffix-determinative *ĭ.

Old Slavonic masculine and feminine nouns with an ancient stem ending in *ĭ

IN fifth type of declension included nouns of all genders. In the Proto-Slavic language, their stem ended in a consonant, in the Old Slavonic language these are masculine nouns with the suffix –en- (), feminine nouns with the suffix –er- neuter nouns with the suffixes –es- -yat- and –en- According to the same declension in the plural, masculine nouns with the suffixes -ar(b), -anin(b), -tel(b) changed: .

Old Church Slavonic nouns of all genders with an ancient stem into a consonant

Finally, feminine nouns with an ancient stem on * ū form sixth type of declension. Compared to what we observed in the Proto-Slavic language, the number of words has decreased here.

Old Church Slavonic feminine nouns with an ancient stem in *ū

In the synodal Church Slavonic language, the noun declension system was simplified, since by the middle of the 17th century the grammar of the Slavic languages ​​had changed, including the grammar of the Russian language. In place of the six declensions, oriented towards the ancient use of the name, four types are distinguished in the synodal Church Slavonic language. Masculine nouns with old stems ending in *ŭ and *ĭ in New Church Slavonic share the same paradigm as words of old stems ending in *ŏ. Nouns with the old stem ending in a consonant and in *ū also have the same paradigm.

Verb

Verb and verb forms

In Old Church Slavonic, the verb has conjugated (personal) and non-conjugated (impersonal) forms. The non-conjugated forms of the verb are the infinitive, the supine, and the inflected participles. The infinitive is formed by suffixes Supin, or the infinitive of the goal, is formed by the suffix Participles designate an action or state as a sign of an object. In the Old Slavonic language there are nominal and pronominal forms of participles. Real participles of the present tense are formed with the help of suffixes: real participles of the past tense - with the help of suffixes; passive present participles - with the help of suffixes - eat-, -them-: passive past participles - with the help of suffixes –n-, -en-, -t-: Old Slavonic participles are declined like full and short adjectives. All other verb forms are conjugated, that is, they change for persons (1, 2, 3) and numbers (singular, dual, plural). In Old Church Slavonic, verbs on the basis of the present tense distinguish two main (thematic) types of conjugation and one additional (non-thematic), according to which verbs changed. These types of conjugation were inherited by Old Church Slavonic from the Proto-Slavic language and are somehow represented in all modern Slavic languages.

Russian language and literature, 1974. - 432 p.
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g $d7. The real participles of the present tense in the Old Slavonic language were formed from the verb - j "frTv of the foundations of the present tense WITH THE HELP OF suffixes -persons AND ^

The suffix -luї 11- joined the stems of the verbs of I conjugation,

^T1k to the basics of the present tense of types 1-III: from pes-zhtk - nbS-zhf-i1 (cf. Russian Church Slavonic non-usch-aya), from Eer-zht - ver-lir-i (Russian Church Slavonic ber -usch-th), from zpdyut -

zіmshri (Russian Church Slavonic knowing), from write-zht - pnsh-zhf-i (Russian Church Slavonic write-usch-th) IT. d.

The suffix -Аїр- was attached to the stems of verbs of conjugation II and non-thematic, i.e., to the stems of the present tense of IV and V types: from d "od-at - d * od-Af-i (cf. Russian Church Slavonic move -ash-th), from id-at - id-af-i (i.e. "eating"), etc.

The verb ErKiTi formed a real participle of the present tense with the suffix -lir- (rather than -Aip-) from the stem s-zht - S-Zhf-i (cf. Russian Church Slavonic s-usch-aya)2. With the suffix -Aip-, b^ish-atsi-i was formed from this verb - the only participle of the future tense.

# 298. The real participles of the present tense were declined according to the type of nominal stems on *jo, (in agreement with the names of the masculine and neuter genders) or according to the type of stems in *ja (in agreement with the names of the feminine Р°da) - ^ At the same time, in the nominative in the case of the singular of the masculine and neuter genders, the pryastny suffix was absent (g.vr "Y", "zііlіA, vodA); in the nominative plural

1 As examples of real participles, here and in § 302, the forms of the nominative case of the feminine singular will come in handy.

* So is nlіZhfI (“having”) - from the verb ilg!; ti - ILZhT ” Under the influence of these formations with the suffix -ЖФ-, participles can occasionally be found from other non-thematic verbs. Thus, in the Zograf gospel, “we walk ¦bljshtem” (Mm-, XXVI) - instead of the expected -ldashte / МЪ (from bctW - YD-A "G-K).

The masculine gender had an ending -e (and not -i, as in the stems in masculine): VbrZhfb, ZNAIZhfb, uODafЄ, etc. In the nominative case of the feminine singular, there was an ending -i (like pdbrkih1hl ladii and under. ): vєrzhіri, zchaіzhі |іi, uodAїri, etc. - the rest of the case forms of real participles completely coincided with the corresponding case forms of nouns like pozhk, regiment (see the declension tables in § 149-150), Itoniid (see the declension table on p. 167). For example, when agreeing with masculine nouns:

Number, case Endings Samples "
ierzht zshut udAt
Unit h. Im. n. Vin. n. Rod. n. Dat. n. Creation. n Local n. (s, -e)! 1-a<*¦ ,у 3 -емъ 5 G BeprKI вержфк вержфіа вержірю вержірклік вержфи ЗІМІА знаїжірк знліжір» зм<ижі|ио 3NA№l|lKAtk ЗИАІЖфМ уОДАфк Х-ОДАфИ Х-ОДАфЮ Д*0ДАІ|йШк Х-ОДАфИ
Mn. h. Im. n. Vin. p. "Gen. p. Date. p. -e -e -b -em, etc. - to verzhіre verZhfIA verzhirk VbrZhfKLI-K as a leg (see ZIMGZhіre ZNLIZhfIA ZNAIZhfk SHdIiRipKAtrK table on page yO DANIA uODafIA uODafk uOD AfCLG 170)

§ 299. In the Proto-Slavic language, the real participles of the present tense were formed using the suffix *-nt-, which was attached to the stem of the present tense by means of a thematic vowel (*o or */). Thus, the participle from the verb ver-zht was formed: *ber-0-nt>*beront~>*berUtit>*ёgi>г.е-p-hi (“taking”) (im. p. ed. h. masculine or cf.) - in the final closed syllable * o strengthened labialization and lengthened, Giving * th, which in Slavic languages ​​\u200b\u200bchanged into [s] and after the loss of final consonants (iodine by the tendency to build a syllable according to the principle of increasing sonority) turned out to be the end of a word; cf. Praslav *Lorbgy from ancient Ind. (Vin. p.) bharantam, Gr. cpepovxa, lat. ferentem.

In stems of the IH type, the thematic *o after *j, as usual, changed to *ё (see § 80): *znajont > *znajent >znajen > old Slav. .-SiKHA - “knowing” (n. p. singular h. masculine or cf. p.), cf. Russian knowing. The same result was found for type IV stems connected with the *-nt- suffix by means of the thematic *i: *xoaird>

> * xodin > staroslav. D "ODA - "walking" (im. p. unit h, masculine or cf.), cf. Russian walking.

Non-thematic verbs had nominative singular masculine or neuter forms under the influence of thematic verbs: sy (from szht.) - like ver |, carry, etc .; ida (from idat), in "bda (from k-bdat" to), ddda (from dadat) - like

wow, love.

§ 300. When declining real * participles, the suffix * -nt- in the Proto-Slavic language was complicated by the nominal stem to *jo (for male and cf.) or to *ja (for female).

So, for example, in the genitive case of the singular masculine or neuter gender, the participial suffix was joined by the nominal suffix *jo and the corresponding case ending: *b6ront-jo-s, where in the closed syllable *on > [q], a *tj >

> , i.e. *ber0ntjos > staroslav. erliry. Likewise: ^najontjos > staroslav. zilshrga, *xodintjos> staroslav. \-odei|ii, etc.

The rest of the case forms of the Real participles developed in a similar way (the origin of the endings is the same as that of nouns).

In the Slavic phonetic system of prehistoric times, there were no long consonants. If the same consonant formations were encountered, then longitude was lost through dissimilation or through simplification of phoneme groups. These changes were mainly caused by the tendency to build a syllable according to ascending sonority.

1. Simplification of the group of consonants ending in a fricative-less sonorous noisy concordance:

Two frikats, one in sonority, merged into one. *ss> (c): carried *nessъ>*nesъ>nes.

-*ps>(c): *opsa>wasp

-*ks>*kx>(x)

2. Simplification of consonant groups according to the method of formation. If two occlusive-plosive consonants identical in place of formation were nearby, then the previous occlusion changed to a fricative, which led to the formation of a freak + occlusion group:

-*tt>(st):*pletti> weave

-*dt>*tt>(st): *vedti>*vetti>to lead

3. If two occlusives, different in the place of formation, were nearby, the group was subjected to simplification - the previous occlusion was lost:

-*pt,*bt>(t):*dolbtod>dlato(chisel)

-*bn, *pn, *tn,*dn>(n): *(sun)gubnonti>sgyn6ti

-*skn>(sn):*blisknonti>blisknonti.

-*tm,*dm>(m):*dadmi>dame

Tendency to intra-syllable vowel harmony. Phonetic processes caused by this trend.

The tendency to convergence of adjacent sounds within a syllable on the basis of their front or back articulation (i.e., the convergence of the articulation of consonants in the neighborhood of the subsequent vowel, the vowel with its characteristics (row, rise) influenced the previous consonant), i.e. law of syllabic harmony(regressive phenomenon). Under the influence of this trend, the following changes occurred: 1) a change in consonants in the vicinity of j(mitigation), 2) transitional mitigation of posterior palatine consonants * g, * k, * x before the front vowels h and and of diphthong origin (+ III palatalization). This trend led, in particular, to soft consonants and the development of the hardness/softness opposition in the consonant system.

As a result implementation of trends 1 and 2 in the Proto-Slavic language of the late period, not only nasal vowels and consonants appeared, But and the sound structure of the word was significantly transformed.: bra-t, d-n.

The system of the voice of the Xia phonemes. The relationship between the Xia and the rQia in the field of the voice of the phonemes.

		front
				non-labialized	labialized
		i, b[And]			/ , = [y]
	nasal
		ý [e], b [b]		b [b]	J[O]
		Ê [ĕ]		F [ a]

The Xia vowel system was inherited from Proto-Slavic. The vowels differed in quality and number of features. Quality features:

Row, place of formation

Nasality / non-nasality

Labiality

Quantity of signs: duration of sounding.

Long: sounds and, s, y, e n, o n, Ê, a

Short: e, o

Reduced (super short): b, b

The most important feature of phonetic STSLYA system was opposed front vowels And front vowels. Front and non-front vowels had different effects on the preceding consonants. Front vowels were used only after soft and semi-soft agreement.

Incomplete vowels: b, b

Full vowels: all others

Relationship of Xia and RQia in the field of voice phonemes.

The voice of the early Praslav, being transformed, gave similar results in Xia and Qia. The differences are due to later changes with the system of voices of the front row:

-Ê in Qia was a high-medium voice and was pronounced as a closed sound (e) or a diphthong (ie).

5 - middle-lower rise

6 in east glory. mid-top hem.

6 and 5 lost their nasality.

Super short b and b. Positional change b and b (strong and weak positions, tense s and and as positional options b and b)

ъ and ь are independent vowels, which formed a syllable. Unlike the rest of the vowels, they were pronounced on a non-full exhalation and therefore were called the voice of an incomplete formation.

The terms reduced, super-short voices express the pra-slav number of relations. In Xia and Qia, the number of differences lost their phonological significance, which determined the fate of ъ and ь. Already in the most ancient monuments, the process of the fall (loss) of the reduced is reflected.

The fate of the reducer depended on the strong or weak position in the word. The nature of the position is determined in sequence from the final syllable to the initial, taking into account the stress in the word form.

Weak positions:

At the end of a non-single word: fruit

Before a syllable with a vowel of complete education: sleep, starets

Before a syllable with a strong reduction: eat

Strong positions:

Before a syllable with a weak reduced: OLD

In one-syllable words: tb, s

Under stress: sn, tshcha

If b and b were after a smooth m/d accord, they were always in a strong position.

In a weak position, b and b could be lost, and in a strong position they could be cleared into full vowels: b>o, b>e

Comparative table of the Glagolitic, Cyrillic and Greek alphabets

Glagolitic	Cyrillic	Greek alphabet	Sound	Glagolitic	Cyrillic	Greek alphabet	Sound
Ⰰ	A	α	A	Ⱇ	F	φ	f
Ⰱ	B	β	b	Ⱈ	X	χ	X
Ⰲ	IN	—	V	Ⱌ	C	—	c
Ⰳ	G	γ	G	Ⱍ	H	—	ch҆
Ⰴ	D	δ	d	Ⱎ	W	—	sh҆
Ⰵ	E	ε	e	Ⱋ	SCH	—	sh҆t
Ⰶ	AND	—	zh҆	Ⱏ	Kommersant	—	(ep)
Ⰷ	Ѕ	ζ	∂͡з	Ⱏ Ⰹ, ⰟⰋ	Y, YI	—	s
Ⰻ	AND	—	And	Ⱐ	b	—	(yer)
Ⰹ Ⰺ	І	ι	And	Ⱑ	Ѣ	—	(yat)
Ⰼ	Ђ	—	g҆	Ⱓ	YU	υ	Yu
Ⰽ	TO	κ	To	—	Ꙗ	—	ja
Ⰾ	L	λ	l	—	Ѥ	—	je
Ⰿ	M	μ	m	Ⱔ	Ѧ	—	e̯
Ⱀ	H	ν	n	Ⱗ	Ѩ	—	je̯
Ⱁ	ABOUT	ο	O	Ⱘ	Ѫ	—	Ԛ
Ⱂ	P	π	P	Ⱙ	Ѭ	—	jԚ
Ⱃ	R	ρ	R	—	Ѯ	ξ	ks
Ⱄ	WITH	σ, ς	With	—	Ѱ	ψ	ps
Ⱅ	T	τ	T	Ⱚ	Ѳ	ϑ	T
Ⱆ	Ѹ, ꙋ	—	at	Ⱛ	Ѷ, Ѵ	υ	And
Ⰸ	W	—	h	Ⱉ	Ѿ	ω	O

ABC

letter	Name	pronunciation	features of use
A, a	az	[A]
B, b	beeches	[b]
In, in	lead	[V]
G, g	verb	[G]	а҆҆҆҃л[angel], but aggel[aggel] - excl.
D, d	good	[e]
E e є	There is	[e]	e - there is a simple written in the middle and end of the word; є - there is an anchor it is written: 1) at the beginning of a word: єцsestvò, є҆litsy : 2) in the middle of a word to distinguish plural forms. and dv. numbers from unit forms. numbers: open doors (pl., V.)- compare: oh the doors(unit, R.); 3) at the end of R.p. plural 1 cl. soft type: region ; 4) in Im.p. plural nouns 1 cl. ending in -: her: Pharisee
F, f	live	[and]
Ѕ, ѕ	green	[h]	Occurs only in: ѕver, ѣvezd̀, ѕѣ́lїe, slò, ѕmіy, ѕѣlѡ̀, and also in words formed from them: star
W, h	Earth	[h]
And, and	ilk, And- octal	[And]	And -and-octal written before consonants: i҆́мѧ, face

letter	Name	pronunciation	features of use
Ї, ї	And- decimal	[And]	ї - and -decimal it is written: 1) before vowels: i҆erey, Їisꙋ́s ; 2) before consonants in some Greek words: hїtѡ́n, і҆rmòs ; 3) in two Slavic words: wine And peace(in meaning "creature world"). Distinguish peace- high, high and peace- earthly, fallen
K, k	what	[To]
L, l	people	[l]
Mm	think	[m]
N, n	our	[n]
Ѻ, ѻ, o	He	[O]	O - o-narrow or Polish used only in the middle and end of a word: word ; ѻ - o-wide: 1) at the beginning of a word: ѻ҆́chi, ѻ҆н̀ ; 2) after prefix: message ; 3) as part of a compound word: many readings ; 4) in a word: Їѻrdan
P, p	peace	[P]
R, r	rtsy	[R]
With, with	word	[With]
T, t	firmly	[T]
Oh, oh, ꙋ	uk	[y]	OU - onik written at the beginning of a word: teacher ; ꙋ written in the middle or at the end of a word: way, є҆мꙋ̀

letter	Name	pronunciation	features of use
f, f	firth	[f]	is used in a number of Greek words in place of the Greek letter φ: feline
X,	dick	[X]
C, c	tsy	[c]
h, h	worm	[h]
W, W	sha	[w]
u, u	state	[sch]
b	ep	has no sound	Used to indicate the hardness of the previous consonant: ѡ҆҆бѧ́тїе . Sometimes replaced with an icon ̾ (erok): ѡ҆b̾ѧtїe
s	er	[s]	Sometimes used to distinguish from pl. and dv. hours from units hours: on sleepy grѧdꙋsch s m; (pl. d.p.) dꙋsham our s m; (pl. d.p.)
b	er;	has no sound	Used to indicate the softness of the previous consonant: with ꙋ fatè
ѣ	yat;	[e]	Spelled according to etymology in some roots and endings, as well as in the suffixes of the superlative degrees of adjectives: sing, honest
Yu, yu	Yu	[Yu]
Ꙗ, ꙗ	i, az- yoti- roved	[I]	Written at the beginning of a word. Exceptions: language- in the meanings of "part of the body", "gift of speech" (But: ꙗ҆zykъ in the meaning of "people"; pronoun: ꙗⷤ (V.p., pl. or dv.h.) - “them”).
Ѡ, ѡ Ѽ, ѽ	omega	[O]	ѡ it is written: 1) in prefixes and prepositions ѡ-, ѡb-: cleansing, ѡ҆ grѣsѣ́kh, ѡ́bѧti 2) in words borrowed from Greek. language in place of Greek. letters ѡ (omega): kanѡn, simѡn; 3) at the end of adverbs and adverbs,

letter	Name	pronunciation	features of use
			answering the question How?: ꙗⷯkѡ, so, prayer. 4) in the middle of a word distinguishes plural. and dv. number from unit: my without zakѡnїѧ (I.p., pl.), cf .: ѿ lawless mine (R.p., singular); 5) in borrowed proper names: Mѡѵsey. ѽ especially pronounced in interjections "ѽ!", "ѽle!": Ѽle terrible sacrament!
Ѿ, ѿ	from	[from]	Used in prepositions and prefixes: ѿtpꙋ shaesh, ѿt me
Ѧ, ѧ	yus small	[I]	It is written in the middle and at the end of the word: everything. Exceptions see letter ꙗ Sometimes used to distinguish plural forms from forms singular: dꙋшы ourѧ
Ѯ, ѯ	xi	[ks]	Used only in Greek. borrowed words in place of Greek. letters: ѯ: Alejandro
Ѱ, ѱ	psi	[ps]	It is used only in borrowed words in place of Greek. letters: ѱ: ѱalѡ́мъ
Ѳ, ѳ	fita	[f]	It is used only in borrowed words in place of Greek. letters Θ fhimsiam
Ѵ, ѵ ѷ	izhitsa	[And]	Used only in borrowed words. [and] - if there is a sign above it ҵ҆, ѵ́, ѷ, Mѡѷsey, ҵ҆ssѡ́пъ; [c] - if it is preceded by a letter A or є and there are no superscripts above it: Pavel

Church account

numbers	simple	composite
		making up a number	examples
1-19	Units: 1 - а҃(one) 2 - in(two) 3 - g҃(three) 4 - d҃(four) 5 - є҃(five) 6 - ѕ҃(six) 7 - z҃(seven) 8 - i҃(eight) 9 - ѳ҃(nine) 10 - i҃(ten)	1 + 10 = 11 а҃ + і҃ = а҃і (one + ten = one-ten)	11 - а҃і(one and ten) 12 - in(twelve) 13 - g҃і(thirteen) 14 - d҃i(fourteen) 15 - є҃і(fifty) 16 - ѕ҃і(sixteen) 17 - z҃і(seventeen) 18 - i҃і(eight ten) 19 - ѳ҃і(nineteen)
20-99	Tens: 20 - k҃(twenty) 30 - l҃(three ten) 40 - m҃(fourty) 50 - n҃(fifty) 60 - ѯ҃(sixty) 70 - ѻ҃(seventy) 80 - p҃(eighty) 90 - h҃(ninety)	20 + 1 = 21 k҃ + a҃ \u003d k҃a (twenty + one = twenty one)	21 - k҃a(twenty one) 32 - l҃v(thirty two) 43 - mg(fourty three) 54 - n҃d(fifty four) 65 - ѯ҃є(sixty five) 76 - ѻ҃ѕ(seventy six) 87 - p҃z(eighty seven) 98 - ch҃i(ninety eight)

numbers	simple	composite
		making up a number	examples
100-900	Hundreds: 100 - r҃(one hundred) 200 - s҃(two hundred) 300 - t҃(three hundred) 400 - u҃(four hundred) 500 - f҃(five hundred) 600 - х҃(six hundred) 700 - ѱ҃(seven hundred) 800 - ѡ҃(eight hundred) 900 - q҃(nine hundred)	100 + 20 + 1 = 121 r҃ + k҃ + a҃ = rk҃a (one hundred twenty one)	232 - sl҃v (two hundred thirty two) 456 - un҃ѕ (four hundred fifty six) 705 - ѱ҃є(seven hundred five) 909 - q҃ѳ(nine hundred nine)
1000 — 1 000000000	1000 - ≠ а҃(thousand) 2000 - ≠ v҃(two thousand) 3000 - ≠ g҃(three thousand) 10000 - ≠ ҃, (ten thousand, tma) 40000 - ≠ m҃ (fourty thousand) 100000 — ≠ r҃, (legeon, not known) 900000 - ≠ c҃ (nine hundred thousand) 1 000000 — ≠ ≠ r҃, ≠ ≠ а҃, (leodr) 10 000000 — (vran) 100 000000 — (deck) 1000 000000 — (tma topics)	1000 + 900 + 90 + 9 = 1999 ≠ а҃ + q҃ + h҃ + ѳ҃ = ≠ acc҃ѳ (one thousand nine hundred nine nose nine)	2345 - ≠ wtm҃ є (two thousand three hundred fourty five) 10345 — ≠ ітм҃ є (ten thousand three hundred fourty five)

Addition 1. Composite digits are written in the order of naming the numbers: twelve = in, fifty six = n҃ѕ

Addendum 2. When forming numbers with a zero value, 0 in the digit is omitted: 104 = r҃d

Addendum 3. In composite numbers, the title sign is always placed above the second digit from the end: 104 \u003d ≠ в҃і, sl҃v, vrm҃e

Addendum 4. Translation of the chronology from the Creation of the world to the modern chronology (from the Nativity of Christ):

year from the Creation of the world — 5508 = ?

For example: 6506 — 5508 = 998

≠ sf҃s - 5508 = ≠ tsch҃i

Addendum 5.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
Units	a҃	в҃	g҃	d҃	є҃	ѕ҃	z҃	i҃	ѳ҃
Dozens	і҃	k҃	l҃	m҃	n҃	ѯ҃	ѻ҃	p҃	ch҃
hundreds	r҃	s҃	t҃	u҃	f҃	x҃	ѱ҃	ѡ҃, ѿ҃	c҃

Addendum 6

Superscripts

sign		titles	features of use
Accents:	́	oxia (acute accent)	1. placed over a stressed vowel at the beginning and middle of a word: create 2. placed over a stressed vowel at the end of a word if it is followed by another word that does not have its own stress ( bo, whether, same, mѧ, mi, tѧ, ti, sѧ, si, us): bzh҃e, bzh҃e, my wonmi mi
	̀	waxy (stupid accent)	placed in a word ending in a stressed vowel: pray to you (excl. see above)
	̑	chamber (lite accent)	helps to distinguish forms pl. and dv. numbers from unit forms. numbers: tsar(unit I) — tsar(pl. R.) king(unit R.) — king(dv.I or R.)
Aspiration:	҆	caller (simple aspiration)	placed over a vowel at the beginning of a word: a҆llilꙋїа (does not have a sound, because it was borrowed from the Greek language, where such signs did not have a pronunciation)
Breathing + stress	҆́	iso	used in words that begin with a stressed vowel: ѻ҆н, а҆́з
	҆̀	apostrophe	put in words consisting of one vowel sound: є҆̀ (local it - cf. V.), yu҆̀(local her - f.V.)
Titlo (abbreviation)	҃	simple title	used to abbreviate words denoting sacred concepts. Wed: bg҃ъ (God) — God (idol); а҆҆҆҃л (angel, read [angel]) - aggel (fallen Angel, read [aggel])
		letter titles
	ⷣ	dobro-titlo	bcⷣa(Mother of God)
	ⷢ҇	title-verb	єѵⷢ҇lїe(Gospel)
	ⷪ҇	he-titlo	prⷪ҇rok(prophet)
	ⷬ҇	rtsy-titlo	imⷬ҇къ(name)
	ⷭ҇	word-title	krⷭ҇tъ(cross)

Sometimes in Slavic texts you can find the sign "quotes": ꙾ѻ҆nagri꙾ .”Quotes” is a footnote sign. At the bottom of the page is the interpretation of the incomprehensible word: ꙾wild ѻ҆slỳ꙾

Words under titles

а҆҆҆҃л– angel	єѵⷢ҇lїe– gospel	prⷭ҇нѡ- ever
a҆rhagg҃l - archangel	imⷬ҇къ- name	prⷭ҇tol- throne
a҆p҃l, aptⷭ҇ol — apostle	i҆erⷭ҇lim – Jerusalem	prrⷪ҇окъ- prophet
bg҃ъ- God	і҆и҃л– Israel	rzhⷭ҇tv̀- Christmas
bzh҃e- God	і҆и҃с— Jesus	sp҃съ- Saved
bl҃g- good	krⷭ҇tъ- cross	st҃ъ– holy
bliss- blessed	prince- prince	steel- saint
blissfulness - piety	lb҃v- Love	schennik- priest
bcⷣa— Mother of God	mr҃іа Maria	middle- heart
vl҃ka, vlⷣka — Vladyka	mt҃r— mother	sl҃va- glory
woⷣca— Empress	mt҃i— mati	sn҃ъ- Son
power- dominion	mlⷭ҇t- mercy	strⷭ҇t- passion
Sunday - Sunday	mlⷭ҇rdїe- mercy	trⷭ҇тъ— Trisvyat
whereⷭ҇— Lord	mlⷭ҇tynѧ- charity	trⷪ҇tsa— Trinity
whereⷭ҇en- Lord's	baby— baby	trⷪ҇chen- ternary
gdⷭ҇in- mister	darkness- wisdom	ou҆chn҃iкъ- student
whereⷭ҇tv- domination	martyr- martyr	ou҆cht҃el- Teacher
whereⷭ҇р- sovereign	mtsⷭ҇ъ- month	xpⷭ҇toєs— Christ
gl҃ъ, gl҃gol - verb	nbgo- sky	tsr҃b- Tsar
two— Virgo	nbⷭ҇ny- heavenly	tsrⷭ҇tv– kingdom
duality- virginity	n҃ѣ- now	church —

.
Subjunctive mood (the form is composed) served to express the intended action, which the speaker considered conditional and desired. It was a complex form in Old Church Slavonic. It was formed by a combination of past participles in -l and personal forms of the aorist of the verb being. In the oldest old monuments in the formation of the subjunctive mood, the auxiliary verb was used in a special form similar to the aorist: bim (1 l. singular), bi (2 and 3 l. singular), bim (1 l. plural) , biste (2 l. pl.), b6 (3 l. pl.). Duality the number of this form is not attested by monuments.
Nominal forms of the verb (infinitive, supine, participle)

Nominal such forms of the verb are called, which, along with the verbal categories of aspect, voice, tense, are characterized by grammatical features of the name. Nominal verb forms include: participles, infinitives, supin. These nominal forms retained varying degrees of connection with the verb: the participles retained their form, voice, and the ability to control V.p. direct object (transitivity), partly time. The infinitive retained: appearance, transitivity. Supin has only a view category. Participles are verbal formations characterized by both verbal categories and morphological and syntactic features of adjectives: change in gender, number and case (declension), as well as use both in short and in full form (the short form is primary). As in modern Russian, the STSL language had real and passive participles. Passive participles were also subdivided into SP of the present and SP of the past tense.

The infinitive and supine are nominal forms of the verb. Nominal forms of the verb are called, which, along with the verbal categories of aspect, voice, tense, are characterized by grammatical features of the name. Nominal verb forms include: participles, infinitives, supin. These nominal forms retained varying degrees of connection with the verb: the participles retained their form, voice, and the ability to control V.p. direct object (transitivity), partly time. The infinitive retained: appearance, transitivity. Supin has only a view category.

The infinitive is one of the nominal forms of the verb that has lost the nominal change, but retained the syntactic function of the name. The infinitive is formed from the stem of the infinitive + the personal ending -ti Functions of the infinitive: 1) be an indirect object with the verb (not better li and you$ pardon); 2) the infinitive of the verb is often found next to modal verbs: start, hot $ ti, im $ ti (And early5 c5 deny c5); 3) with the verb BE, he had with this verb the meaning of obligation, necessity or possibility; 4) as a complement to a noun or adjective (imam n6 railway6 easy And view$ ti$ - I need to go and see him). Supin is an invariable verb formation. It is formed from the stem of the infinitive + the suffix -tb- (know-tb, yes-tb, species $-tb). If the supin was formed from a stem into a back-lingual consonant (g, k, x), then under the influence of infinitive formations in this case it ended in -j- instead of -kt'- (*pek-ti - nejь; pejь, mojь). Historically, supin is a frozen form of vin.p.ed.ch. a noun with a stem in *-ŭ of the son type: *tŭn > *tŭ > tЪ. Supin was used with verbs of motion to indicate the purpose of the motion. At the same time, supin was formed from the bases of the transitive verb. Therefore, in the sentence, supin controlled the name, which was in the form of genus.p..

Formation and declension of participles

Participles - verbal formations, character which are both verbal categories and morphological and syntactic features of adjectives: change in gender, number and case (declension), as well as use both in short and in full form (short form is primary). As in modern Russian, the STSL language had real and passive participles. Passive participles were also subdivided into SP of the present and SP of the past tense. Formation of a joint venture of the present: stem verb. present temp. + thematic vowel (-o-, -e-, -i-) + suffix -m- + ending (b). -o- and -e- attached a suffix to the verbs of 1st conjugation: nes-6tb - nes-o-m-b, ved-6tb - ved-o-m-b, zna \ tb - zna-e-m-b. Thematic -and- attached a suffix to verbs of 2 conjugations: view-$tb - view-and-m-b. Formation of the joint venture of the past tense: infinitive stem + suffix (-n-, -t-) + ending (b). The suffix -n- was attached to the bases of the infinitive on f, z: zb-a-ti - zb-a-n-b; The suffix -t- was used in the formation of participles from the bases of the infinitive into a nasal or voice of diphthong origin: p$-ty - p$-t-b. The suffix -en- was added if the stem ended in the consonant: brought

–. Active present participles. Form formation: the basis of the present tense + 6 \ (for 1 conjugation) / 5 \ (for 2 sp.) + endings. Declension: nominal (short) forms change according to the type of nominal bases: m.r., cf. - *jŏ; zh.r. - *ja. The pronominal (full) forms of participles changed in the same way as the pronominal forms of adjectives. Real past participles. The formation of forms: the basis of the infinitive + -ъш (if the basis is on acc. or the suffix –i-)-, -вш- (if the basis is on a vowel, except –и-) + endings. Declension: Nominal (short) forms change according to the type of nominal bases: m.r., s.r. - *jŏ; zh.r. - *ja. The pronominal (full) forms of participles changed in the same way as the pronominal forms of adjectives.
The main members of the sentence, ways of expressing them.

The subject is usually expressed in the Xia im case of a noun or a pronoun. However, there may not be a subject, since personal places of 1 and 2 persons could be omitted. Often, the pronoun of the neuter gender of the plural acts in the function of the sub-it. predicate with the subject in meaning, i.e. the predicate had the form of a plural.

The predicate in Xia could be simple and compound. In addition to the main predicate, expressed by personal forms of the verb, there was a secondary predicate, expressed by short forms of participle action.

The compound predicate consisted of a linking verb and a nominal part. The linking verb being was used only in the past and present tenses.

The structure of phrases in Xia (prepositional and non-prepositional control, constructions with double cases).

Control is a type of connection that characterizes the dependence of entities on the verb, as well as on the other name. A distinction is made between prepositional and non-prepositional control. The non-prepositional is considered primary. Quite common in Xia is the non-prepositional dat case with verbs of motion, indicating the direction: shedshi domovi (going up to the house). similar ones are opposed to prepositional ones: get rid of me.

Prepositional constructions apply to the management of lat and gender cases also with other meanings. Date case of address without a preposition: speech rabou, verb kъ n'emou.

When referring to a location in space, cases with an unprepositional locative case are quite rare: vzlezhit v khramin $.

A feature of Old Slavic syntax-construction with indirect cases that were in double dependence. They were used with verbs indicating the transition of a person or object to a different state. or subject. Thus, revealing the content of the action expressed by the verb, the name was simultaneously associated with the object of the action. The most common constructions in the texts with the “second accusative”, characterizing the action of transitive verbs:

In addition to constructions with the second accusative, there are constructions with the "second genitive" and "second dative": the south is not the head of the slave.

Design dative independent

In Old Slavonic texts, participial turnover is very common, which in a semantic sense constituted a relatively independent unity; he characterized the circumstances (time, reason, condition, etc.) of the action indicated in the sentence to which he adjoined. The main element of this independent participle turnover was object expressed by a noun or pronoun in D.p., and a participle agreed with it(usually - valid) together with dependent words. Such a separate participle turnover is usually called “dative independent”, thus emphasizing its formal feature (D.p. of the main elements) and relative semantic independence. In modern RJ, turnover is usually translated by adverbial clause, when translating the addition into D.p. is converted into a subject, and the participle into a simple verbal predicate of the subordinate clause.

Usually the adverbial meanings of the "dative independent" are not differentiated. So, in the sentence ishdshyu same emou v vrata, ozr4 and drouga4 “dative independent” - ishdshyu same emou v vrata - can also be understood as an indication of the coincidence of the action in time ( When (or while) he was leaving the gate, he was seen by another), and as an indication of causality ( Since he came out of the gate, he was seen by another). However, sometimes the context specifically indicated either temporary or causal"dative independent".

The addition in the composition of the turnover could be absent if the acting person was mentioned and did not raise doubts; participle as part of a turnover is obligatory. But usually the subject of the "dative independent" did not coincide with the subject of the sentence complicated by this construction. A turnover may not have a subject, in which case it will correspond to an impersonal sentence.

Features of a complex sentence and the transmission of someone else's speech

In Xia there were compound and compound sentences.

The following unions were mainly used: and-in a connecting and connecting meaning; a- connecting and opposite meaning; same, nb, both-in the opposite meaning; li-or, li-and, li-a- in a divisive meaning.

Types of subordinate clauses: Definitives are attached with the help of pronouns and adverbs; Explanatory (additional), used with verbs of speech and perception, were attached with the union zko and relative pronouns and adverbs. -with the help of unions zane (zanezhe), pone (nezhe), zko, bo, for. Subordinate goals-unions zko, yes (in negative prepositions - the union food). Conditional - unions a \ e, or, tgda. Adnexal places-sluices to the idea, idige, otk6d6, zmo, kamo. Despite the ambiguity of some conjunctions, a fairly differentiated system of subordinating conjunctions has developed in Xia.

Alien speech in Xia was transmitted in 2 ways: through direct and indirect speech. In direct speech, the narration was conducted from 1 person(s). Indirect speech had its own characteristics. This is a subordinate clause, which was placed with a verb with the meaning of speech activity. There were no syntactic rules and a clear boundary. , unlike Russian, the narration is conducted from 1 person, and not from 3.
Features of word formation of different parts of speech.

In their word creation, Slavic translators mainly used affixes, the meaning of which was determined during the period of activity of older scribes. glorious languages, including Xia: yes-r b - from yes-ti, zhi-r-b - from zhi-ti, b-l-b - from by-ti and others. are not used when creating new words, apparently because in the above formations they were no longer singled out during the creation of the oldest translations. Suffixes derived from primary: in book and literary word creation are more common. They are divided into two groups: the names of persons (by occupation, profession, etc.) and the names of abstract concepts. Names of persons: from the suffix -k- suf –ts-(b), -ik-(b), -its-(a). –tel-: vzdatel, parent. Foreign language by origin suf –ar-(b): publican, goalkeeper, fisherman. meekness, ferocity, mercy, greatness, rightness, quietness, nakedness-gagota, right-rightness. were t, deceit, chivalry. Word adjective.lzhiv, flattering, (qualities), gradsk, merciful (attitude), ionin, adamov (qualities). Word verbs. drive, cook. Prefixes: 1) have lost their real meaning, 2) have not lost. , vn-iti, from-iti, from-iti, raz-gazti, With an abstract meaning: from-biti, vz-dati, pro-iti, pr4-iti,. Synonyms appeared: great-great.